Muntinlupa National High School Physics Guide

MUNTINLUPA NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL - MAIN (SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL - STEM)
GEN. PHYSICS-1 WEEK 1A

UNITS & MEASUREMENT, and ERRORS
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After completing this self-learning module, you (learner) are expected to...
❏ Have an overview, what physics is all about;
❏ Solve measurement problems involving conversion of units, expression of
measurements in scientific notation; [STEM_GP12EU-Ia-1]
❏ Differentiate accuracy from precision; [STEM_GP12EU-Ia-2]
❏ Differentiate random errors from systematic errors; [STEM_GP12EU-Ia-3]
❏ Estimate errors from multiple measurements of a physical quantity using variance;
[STEM_GP12EU-Ia-5]

PRE-TEST (For items #1 & 2, choose the letter of your answer.)1

1) Which one of the following is the longest length?
a) 100 meters b) 102 centimeters c) 104 millimeters d) 105 micrometers
2) Which one of the following choices is equivalent to 2.0 m2 ?
a) 2.0 x 10−4 cm2 b) 2.0 x 104 cm2 c) 2.0 x 10−2 cm2 d) 2.0 x 102 cm2
(For items #3 to 5, write TRUE or FALSE.)2
3) Using a meter rule (stick) which has had the first 10cm cut-off is an example of a systematic error.
Why or why not?
4) A variance of zero means that all measurements are identical. A large variance indicates that
the values are close to one another, which means they are precise.
5) Accuracy refers to how close a measurement is to the true or accepted value. Precision refers to
how close measurements of the same item are to each other. Precision is independent of
accuracy.

KEY WORDS
physics measurement SI Units random errors
accuracy precision systematic errors variance

INTRODUCTION3
Physics is the most fundamental of the sciences. Its goal is to learn how the Universe
works at the most fundamental level—and to discover the basic laws by which it operates.
Theoretical physics concentrates on developing the theory and mathematics of these laws,
while applied physics focuses attention on the application of the principles of physics to
practical problems. Experimental physics lies at the intersection of physics and engineering;
experimental physicists have the theoretical knowledge of theoretical physicists, and they
know how to build and work with scientific equipment.
Physics is divided into a number of sub-fields, and physicists are trained to have
some expertise in all of them. This variety is what makes physics one of the most interesting
of the sciences—and it makes people with physics training very versatile in their ability to do
work in many different technical fields.
The major fields of physics are:
• Classical mechanics is the study of the motion of bodies according to Newton’s laws of
motion, and is the subject of this course.
1
“Physics, 6th Ed., Cutnell & Johnson”
2
“General Physics I - Prince George’s Community College” http://www.pgccphy.net/1030/phy1030.pdf Accessed 7 Jul. 2020.
3
“General Physics I - Prince George’s Community College” http://www.pgccphy.net/1030/phy1030.pdf Accessed 7 Jul. 2020
Page 1 of 8 SCHOOL YEAR 2020 - 2021

• Electricity and magnetism are two closely related phenomena that are together
considered a single field of physics.
• Quantum mechanics describes the peculiar motion of very small bodies (atomic sizes and
smaller).
• Optics is the study of light.
• Acoustics is the study of sound.
• Thermodynamics and statistical mechanics are closely related fields that study the nature
of heat.
• Solid-state physics is the study of solids—most often crystalline metals.
• Plasma physics is the study of plasmas (ionized gases).
• Atomic, nuclear, and particle physics study of the atom, the atomic nucleus, and the
particles that make up the atom.
• Relativity includes Albert Einstein’s theories of special and general relativity. Special
relativity describes the motion of bodies moving at very high speeds (near the speed of
light), while general relativity is Einstein’s theory of gravity.
Besides acquiring a knowledge of physics for its own sake, the study of physics will
give you a broad technical background and set of problem-solving skills that you can
apply to a wide variety of other fields. Some students of physics go on to study more
advanced physics, while others find ways to apply their knowledge of physics to such
diverse subjects as mathematics, engineering, biology, medicine, and finance.
Another benefit of learning physics is that, unlike courses in technology, everything
you learn in this course will never be obsolete. Although theories at the cutting edge of
physics research may change, the basic physics you’ll learn in these courses will not. You
will be able to use what you learn in this course throughout your life.

ERROR & UNCERTAINTY4

All that any experimental procedure can do is to give a value for the result that we
can say may be near the true value. We can never say that we know the true result, only
that we have a result that may lie within a range of uncertainty. For example, as a result of
a number of measurements we may have a best estimate of the true value for the
acceleration due to gravity, g, of 9.9m/ s2 and also be confident that our uncertainty is ± 0.1
m/ s2 , i.e. g is between 9.8 and 10.0 m/ s2 . If we are lucky then there may be an accepted
value (e.g., g=9.81m/ s2 ) with which we may compare our result. If the accepted value lies
within our range of uncertainty, then we have performed a good experiment.

SOURCES OF ERROR
➔ Observer - unpredictable
➔ Method of measurement - unreliable experimental procedure
➔ Object to be Measured - non-uniform thickness, edges not well defined
➔ Instrument - (a) maybe faulty, unreliable;
(b) out of adjustment, not “zeroed”

TYPES OF ERROR
● Systematic Error. It is one associated with a particular measuring instrument or
experimental technique, e.g., using a meter rule which has had the first 10 cm cut-off,
making all measurements 10 cm too high, or trying to find the acceleration due to
gravity using an object that is subject to significant air friction, or in an experiment
requiring a stable background temperature of 20°C, having the temperature be too
4
“Error and Uncertainty” https://www.nhn.ou.edu/~johnson/Education/Juniorlab/Error-SigFig/SigFiginError-043.pdf Accessed 7 Jul. 2020.
high. Each of these will have the effect of shifting all results by a significant amount in
the same direction, known as the systematic error.

The above system has no, or negligible, systematic error.

The treatment of systematic errors is very difficult and requires experience. The
experimental technique (or the offending measuring device) must be modified. For our
purposes, it is sufficient that we recognise the existence of a systematic error. If all other
errors have been included in the measured uncertainty range and the accepted value
still lies out with this range, then: (a) we must say that there has been some systematic
error present in the experimental procedure or in the equipment used, shifting all
measurements too high or too low, and (b) we must try to suggest where the systematic
error may lie.
● Random Error. In experimental results is due to lack of observer precision, perhaps in
misreading an analogue scale due to parallax. This will result in a spread of results, even
in the most carefully designed of experiments. Due to the random nature of these errors,
there is an equal chance that they will be above or below the ‘true’ value. To mitigate
against such errors, it is correct technique to take many readings and find the mean,
even in the simplest of experiments. Because it is impossible to know the ‘true’ value, the
best estimate is the mean of repeat readings.5

PRECISION & ACCURACY

● Why are physical measurements NEVER EXACT?
Physical measurements are never exact because human and mechanical factors
contribute to the results of the measurements.
● Can a measurement be both precise and accurate?
5
"Error and Uncertainty - OU physics." https://www.nhn.ou.edu/~johnson/Education/Juniorlab/Error-SigFig/SigFiginError-043.pdf.
Accessed 14 Jul. 2020.

A measurement can be both accurate and precise if it is close to the accepted value
and is reproducible. With the image shown below right6, when can you say that a
measurement is precise and accurate?
➔ Based on the image, define precision
and accuracy.
PERCENT ERROR & PERCENT
DIFFERENCE
● PERCENT (percentage) ERROR is given by the
formula…
% error = ∣ x T ∣ x100%
x−x
Eq. (1.1)
T
where xT is the true or accepted value and x is
the measured value. Percent error is usually
considered in judging the accuracy of a measurement.
● PERCENT DIFFERENCE between x1 and x2 is given by the equation…
% dif f erence = ∣ x11 + x22 ∣ x100%

x −x
Eq. (1.2)
2
where x1 and x2 are the two measured values in an experiment.
● SAMPLE PROBLEM #1
Two trials were performed in an experiment to determine the latent heat of vaporization
(LV1) of water at 100°C. The values of (LV2) of water obtained were 532 cal/g & 536 cal/g.
Find the percent difference between the two values.
Given: LV1 = 532 cal/g LV2 = 536 cal/g
∣x1 − x2 ∣ ∣532 cal/g − 536 cal/g ∣
% dif f erence = x1 + x2 x100% = 532 cal/g + 536 cal/g x100%
2 2
% dif f erence = 0.75%
Thus, LV1 differs by 0.75% from LV2 .
● PRACTICE PROBLEM #1
Referring to Sample Problem #1, find the percent error for each measurement if the
accepted value of LV of water at 100°C is 540 cal/g.
Given: LV = 540 cal/g Find: LV1 = ______ & LV2 = ______
(Express your answers to 3 significant figures.)
● A percentage error that is very close to zero means the measurement is close to the
accepted value.

VISUAL ANALYSIS
If you will be asked to measure the diameter of oranges
shown at the right, what do you think is the variance of
your measurements?

VARIANCE7
Another way to estimate errors from multiple
measurements of a physical quantity is to determine the
variance of the set of measurements. The variance
measures the squared deviation of each number in the set
6
“What is the difference between precision & accuracy in Physics?”
https://www.quora.com/What-is-the-difference-between-precision-and-accuracy-in-physics Accessed 14 Jul. 2020.
7
“Exploring Life Through Science Series-General Physics-1”, Angelina A. Silverio, Phoenix Publishing House Inc.

from the mean. The variance of a set of measurements is calculated step–by–step as
follows:
Σx
1. Take the mean of the set of measurements, x = N .
2. Take the deviation of each measurement from the mean (x − x) .

2
3. Square each deviation, (x − x) .
2
4. Get the sum of the squares of each deviation Σ (x − x) .
2
Σ(x−x)
5. Divide the sum of the squares by the number of measurements in the set,
N
2
2 Σ(x−x)
In symbols, variance (σ ) is … σ =
2
. Eq. (1.3)
N
● A variance of zero means that all measurements are identical. A small variance
indicates that the values are close to one another, which means they are precise.
● The square root of the variance is the standard deviation. It is a measure of how diverse
or spread out are a set of measurements from their average. A small standard deviation
means that most of the measurements are close to their average. A large standard
deviation means that the measurements are very diverse. The measurement x of a
physical quantity in a set of measurements is usually reported as … x=x±σ Eq. (1.4)
*** where x is the mean of the set of measurements and σ is the standard deviation
of the measurement.
● SAMPLE PROBLEM #2
During an experiment in a physics laboratory class, a group of five students was asked
to measure the period of a simple pendulum. Their measurements were as follows: 2.3s,
2.4s, 2.2s, 2.5s, and 2.1s. Determine the (a) mean; (b) variance; (c) standard deviation;
(d) measured period of the pendulum.
SOLUTION:
Σx 2.3s + 2.4s + 2.2s + 2.5s + 2.1s
(a) x = N = 5 = 2.3 s
2
2 Σ(x−x)
(b) σ = N
2 2 2 2 2
(2.3s−2.3s) + (2.3s−2.4s) + (2.3s−2.2s) + (2.3s−2.5s) + (2.3s−2.1s)
= 5
σ 2 = 0.02s2
√
2
Σ(x−x)
(c) σ= N

=√
2 2 2 2 2
(2.3s−2.3s) + (2.3s−2.4s) + (2.3s−2.2s) + (2.3s−2.5s) + (2.3s−2.1s)
5

σ = 0.14s ≃ 0.1s
(d) The measured period of the pendulum is (2.3 ± 0.1)s .
[ ** The measurement of the physical quantity is expressed as (x = x ± σ ) ]
● PRACTICE PROBLEM #2
In an experiment, 10 trials were done to determine the range of a projectile. The
measurements for the range of the projectile in centimeters are as follows:
134.8 133.9 135.1 134.7 135.3
134.9 135.2 134.8 135.5 135.4

Determine the (a) mean, (b) variance, (c) standard deviation, and (d) measured range
of the projectile.

UNITS & MEASUREMENTS

● UNITS8
Physics experiments involve the measurement of a variety of quantities, and a great
deal of effort goes into making these measurements as accurate and reproducible as
possible. The first step toward ensuring accuracy and reproducibility is defining the units
in which the measurements are made. In this text, we emphasize the system of units
known as SI units, which stands for the French phrase “Le Système International
d’Unités.” By international agreement, this system employs the meter (m) as the unit of
length, the kilogram (kg) as the unit
of mass, and the second (s) as the
unit of time. Two other systems of
units are also in use, however. The
CGS system utilizes the centimeter
(cm), the gram (g), and the second
for length, mass, and time,
respectively, and the BE or British
Engineering system (the gravitational version) uses the foot (ft), the slug (sl), and the
second. Table 1.1 summarizes the units used for length, mass, and time in the three
systems.
● The Role of UNITS in Problem Solving
● The Conversion of Units. Since any quantity, such as length, can be measured in
several different units, it is important to know how to convert from one unit to
another. For instance, the foot can be used to express the distance between the
two marks on the standard platinum–iridium meter bar. There are 3.281 feet in one
meter, and this number can be used to convert from meters to feet, as the following
example demonstrates.
● SAMPLE PROBLEM #3 The World’s Highest Waterfall
The highest waterfall in the world is Angel Falls in Venezuela (Link9), with a total drop
of 979.0 m. Express this drop in feet.
Reasoning When converting between units, we write down the units explicitly in the
calculations and treat them like any algebraic quantity. In particular, we will take
advantage of the following algebraic fact: Multiplying or dividing an equation by a
factor of 1 does not alter an equation.
Solution Since 3.281 feet = 1 meter, it follows that (3.281 feet)/(1 meter) = 1. Using this
factor of 1 to multiply the equation “Length = 979.0 meters,” we find that ...
Length = (979.0m) (1) = (979.0meters) (

3.281 f eet
1 meter )
= 3212 f eet
Problem-Solving Insight. In any conversion, if the units do not combine algebraically

to give the desired result, the conversion has not been carried out properly. With this
in mind, the next example stresses the importance of writing down the units and
illustrates a typical situation in which several conversions are required.
● SAMPLE PROBLEM #4 Interstate Speed Limit
Express the speed limit of 65 miles/hour in terms of meters/second.
Reasoning As in sample problem#3, it is important to write down the units explicitly in
the calculations and treat them like any algebraic quantity. Here, we take
8
“Physics, 9th Ed., Cutnell & Johnson”
9
https://cdn.britannica.com/81/155181-050-CE1B56BF/Angel-Falls-waterfall-world-Rio-Churun-Venezuela.jpg

advantage of two well-known relationships—namely, 5280 feet = 1 mile and 3600
seconds = 1 hour. As a result, (5280 feet)/(1 mile) = 1 and (3600 seconds)/(1 hour) = 1.
In our solution we will use the fact that multiplying and dividing by these factors of
unity does not alter an equation.
Solution Multiplying and dividing by factors of unity, we find the speed limit in feet
per second as shown below:

To convert feet into meters, we use the fact that (1 meter)/(3.281 feet) = 1:

In addition to their role in guiding the use of conversion factors, units serve a useful
purpose in solving problems. They can provide an internal check to eliminate errors, if they
are carried along during each step of a calculation and treated like any algebraic factor.
In particular, remember that only quantities with the same units can be added or
subtracted (Problem-Solving Insight). Thus, at one point in a calculation, if you find yourself
adding 12 miles to 32 kilometers, stop and reconsider. Either miles must be converted into
kilometers, or kilometers must be converted into miles before the addition can be carried
out.
The value of a quantity in terms of base or
derived units is sometimes a very large or very small
number. In such cases, it is convenient to introduce
larger or smaller units that are related to the normal
units by multiples of ten. Table 1.2 summarizes the
prefixes that are used to denote multiples of ten. For
example, 1000 or 103 meters are referred to as 1
kilometer (km), and 0.001 or 10 -3 meter is called 1
millimeter (mm). Similarly, 1000 grams and 0.001
gram are referred to as 1 kilogram (kg) and 1
milligram (mg), respectively.

POWERS of TEN & SCIENTIFIC NOTATION

In science, very large and very small decimal
numbers are conveniently expressed in terms of
powers of ten, some of which are listed below:
1
103 = 10 × 10 × 10 = 1000 10−3 = 10×10×10 = 0.001
1
102 = 10 × 10 = 100 10−2 = 10×10 = 0.01
1
101 = 10 10−1 = 10 = 0.1
100 = 1
Using powers of ten, we can write the radius of the earth in the following way, for example:
Earth radius = 6 380 000 m = 6.38 x 106 m
The factor of ten raised to the sixth power is ten multiplied by itself six times, or one million,
so the earth’s radius is 6.38 million meters. Alternatively, the factor of ten raised to the sixth
power indicates that the decimal point in the term 6.38 is to be moved six places to the
right to obtain the radius as a number without powers of ten. For numbers less than one,
negative powers of ten are used. For instance, the Bohr radius of the hydrogen atom is …
Bohr radius = 0.000 000 000 0529 m = 5.29 x 10-11 m
The factor of ten raised to the minus eleventh power indicates that the decimal point in the
term 5.29 is to be moved eleven places to the left to obtain the radius as a number without
powers of ten. Numbers expressed with the aid of powers of ten are said to be in scientific
notation.
Calculations that involve the multiplication and division of powers of ten are carried out as
in the following examples:
(2.0 × 10 ) (3.5 × 10 ) = (2.0 × 3.5) × 10
6 3 6+3
= 7.0 × 109
9.0×107
2.0×104
= ( 9.0
2.0 )
× 107 × 10−4 = ( 9.0
2.0 )
× 107−4 = 4.5 × 103
Scientific notation is convenient because of the ease with which it can be used in
calculations. Moreover, scientific notation provides a convenient way to express the
significant figures in a number.
SIGNIFICANT FIGURES10
The number of significant figures in a number is the number of digits whose values are
known with certainty. For instance, a person’s height is measured to be 1.78 m, with the
measurement error being in the third decimal place. All three digits are known with
certainty, so that the number contains three significant figures. If a zero is given as the last
digit to the right of the decimal point, the zero is presumed to be significant. Thus, the
number 1.780 m contains four significant figures. As another example, consider a distance
of 1500 m. This number contains only two significant figures, the one and the five. The zeros
immediately to the left of the unexpressed decimal point are not counted as significant
figures. However, zeros located between significant figures are significant, so a distance of
1502 m contains four significant figures.
Scientific notation is particularly convenient from the point of view of significant figures.
Suppose it is known that a certain distance is fifteen hundred meters, to four significant
figures. Writing the number as 1500 m presents a problem because it implies that only two
significant figures are known. In contrast, the scientific notation of 1.500 x 103 m has the
advantage of indicating that the distance is known to four significant figures.
When two or more numbers are used in a calculation, the number of significant figures
in the answer is limited by the number of significant figures in the original data. For instance,
a rectangular garden with sides of 9.8 m and 17.1 m has an area of (9.8 m)(17.1 m). A
calculator gives 167.58 m2 for this product. However, one of the original lengths is known
only to two significant figures, so the final answer is limited to only two significant figures and
should be rounded off to 170 m2. In general, when numbers are multiplied or divided, the
number of significant figures in the final answer equals the smallest number of significant
figures in any of the original factors.
The number of significant figures in the answer to an addition or a subtraction is also
limited by the original data. Consider the total distance along a
biker’s trail that consists of three segments with the distances shown ...
The distance of 11 km contains no significant figures to the right of the
decimal point. Therefore, neither does the sum of the three distances,
and the total distance should not be reported as 18.76 km. Instead,
the answer is rounded off to 19 km. In general, when numbers are added or subtracted, the
last significant figure in the answer occurs in the last column (counting from left to right)
containing a number that results from a combination of digits that are all significant. In the
answer of 18.76 km, the eight is the sum of 2 + 1 + 5, each digit being significant. However,
the seven is the sum of 5 + 0 + 2, and the zero is not significant, since it comes from the
11-km distance, which contains no significant figures to the right of the decimal point.
[End of Week-1a → Proceed to Week-1b]
10
“Physics (Appendix A & B) 9th Ed., Cutnell & Johnson”

Muntinlupa National High School Physics Guide

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MUNTINLUPA NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL - MAIN (SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL - STEM)

GEN. PHYSICS-1 WEEK 1A

PRE-TEST (For items #1 & 2, choose the letter of your answer.)1

Page 1 of 8 SCHOOL YEAR 2020 - 2021

ERROR & UNCERTAINTY4

PRECISION & ACCURACY

Page 3 of 8 SCHOOL YEAR 2020 - 2021

% dif f erence = ∣ x11 + x22 ∣ x100%

Page 4 of 8 SCHOOL YEAR 2020 - 2021

2. Take the deviation of each measurement from the mean (x − x) .

134.9 135.2 134.8 135.5 135.4

Page 5 of 8 SCHOOL YEAR 2020 - 2021

UNITS & MEASUREMENTS

Length = (979.0m) (1) = (979.0meters) (

Problem-Solving Insight. In any conversion, if the units do not combine algebraically

Page 6 of 8 SCHOOL YEAR 2020 - 2021

POWERS of TEN & SCIENTIFIC NOTATION

Page 8 of 8 SCHOOL YEAR 2020 - 2021

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