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KEY WORDS
physics measurement SI Units random errors
accuracy precision systematic errors variance
INTRODUCTION3
Physics is the most fundamental of the sciences. Its goal is to learn how the Universe
works at the most fundamental level—and to discover the basic laws by which it operates.
Theoretical physics concentrates on developing the theory and mathematics of these laws,
while applied physics focuses attention on the application of the principles of physics to
practical problems. Experimental physics lies at the intersection of physics and engineering;
experimental physicists have the theoretical knowledge of theoretical physicists, and they
know how to build and work with scientific equipment.
Physics is divided into a number of sub-fields, and physicists are trained to have
some expertise in all of them. This variety is what makes physics one of the most interesting
of the sciences—and it makes people with physics training very versatile in their ability to do
work in many different technical fields.
The major fields of physics are:
• Classical mechanics is the study of the motion of bodies according to Newton’s laws of
motion, and is the subject of this course.
1
“Physics, 6th Ed., Cutnell & Johnson”
2
“General Physics I - Prince George’s Community College” http://www.pgccphy.net/1030/phy1030.pdf Accessed 7 Jul. 2020.
3
“General Physics I - Prince George’s Community College” http://www.pgccphy.net/1030/phy1030.pdf Accessed 7 Jul. 2020
SOURCES OF ERROR
➔ Observer - unpredictable
➔ Method of measurement - unreliable experimental procedure
➔ Object to be Measured - non-uniform thickness, edges not well defined
➔ Instrument - (a) maybe faulty, unreliable;
(b) out of adjustment, not “zeroed”
TYPES OF ERROR
● Systematic Error. It is one associated with a particular measuring instrument or
experimental technique, e.g., using a meter rule which has had the first 10 cm cut-off,
making all measurements 10 cm too high, or trying to find the acceleration due to
gravity using an object that is subject to significant air friction, or in an experiment
requiring a stable background temperature of 20°C, having the temperature be too
4
“Error and Uncertainty” https://www.nhn.ou.edu/~johnson/Education/Juniorlab/Error-SigFig/SigFiginError-043.pdf Accessed 7 Jul. 2020.
Page 2 of 8 SCHOOL YEAR 2020 - 2021
MUNTINLUPA NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL - MAIN (SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL - STEM)
high. Each of these will have the effect of shifting all results by a significant amount in
the same direction, known as the systematic error.
The above system has no, or negligible, systematic error.
The treatment of systematic errors is very difficult and requires experience. The
experimental technique (or the offending measuring device) must be modified. For our
purposes, it is sufficient that we recognise the existence of a systematic error. If all other
errors have been included in the measured uncertainty range and the accepted value
still lies out with this range, then: (a) we must say that there has been some systematic
error present in the experimental procedure or in the equipment used, shifting all
measurements too high or too low, and (b) we must try to suggest where the systematic
error may lie.
● Random Error. In experimental results is due to lack of observer precision, perhaps in
misreading an analogue scale due to parallax. This will result in a spread of results, even
in the most carefully designed of experiments. Due to the random nature of these errors,
there is an equal chance that they will be above or below the ‘true’ value. To mitigate
against such errors, it is correct technique to take many readings and find the mean,
even in the simplest of experiments. Because it is impossible to know the ‘true’ value, the
best estimate is the mean of repeat readings.5
5
"Error and Uncertainty - OU physics." https://www.nhn.ou.edu/~johnson/Education/Juniorlab/Error-SigFig/SigFiginError-043.pdf.
Accessed 14 Jul. 2020.
% error = ∣ x T ∣ x100%
x−x
Eq. (1.1)
T
where xT is the true or accepted value and x is
the measured value. Percent error is usually
considered in judging the accuracy of a measurement.
● PERCENT DIFFERENCE between x1 and x2 is given by the equation…
VISUAL ANALYSIS
If you will be asked to measure the diameter of oranges
shown at the right, what do you think is the variance of
your measurements?
VARIANCE7
Another way to estimate errors from multiple
measurements of a physical quantity is to determine the
variance of the set of measurements. The variance
measures the squared deviation of each number in the set
6
“What is the difference between precision & accuracy in Physics?”
https://www.quora.com/What-is-the-difference-between-precision-and-accuracy-in-physics Accessed 14 Jul. 2020.
7
“Exploring Life Through Science Series-General Physics-1”, Angelina A. Silverio, Phoenix Publishing House Inc.
σ 2 = 0.02s2
√
2
Σ(x−x)
(c) σ= N
=√
2 2 2 2 2
(2.3s−2.3s) + (2.3s−2.4s) + (2.3s−2.2s) + (2.3s−2.5s) + (2.3s−2.1s)
5
σ = 0.14s ≃ 0.1s
(d) The measured period of the pendulum is (2.3 ± 0.1)s .
[ ** The measurement of the physical quantity is expressed as (x = x ± σ ) ]
● PRACTICE PROBLEM #2
In an experiment, 10 trials were done to determine the range of a projectile. The
measurements for the range of the projectile in centimeters are as follows:
134.8 133.9 135.1 134.7 135.3
8
“Physics, 9th Ed., Cutnell & Johnson”
9
https://cdn.britannica.com/81/155181-050-CE1B56BF/Angel-Falls-waterfall-world-Rio-Churun-Venezuela.jpg
10
“Physics (Appendix A & B) 9th Ed., Cutnell & Johnson”