College of Engineering

Basic Sciences and Humanities Department

Laboratory Manual
Physics I and II

2018
Parts of the material used in this
manual is printed by permission of
PASCO scientific

This manual has been prepared by:

Prof. Dr. Khaled Abdelsabour Elsayed

Dr. Tarek Said Kayed

Dammam, 2018

2
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page
Introduction ................................................................................................................... 3
Part 1: BASIC CONCEPTS ......................................................................................... 4
1.1 How to write a report .................................................................................... 5
1.2 Experimental Errors ...................................................................................... 7
1.3... Significant figures and recording measurements………………….……15
Part 2: Physics I Lab: CLASSICAL MECHANICS ............................................... 18
EXPERIMENT 1 – Measurements and precision ............................................ 19
EXPERIMENT 2 – Instantaneous versus average velocity.............................. 26
EXPERIMENT 3 – Newton's second law ........................................................ 30
EXPERIMENT 4 – Acceleration down an incline ........................................... 33
EXPERIMENT 5 – Conservation of momentum ............................................. 37
EXPERIMENT 6 – Conversation of Kinetic Energy ....................................... 40

Part 3: Physics II Lab: ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM .............................. 43

EXPERIMENT 1 – Electronic Apparatus and Circuits Board ......................... 44
EXPERIMENT 2 – Ohm's Law ........................................................................ 51
EXPERIMENT 3 – Resistance in circuit .......................................................... 54
EXPERIMENT 4 – Voltages in circuits ........................................................... 60
EXPERIMENT 5 – Current in Circuits ............................................................ 65
EXPERIMENT 6 – Kirchhoff's Law ................................................................ 69
EXPERIMENT 7 – Capacitors in Circuits ………………………..…… … 72

3
Preface to Second Edition
The aim of the laboratory experiment is to give the student an insight into the
significance of the physical ideas through actual manipulation of apparatus, and to
bring him or her into contact with the methods and instruments of physical
investigation. Each exercise is designed to teach or reinforce an important law of
physics which, in most cases, has already been introduced in the lecture and textbook.
Thus the student is expected to be acquainted with the basic ideas and terminology of
an experiment before coming to the laboratory. The experiments in general involve
measurements, graphical representation of the data, and calculation of a final result.
The student should bear in mind that equipment can malfunction and final results may
differ from expected values by what may seem to be large amounts. This does not
mean that the experiment is a failure. The success of an experiment lies rather in the
degree to which a student
has mastered the physical principles involved, understood the theory and operation of
the instruments used, and realized the significance of the final conclusion.

The manual contains laboratory experiments for general Physics courses, Phys. I-271
& Phys. II-272. These experiments have been designed to acquaint freshman student
at college of Engineering, University of Dammam with the fundamental of apparatus
manipulation, physical instrumentation, data recording and analysis.

It is hoped that this lab will give you a taste of the difficulties and thrills of real
experimentation. This Lab offers an ideal opportunity to learn and strengthen, by
means of actual observations, some of the principles and laws of physics that are
taught to you in general physics lectures. You will also become familiar with modern
measuring equipment and computers, and learn the fundamentals of preparing a report
of the results.

On behalf of College of Engineering, I take this opportunity to thank Dr. Khaled

Elsayed, Dr. Tarek Kayed who have taken keen interest in preparation and publication
of this Manual. Without their help it would not have been possible to take this Manual
to the students

Ali AlQarni, PhD

College of Engineering - Dean
Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University

4
 Part 1
Basic Concepts

5
1.1 How to write a report
Plan of your report

1. Cover Page
2. Title
3. Purpose of the Experiment
4. Theoretical Background
5. Data Collected
6. Data Analysis
7. Results, Discussion and Conclusions

1 Cover Page

With the course name, name of the experiment, your name, your student number,
and date

2 Title

It shows the name of the experiment.

3 Purpose

The aim of doing the experiment and expected results can be explained in this
part.

4 Theoretical Background

It should include all the scientific information, formulas, and concepts related to
the experiment.

5 Data Collected

All the data you have obtained, must be tabulated in a logical form. In the table
you have to specify also the units of the measured values.

6 Data Analysis

This part is the heart of the report. Here you have to prove all the statements that
you stated in the purpose section by doing necessary calculations. The steps that
you should follow are:

 How to calculate

First you have to specify the formulas or relations you will use during the
calculations (it will be better if you give a number for each step, starting from the

6
 beginning of the derivation). Then you start doing calculations. Furthermore, you
have to write units of the calculated values. Finally you got a value, which must
be represented scientifically. Be careful about using the same significant figures
for the whole group of data.

 How to draw a graph

First of all you should choose a proper graphic paper (logarithmic or linear). Then,
decide which variable is in which axis. As a general rule, the independent variable
should be chosen as the x-axis while the dependent variable should be on the y-
axis. In addition, you should decide scale of the axis. To choose the scale, divide
the biggest data reading by the length of the axis. DONT FORGET TO PICK UP
THE MOST LOGICAL SCALE. Then draw the best line that passes along the
maximum number of data points. If necessary,calculate the slope of the line. In the
slope calculation do not choose the data points, choose arbitrary points on the best
line fit. Finally, DO NOT FORGET TO WRITE THE UNITS OF THE AXIS.

7 Results, Discussion and Conclusions

In this part you should state the main results and then compare the experimental
and standard values. Explain the reasons behind any difference between the
experimental and standard values. Also you have to discuss the errors that you
probablyhave made during the experiment.

7
1.2 Experimental errors
Physics is based on measurements. We must learn how to measure the physical
quantities in terms of which the laws of physics are stated. Length, time, mass, speed,
velocity, acceleration, force, momentum, temperature, charge, voltage, current,
resistance, etc. are all physical quantities. We use some of these words in our
everyday speech very frequently. In physics they have precise meanings, sometimes
different than their everyday meanings.
In the physics laboratory, and in any other laboratory, we are going to perform
experiments. Although the aim of these experiments is very different, they all
commonly involve measuring and recording quantities, and deriving from these
recorded measurements other quantities we are interested in determining. We may be
measuring the distance between two points on the track of a moving object and the
time interval that has passed to go between these points. We may be measuring the
electric current flowing through a resistance wire and the voltage across it when the
resistance wire is connected across a battery in an electrical circuit.
Can a simple quantity like the distance between two points on a track be measured
exactly? To measure this distance we use a ruler by laying it along the track and make
observations at the two points. We first try to set one of the points at zero on the ruler,
but how exactly can we set it at zero?
As we know the zero mark on the ruler is usually a line and the line has a certain
thickness, which prevents us from getting an exact setting at zero. The same is true for
the other point. Reading a value from a ruler involves lining up the two points with
the marks on the ruler, and as you can see easily, exact lining up is impossible. The
apparent distance between two points, and therefore the values of the reading,
depends also on the position of your eye. For example, the position of a point near a
ruler may appear different if viewed from the left or right of a line of sight
perpendicular to the ruler.
A reading may appear to be different when viewed with our left eye or right eye, or
when we move our head horizontally or vertically over a ruler. This apparent change
in position due to a change in the position of the eye is called parallax. There is
another possibility that the ruler we use may not be accurate. The size of the ruler may
vary with such factors as time, temperature, or humidity. The scale of a measuring
instrument is not exact. The exact reading of a scale is impossible. The exact
measurement of any quantity is impossible. No experiment gives the right answer.
In the physics laboratory the measurements are carried out by means of instruments,
such as a ruler, a voltmeter or an ammeter, and whether we like it or not, in all
measurements there is always some error (or uncertainty). We aim to get nearer to the
right value using more accurate instruments and making our measurements more
carefully.
Sometimes, we try to make a rough estimate of a quantity and, in such cases, the
accuracy of the instrument we use and the way we make our measurement are not
very important. In most cases, however, we want to be as accurate as possible. But
more than that, we always want to know how accurate our measurements are and how
accurate the result we obtain from our measurements is.

8
When we want to know how accurate a measurement is, we refer to what is called the
error in this measurement. The word error does not have the meaning mistake, but
rather it is the uncertainty in the measurement as a result of all the contributing
factors.
When doing an experiment, we have to make a reasonable assessment of the accuracy
of our measurements detecting the sources of errors and we have to estimate the
maximum possible error in each of our measurements.
Accuracy expresses how closely the measurement comes to the true or known value.
Precision or reproducibility expresses the deviation of a measurement from the
average of many measurements using the same procedure repeatedly.

1.2.1 Recording measurements

In recording a measurement, it is important to estimate and record the error. For

example, if we measure the distance between two points on a track with a ruler having
millimetre division on it, we may record our measurement as

Distance = 2.5 ± 0.1 cm

The significance of ± 0.1 cm is that when we repeat our measurement several more
times, the readings we obtain are expected to be one of the values 2.4 cm, 2.5 cm, or
2.6 cm. For many repetitions of the measurement, the value most frequently occurring
will be the value 2.5 cm. Note that all readings require both a number and a unit. The
error in a measurement can be either positive (reading too much) or negative (reading
too little).

1.2.2 How the error in a measurement is indicated?

We can indicate the error in a measurement in the following two ways:

a) We follow the numerical result of our measurement by the symbol ± and then the
maximum possible error,
b) We write down the numerical result of our measurement giving only the figures
read from the scale. The last figure given is generally the one in which there is
some uncertainty or error.
Look at the following table, which summarises the experimental values obtained for
the speed of light. All the methods used a rotating mirror set up for the measurement.
As we see from the table below, no experiment gives the true value of a physical
quantity. The experimenter tries to get close to the true value, as Michelson did for the
measurement of the speed of light. Notice that he initially could make measurements
with an error of ± 50 km/s, finally he could reduce the error down to ± 4 km/s. The
accepted value for the speed of light today is

299 792 459.0 ± 0.8 m/s

which is in accordance with Michelson's value in 1926, within the estimated limits of
error.

9
 Date Experimenter Speed of Light (km/s)
1875 Cornu 299 990 ± 200
1880 Michelson 299 910 ± 50
1883 Newcomb 299 860 ± 30
1883 Michelson 299 850 ± 60
1926 Michelson 299 796 ± 4

1.2.3 Types of errors

In general, the types of errors in a particular experiment may be due to the observer,
the measuring instrument used, or the experimental design used. All of the possible
errors can be considered in two main groups, systematic and random errors.

(a) Systematic errors

They are the errors tending to be in one direction only, either positive or negative.
They will produce a result, which is always wrong in the same way. If a voltmeter
reads 1.2 V when the true voltage is 1.5 V, then there is a systematic error of -0.3 V.
The systematic error is not necessarily constant over the entire scale of a measuring
instrument. The voltmeter we are considering, when the true voltage is zero, will
probably read zero and there is no systematic error.
The usual source of systematic errors is the construction or calibration of the
measuring instrument. For example, an instrument whose zero setting is wrong gives
rise to systematic error and it systematically gives an incorrect reading, either larger
or smaller, instead of a true value. We can calibrate an instrument using a standard
whose value is known accurately.
Systematic errors due to improper calibration, zero setting, etc., can be avoided by
proper inspection and adjustment of the instruments and their elimination depends on
the skill of the experimenter. In carrying out an experiment it is obviously important
to consider possible sources of systematic errors and to take precautions to eliminate
them as much as possible.

(b) Random errors

They are the errors tending to be in both directions, negative and positive. These
errors are random and produce results, which are either both too large or too small.
These errors arise from unknown and unpredictable variations in the experimental
situation. For example, variation due to parallax or human judgment in interpolating
between marks on a ruler used to measure distance between two points produce
random error in the result of measurement. They are beyond the control of the
experimenter. Inaccurate reading of a scale, unpredictable fluctuations in temperature
or line voltage, mechanical vibration of the experimental set up, carelessness in
making proper measurement and other similar accidental reasons can give rise to
random errors. They are positive as often as they are negative. We can reduce the
effect of random errors by improving the experimental technique, by greater care, by
experience and practice, and by improved instruments.

10
One way to reduce the random error in a measured quantity is to take the
measurement many times and calculate the average of these independent
measurements. This will likely be more accurate than a single measurement.

1.2.4 Estimating errors

Accepting that any measurement is to be in error, it is very important to be able to

make good estimates of the maximum possible error or uncertainty in each recorded
measurement. The result of a measurement conveys knowledge about a physical
quantity and it is a scientific statement. The statement is wrong if it says less or more
than is known. The most accurate statement is the one, which says just what is known
and no more.
When reading a ruler, which is marked in millimetre, we should be able to read to the
nearest division. Our maximum reading error should then be ± 1 mm. We may
attempt to estimate our reading to less than one division, for example a half or a fifth
of a division, by making our reading more carefully. The error in these cases would be
± 0.5 mm or ± 0.2 mm, respectively. Certainly, ± 0.2 mm is an overestimate since
with the naked eye a fifth of a millimetre division is very difficult to observe. A half
of a millimetre, ± 0.5 mm can be observed easily and it is better always to be on the
cautious side. For example, a reading from such a ruler might be recorded as 25.5 ±
0.5 mm or 2.55 ± 0.05 cm. Notice that, the last figure shown is the one in which there
is some uncertainty.

1.2.5 Expressing errors

The error in a measured quantity may be expressed either as the absolute error or the
fractional (or relative) error. The absolute error has the same units as the measured
quantity. For example, a distance measurement made with a ruler marked in
millimetres can be expressed as 25.5 ± 0.5 mm. The absolute error in this quantity is ±
0.5 mm. The fractional error is the ratio of the absolute error to the quantity and it can
be expressed as

absolute  error .(in  the  quantity)

Fractional error =
quantity
Note that, the fractional error has no unit and it is commonly expressed as a
percentage to give the percentage error of the measured quantity. The percentage error
can be expressed as

Percentage error = Fractional error  100%

In the distance measurement given above we have

Distance = 25.5 ±0.5 mm

Absolute error = 0.5 mm
0.5 1
Fractional error = = = 0.02
25.5 51
Percentage error = 0.02  100% = 2%

11
A quantity Q is experimentally measured (either as a single reading or as an average
of many readings) as x. x is the estimated absolute error in x. The measured value of
the quantity Q should be recorded either with its absolute error as

Q = x ±  x (with the absolute error)

or with its percentage error as

x
Q=x±  100% (with percentage error)
x

1.2.6. Combination of errors in calculated results

Whenever measurements are used in a calculation, an error is associated with the

result obtained. The manner in which the error of each measurement propagates and
combines depends upon the mathematical calculation used.
Suppose we have two measurements x and y with respective errors (maximum
possible, probable, average or as standard deviation) x and y. We record our
measurements as x ± x and y ± y. The examples that follow discuss the types of
calculation we may have with these measurements.

Addition and subtraction

Suppose we add the measurements x ± x and y ± y to find the result R and we want
to determine the maximum possible error R in R. The calculated value is

R=x+y

When the errors x and y happen to reinforce each other, the result R could be as
large as

R + R = (x + x) + (y + y) = (x + y) + (x + y)

The result R could be as small as

R - R = (x - x) + (y - y) = (x + y) - (x + y)

So, we can write the result R with its maximum possible error R as

R ± R = (x + y) ± (x + y)

Thus the absolute maximum possible error is

R = x + y

When we want to find the difference R = x - y, the difference could be as large as

12
 R + R = (x + x) - (y - y) = (x - y) + (x + y)

The difference R could be as small as

R - R = (x - x) - (y + y) = (x - y) - (x + y)

So we can write for the difference

R ± R = (x - y) ± (x + y)

The absolute maximum possible error is

R = x + y

Note that the maximum possible error in both addition and subtraction is the sum of
the individual errors in the quantities.
When measured quantities are added or subtracted, the maximum possible error in the
result is the sum of the errors in the quantities used in the calculation.

Multiplication and division

Suppose we want to calculate the product P of two measurements x ± x and y ± y.

We can write the calculated value as

P = x.y

When the errors x and y happen to reinforce each other, the product P could be as
large as

x y
P P = (x + x).(y + y) = x.yx.y (  )
x y
We see that in the multiplication of two measurements, the maximum relative error
P
in the product is equal to the sum of the relative errors in the quantities
P
multiplied.
In terms of the percentage errors we can write

P x y
 100   100   100
P x y

Suppose we want to calculate the division D of two measurements x ± x and y ± y.

x
Assume that we have the division D = . The division D can be written as
y
-1
D = x.y

13
Following the same procedure as for the multiplication we can easily show that

D x y
 100   100   100
D x y

When measured quantities are multiplied or divided, the maximum percentage error
of the result is the sum of the percentage errors in the measured quantities used in the
calculation.

Trigonometric calculations

Suppose that an angle  is measured and is used in the calculation

R = sin

The maximum possible error R is

R = |sin(+) - sin|

where is the error in the angle .

14
1.3 Significant figures and recording measurements
As mentioned previously, one of the ways of indicating the error in a measurement is
by the number of figures recorded. This requires that all the figures recorded
(including the last one estimated) are significant. For example, for the distance
measured with a ruler marked in millimeters we recorded 2.55 ± 0.05 cm, so this
distance would be written with three significant figures, 2.55. If we record our
measurement (like 2.55 cm) using only significant figures, the amount of error in the
measurement is not specified. The measurements 2.55 ± 0.01 cm, 2.55 ± 0.02 cm or
2.55 ± 0.05 cm would all have three significant figures and would all be recorded as
2.55 cm.
In recording measurements, the correct number of significant figures must be used
and when possible, the more definite indication ± must be added. When we use the
significant figure method to record measurements, we need to develop rules for
expressing the number of significant figures in calculated results. Give the figures you
read from a scale with only the last figure estimated as a result of measurement. Never
put extra figures. The digits including the last one estimated are called significant
figures.
The number of significant figures has nothing to do with the location of the decimal
point. Care should always be taken to distinguish between zeros that are significant
and those that are not. Thus, if in measuring the distance with a ruler marked in
millimetres, the position of the point appeared to be right opposite the 5 mm division
following the 2 cm mark, it would be recorded as 2.50 cm and the zero would be
significant. However, if the distance measurement were to be stated in meters, like
-6
0.0250 m, or in micrometers (1 micrometer = 1 m = 1 x 10 m); like 25500 m, the
zeros other than the one which is to the right of 5 would not be significant and they
would be serving only to place the decimal point. The number of significant figures in
a measurement is determined as follows:

1. The leftmost nonzero digit is the most significant.

2. If there is no decimal point, the rightmost nonzero digit is the least significant.
3. If there is a decimal point, the rightmost digit is the least significant, even if it is
zero.
4. All digits between the least and most significant digits are considered to be
significant.

Example
Some measurements are recorded as: 255 mm; 11.1 cm; 2.04 V; 175000 mA; 0.0125
km; 360 g. How many significant figures do we have in these measurements?

Solution:
We have three significant figures in each of these measurements.A difficulty usually
arises if the decimal point is omitted and the rightmost digit is zero. For example, the
measurement 3.60 m has three significant figures, but what about if the measurement

15
were recorded as 360 cm? By the rules given above, the result 360 cm has only two
significant figures, but the last digit zero is actually significant. Without knowledge
that the original measurement of 3.60 m contained three significant figures, however,
there is no way to tell whether the zero in 360 cm is significant or not. This problem
is resolved by writing the measurements in scientific notation or powers of 10
2
notation. Thus, writing 360 cm as 3.60 x 10 cm shows explicitly that the rightmost
zero is significant.
Scientific notation:
Write the result of a measurement as two factors; the first factor contains all the
significant figures, having one nonzero digit in front of the decimal point, and the
second factor is a power-of-10.
Let us write the measurements in Example 1 in scientific notation:

2
255 mm = 2.55 x 10 mm
1
11.1 cm = 1.11 x l0 cm
0
2.04 V = 2.04 x 10 V
5
175 000 mA = 1.75 x l0
mA
-2
0.0125 km = 1.25 x 10 km
2
360 g = 3.60 x 10 g

Note that in each case above the first factor gives the number of significant figures
existing in the corresponding measurement.

Calculations with significant figures

The calculations carried out with significant figures usually produce extra figures as a
result of calculation. However, reporting more figures would imply greater
significance than that given by the measurements and a result cannot be made more
accurate by a calculation. As we know, the last figure of a measurement is estimated
and therefore it is doubtful. We may expect the result of calculation to have also only
one doubtful figure. This means that only the first doubtful figure from the left of a
result is to be reported.
When a doubtful figure is added, subtracted, multiplied or divided by another doubtful
(or significant) figure, the resultant figure is also doubtful. To show how doubtful
figures are carried through a multiplication operation, the estimated (doubtful) figures
are indicated by boldface numbers in the following example:

1.231
1.5 (least accurate)
______
5755
1231
+______

16
 1.8065 ( 1.8)

The first doubtful figure from the left is 8 and therefore the result of this
multiplication is rounded off to 1.8. Note that the result has two significant figures, 1
and 8, as the least accurate number 1.5 used in the calculation.

Multiplication and division:

In the multiplication or division of numerical measurements, retain in the result only
as many figures as the number of significant figures in the least accurate number used
in the calculation.
To show how significant figures are carried through an addition operation, again
indicating the doubtful figure by boldface letters, let's look at the following example:

44.2146
0.16
120.4
1.122
+_________
_
165.8966 (165.9)

Note that, the 4 in the 120.4 is the first doubtful digit from the left and it defines the
position of the figure where doubt occurs. The first doubtful figure from the left is 8
and the result of this addition is rounded off to 165.9 since the figure after 8 is 9. The
rules of rounding off numbers are given in the following paragraph. Note also that, in
addition (or subtraction) we cannot use the actual number of significant figures in the
numerical measurements, but we pay attention to their positions.

Addition and subtraction:

When carrying out addition or subtraction with numerical measurements, do not carry
the result beyond the first column (from the left) that contains a doubtful digit.
The numerical measurements can be rounded off to the desired number of significant
figures before they are used in calculations. A numerical measurement is rounded off
according to the following rules:

1. In rounding off, the last figure obtained should be unchanged if the figure to the
right of it is less than 5 (0, 1, 2, 3 or 4).
2. The last figure obtained should be increased by 1 if the figure to the right of it is 5
or greater (5, 6, 7, 8 or 9).

According to these rules the number 23.47 is rounded off to three digits as 23.5 and to
two digits as 23. Similarly, the number 23.84 is rounded off to three digits as 23.8 and
to two digits as 24.
Rounding off the numbers, in the first example above, before we make the
calculations, we find

17
 1.231
1.5 (least accurate)
______
5755
1231
+______
1.8065 (1.8)

and

1.2 (rounded off)

1.5
______
60
12
+_______
1.80 (1.8)

As seen from the results, rounding off the number(s) before the calculation or
rounding off the result at the end yields the same value.

Example

A student measures three quantities, in appropriate units, and records them using the
method of significant figures as: A =12.50; B = 2.72; C =1.4.

a) How many significant figures are there in these measurements?

b) Write these measurements in scientific notion.
c) Round off A and B to two significant figures.
d) What is the result of multiplying A  C?
e) What is the sum of the measurements?

Solution:

a) A = 12.50; four significant figures.

B = 2.72; three significant figures.
C =1.4; two significant figures.

b) In scientific notation, we write these measurements

1
A = 1.250  l0
0
B = 2.72  10
0
C = 1.4  10
c) Rounding off to two significant figures, we find
A = 12.50 = 13
B = 2.72 = 2.7
d) Multiplying by using the boldface numbers for doubtful figures, we obtain

18
 12.50 13
1.4 or 1.4
______ ______
500052
1250 13
+______ +______
17.500 (18) 18.2(18)

e) Summing the numbers

12.50 12.5
2.72 or 2.7
1.41.4
+______ +______
16.62 (16.6) 16.6

19
20
 Part 2
Physics I
Lab Experiments
Classical Mechanics

21
 Experiment 1: Measurements and Precision

1.Vernier Caliper

EQUIPMENT NEEDED:

Metallic strip, test tube, spheres of various sizes.

Purpose:

To study the vernier scales by using a verniercaliper.

Theory:

The vernier scales are devised to measure small lengths in fractions of the main scale
division (m.s.d.). Usually vernier scales are sliding on the main scale for comparison,
to obtain greater order of accuracy.Vernier scale divisions (v.s.d) are a little shorter or
a little bigger than main scale. Suppose vernier scale consists of n equal divisions,
then in most cases,

n vernier scale divisions = ( n – 1 ) main scale divisions.

Example:
say n = 10

10 v.s.d. = 9 m.s.d.

9
1 v.s.d. = m.s.d.
10

= 0.9 m.s.d.

If each main scale division is 1 mm, 1 v.s.d. = 0.9 mm

The difference between am.s.d. and v.s.d. is = 1 mm - 0.9 mm = 0.1 mm.

Thus with this vernier scale we are able to measure within 0.1 mm. This 0.1 mm is
known as the least count of a vernier scale, and it indicates the precision of the
measurement.

Procedure:

1- Look carefully at the vernier caliper provided in Figure 1.1. Press the knob in
order to slide the vernier scale along the main scale.
2- The first division on the left of the vernier scale is called zero of the vernier.
Count how many divisions there are on your vernier scale ( say n = 10 ).
3- Now look at the main scale. How many main scales are there? Write down
their units.

22
 4- Choose mm scale on the main scale. Slide the vernier so that the zero of the
vernier is on any number,say 4, in the main scale.

0 Vernier Scale 1

4 Main Scale 5

Figure 1.1

5- Write down how many vernier divisions are equal to how many main scale
division, and find out the least count of the vernier.
6- Slide back so that zero of vernier coincides with the zero of main scale. If it
does not you have a zero error. How much is this zero error? Make a note in
your data table.
Example:
In Figure 2(a) below, the zero mark of the vernier scale coincides with the zero of the
main scale. This position means that the jaws of the caliper are closed and
measurement is zero.

Main Scale 1
0 2

0 Vernier Scale

Fig. 2 (a)
Jaws

In Figure 2(b) the zero of the vernier scale is exactly on the 7th division of the main
scale. This means the distance between the jaws of the caliper is exactly 7 mms.

0 10 20

In Figure 2(c) the zero of the vernier scale lies between 12th and13th divisions of the
Fig. 2 (b)
main scale. To find the fracthion between these two divisions, inspect the vernier
scale and see that the 6th mark of the vernier scale coincides with a main scale mark.

0 10 15 20
23

Fig. 2 (c)
Since difference between each v. division and m.s. division is 0.1 mm, the 6th
division on v.s. will give a difference of 0.1 × 6 = 0.6 mm. Hence the fraction
between the 12thto 13th division is 0.6 mm. It means that the zero mark of the
vernier scale is 6 least count away beyond the 12th main scale division. Thus the
distance between the two jaws of the caliperis 12.6 mm.

7- Measure inner and outer diameter, and inner and outer length of tube by
vernier caliper.

24
 Measurement 1: Vernier Caliper

Least count of VernierCaliper = 0.01 cm

Vernier scale Vernier scale Vernier scale

Measurements Average
Reading (cm) Reading Reading (cm)

Inner Diameter
1
of Tube

Outer Diameter 1
of Tube

Inner Length of
1
Tube

Outer Length of
1
Tube

,
Slide Dimension Measurements

Vernier scale Vernier scale Vernier scale

Measurements Average
Reading (cm) Reading Reading (cm)

Length L 1

1
Wide W

Thickness 1

25
 2. Micrometer

By looking at the micrometer given,you will see that by turning it anticlockwise, you
can increase the gap between its clamps by a fixed amount for each complete turn for
a number of complete turns. This amount can be read on the arm of the screw which is
1
the main scale. It is usually in 1 mm or mm as the case may be, in the metric
2
micrometer.

Figure 1.3

Example:
1
Suppose the main scale is divided in to mm that one complete turn of the screw
2
1
corresponds to a distance of mm. Here you have the circular vernier scale.
2
Suppose that the circular scale which is vernier scale is sub-divided into 50 equal
divisions.

1 complete turns = 50 vernier division

1
50 v.d. = mm.
2
1 v.d. = 0.01 mm.

Suppose the reading on the main scale is 5.5 and 35th division coincides with one of
the main scale division, then we have:

5.5 mm + (35 × 0.01) mm = 5.85 mm as the reading.

26
 Figure 1.4

Exercise:
 How many complete turns there are in the above reading?
 How many complete turns and what number of vernier division should give you a
reading of 3.20 mm?

27
 Measurement 2: Micrometer

Least Count of Micrometer = 0.01 mm

Reading 1 Reading 1 Average

Measurements Reading 1 (mm)
(mm) (mm)) (mm)

Diameter of
sphere (D)
1

Thickness of 1
Slide

Diameter of sphere D =………….………… 𝑚 ,

Mass of sphere M =………..…………kg ,

4
Volume V = 𝜋 𝑅3 =……….……...𝑚3 ,
3

Density = 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠⁄𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 =…………………….. 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚3 .

28
 Experiment 2: Instantaneous Versus Average Velocity

EQUIPMENT NEEDED:

Photogate Timer with Accessory Photogate, Air Track System with one glider.

Purpose

In this experiment you’ll investigate the relationship between instantaneous and

average velocities, and see how a series of average velocities can be used to deduce
an instantaneous velocity.

Theory

An average velocity can be a useful value. If you know you will average 50 km per
hour on a 200 km trip, it’s easy to determine how long the trip will take. On the
other hand, the highway patrolman following you doesn’t care about your average
speed over 200 km. He wants to know how fast you’re driving at the instant his
radar strikes your car, so he can determine whether or not to give you a ticket. He
wants to know your instantaneous velocity.

∆𝑥
Average Velocity =
∆𝑡

𝑑𝑥
Instantaneous velocity =
𝑑𝑡

Procedure

1. Set up the air track as shown in Figure 2.1, elevating one end of the track with
a 1-2 cm support.
2. Choose a point x1near the center of the track. Measure the position of x1on the
air track metric scale, and record this value in Table 2.1. If you are using an air
track without a scale, use a meter stick to measure the distance of x1from the
edge of the upper end of the track.
3. Choose a starting point x0for the glider, near the upper end of the track. With a
pencil, carefully mark this spot on the air track so you can always start the
glider from the same point.
4. Place the Photogate Timer and Accessory Photogate at points equidistant from
x1, as shown in the figure. Record the distance between the photogates as D in
Table 2.1.

29
 Figure 2.1: Setting Up the Equipment

5. Set the slide switch on the Photogate Timer to PULSE.

6. Press the RESET button.
7. Hold the glider steady at x0, then release it. Record time t1, the time displayed
after the glider has passed through both photogates.
8. Repeat steps 6 and 7 at least four more times, recording the times as t2 through
t5. Now repeat steps 4 through 9, decreasing D by approximately 10
centimetres.
9. Continue decreasing D in 10 centimetre increments. At each value of D,

Measuring velocity in Gate mode

You can continue using smaller and smaller distances for D by changing your
timing technique. Tape a piece of cardboard on top of the glider, as shown in
Figure 2.2. Raise the photogate so it is the cardboard, not the body of the glider,
that interrupts the photogate. Use just one photogate and place it at x1. Set the
timer to GATE. Now D is the length of the cardboard. Measure D by passing the
glider through the photogate and noting the difference in glider position between
where the LED first comes on, and where it goes off again. Then start the glider
from x0as before, and make several measurements of the time it takes for the
glider to pass through the photogate. As before, record your times as t1through t5.
Continue decreasing the value of D, by using successively smaller pieces of
cardboard

30
 Figure 2.2: Measuring Velocity in Gate Mode

Data and Calculations

1. For each value of D, calculate the average of t1through t5. Record this value as
tavg.
2. Calculate vavg= D/tavg. This is the average velocity of the glider in going
between the two photogates.

Table 2.1 Data and Calculations

D t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 tave Vave

Table 2.2 Data and Calculations (Gate mode)

D t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 tave Vave

Questions

1. Which of the average velocities that you measured do you think gives the
closest approximation to the instantaneous velocity of the glider as it passed
through point x1?
2. Can you extrapolate your collected data to determine an even closer
approximation to the instantaneous velocity of the glider through point x1?
From your collected data, estimate the maximum error you expect in your
estimated value.
3. In trying to determine an instantaneous velocity, what factors (timer accuracy,
object being timed, type of motion) influence the accuracy of the
measurement? Discuss how each factor influences the result.
4. Can you think of one or more ways to measure instantaneous velocity directly,
or is an instantaneous velocity always a value that must be inferred from
average velocity measurements?

31
 Experiment 3: Newton’s Second Law
EQUIPMENT NEEDED:

Track with feet end and stop, cart, super pulley with clamp, and 500 g cart mass,
stopwatch, mass hanger and mass set, mass balance, and string (about 2 m).

Purpose:

In this experiment you will verify Newton’s Second Law (Σ F = ma).

Theory:

According to Newton’s Second Law, Σ F = ma, where Σ F is the net force acting on
the object of mass m, and a is the resulting acceleration of the object. For a cart of
mass m1 on a horizontal track with a string attached over a pulleyto hanging mass m2
as shown in figure 3.1, the net force F on the entire system (cart and hanging mass) is
the weight of hanging mass, F = m2g, (assuming that friction is negligible). According
to the Newton’s Second Law, this net force should be equal to ma, where m is the
total mass (m1 + m2) that is being accelerated. To determine the acceleration, you will
release the cart from the rest and measure the time (t) for it to travel a certain distance
(d). Since,

1 2
d= at
2

The acceleration can be calculated using the following equation:

2d
a
t2

Figure 3.1

32
Procedure:

1. Install the feet on the track and level it.

2. Install the end stop on the track near one end with the magnets facing away
from the track.
3. Measure the mass of the cart and record it in Table 3.1
4. Attach the pulley and end stop to track as shown in figure 3.1. Place the cart
on the track. Tie a string to the end of the cart farther from the pulley. Wrap
the string under the cart. Tie a mass hanger on the other end of the string. Run
the string under the end stop and over the pulley. Adjust the pulley so that the
string runs parallel to the track. The string must be just long enough so the cart
reaches the end stop before the mass hanger reaches the floor.
5. Pull the cart back until the mass hanger reaches the pulley. Record this initial
release position in Table 3.1. This will be the release position for all the trials.
Make a test run to determine how much mass is required on the mass hanger
so that the cart takes about 2 seconds to complete the run. Because of reaction
time, too short of a total time will cause too much error. However, if the cart
moves too slowly friction causes too much error. Record the hanging mass in
Table 3.1.
6. Place the cart against the end stop on the pulley end of the track and record the
final position of the cart in Table 3.1.
7. Pull the cart back to the initial release position. Release it and time how long it
takes to reach the end stop. Record the time in Table 3.1.
8. Measure the time at least 5 times with the same mass and record these
values in Table 3.1.

Table 3.1: Experimental data

Initial position = -------------------

Final position = --------------------
Distance traveled (d) = -----------------

Cart mass Hanging mass Time

Trial Trial Trial Trial Trial Average Acceleration

1 2 3 4 5 Time a

9. Add a 500 g mass to the cart and repeat the above procedure.

Data Analysis:

33
 1. Calculate the average times and record them in Table 3.1.
2. Record the distance travelled in Table 3.1.
3. Calculate the accelerations and record them in Table 3.2.
4. For each case, calculate[(m1 + m2) × a ]and record in Table 3.2.
5. For each case, calculate the net force and record in Table 3.2.
6. For each case, calculate the percent difference between Fnet and [(m1 + m2) ×
a] and record in Table 3.2.
7.

Table 3.2.

Cart mass Acceleration F=(m1 + m2) a Fnet = m2g % Difference

Questions:

1. Did the results of this experiment verify that F = ma?

2. Why must the mass in F = ma include the hanging mass and the mass of the
cart?

34
 Experiment 4: Acceleration down an Incline
EQUIPMENT NEEDED:

Track with end stop, cart, pivot clamp, base and support rod, and stopwatch.

Purpose:

In this experiment you will investigate how the acceleration of a cart rolling down an
inclined track depends on the angle of incline. From you data, you will calculate the
acceleration of an object in free fall.

Theory:

A cart of mass m on an incline will roll down the incline as it is pulled by gravity. The
force of gravity (w = mg) is straight down as shown in figure 4.1. The component of
that is parallel to the inclined surface is [mg×sinӨ].

Figure 4.1

To determine the acceleration, you will release the cart from rest and measure the
time (t) for it to travel a certain distance (d). Since

1 2
d= at
2
The acceleration can be calculated using:

2d
a
t2
A plot of a versus sin Ө will be a straight line with a slope equal to the acceleration of
an object in free fall, g.

35
Fy = 0 = N- mg cos

Fx = m a

mg sin = m a

g = a sin 

Procedure:

Figure 4.2

1. Set the track as shown in figure 4.2 with a pivot clamp and support stand.
2. Elevate the end of the track by about 10 cm.
3. Set the cart on the track against the end stop and record this final position in
Table 4.1.
4. Pull the cart up to the top of the track and record the initial position where the
cart will be released from rest.
5. Release the cart from rest and use the stopwatch to time how long it takes the
cart to reach the end stop. The person who releases the cart should also operate
the stopwatch. Repeat this measurement 10 times. Record all the values in
Table 4.1.
6. Lower the end of the track by 1 cm and repeat step 4. Use the same release
position.
7. Repeat step 4 for a total 7 angles, lowering the end of the track by 1 cm for
each new angle.

36
 Table 4.1
Initial position = -------------------
Final position = --------------------
Distance travelled (d) = -----------------

Height of Track

No. of
Trials
Time Trial 1

Trial 2
Trial 3

Trial 4

Trial 5

Average

Data Analysis:

1. Calculate the average time for each angle and record it in Table 4.1.
2. Calculate the distance travelled d, from the initial to the final position.
3. Use the distance travelled and average time to calculate the acceleration for
each angle and record it in Table 4.2.

Table 4.2

Δh Sin θ Acceleration

h1
h2
θ

Figure 4.3

37
 4. Measure the hypotenuse of the triangle formed by the track (see Figure 4.3)
and use this to calculate sinӨ for each angle.

5. Plot acceleration versus sinӨ. Draw the best fit straight line and calculate its
slope. Calculate the percent difference between the slope and g = 9.8 m\s2

Slope = ----------------------------------

% difference = ----------------------------

Questions:

Q.1 Does your reaction time in operating the stopwatch cause a greater
percentage error at higher or lower track angles?
Q.2 How will doubling the mass of the cart affect the results? Try it.

38
 Experiment 5: Conservation of Momentum

EQUIPMENT NEEDED:

Air track system with two gliders, Two Photogate Timers.

Purpose

To demonstrate the principle of momentum conservation

Theory

When objects collide, whether locomotives, shopping carts, or your foot and the
sidewalk, the results can be complicated. Yet even in the most chaotic of
collisions, as long as there are no external forces acting on the colliding objects,
one principle always holds and provides an excellent tool for understanding the
dynamics of the collision. That principle is called the conservation of
momentum. For a two-object collision, momentum conservation is easily stated
mathematically by the equation:

Pi = m1v1i + m2v2i = m1v1f + m2v2f = Pf ;

Procedure

1. Set up the air track and photogates as shown in Figure 5.1, using bumpers on
the gliders to provide an elastic collision. Carefully level the track.
2. Measure m1 and m2, the masses of the two gliders to be used in the collision.
Record your results in Table 5.1.
3. Measure and record L1 and L2, the length of the gliders. (e.g., push glider1
through photogate1 and measure the distance it travels from where the LED
comes on to where it goes off again.)
4. Set both Photogate Timers to GATE mode, and press the RESET buttons.

Figure 5.1: Equipment Setup

5. Place glider 2 at rest between the photogates. Give glider 1 a push toward it.
Record four time measurements in Table 5.1 as follows:
t1i = the time that glider 1 blocks photogate1 before the collision.
t2i = the time that glider 2 blocks photogate 2 before the collision.
(In this case, there is no t2i since glider 2 begins at rest.)
t1f = the time that glider 1 blocks photogate 1 after the collision.

39
 t2f = the time that glider 2 blocks photogate 2 after the collision.

➤IMPORTANT: The collision must occur after glider1 has passed completely through photogate1 and, after
the collision, the gliders must be fully separated before either glider interrupts a photogate.

➤NOTE: Use the memory function to store the initial times while the final times are being measured.
Immediately after the final times are recorded, the gliders must be stopped to prevent them from triggering the
photogate again due to rebounds.

6. Repeat the experiment several times, varying the mass of one or both gliders
and varying the initial velocity of glider1.
7. Try collisions in which the initial velocity of glider2 is not zero. You may
need to practice a bit to coordinate the gliders so the collision takes place
completely between the photogates.

Data and Calculations

1. For each time that you measured, calculate the corresponding glider velocity.
(e.g., v1i = ±L1/t1i, where the velocity is positive when the glider moves to the
right and negative when it moves to the left.
2. Use your measured values to calculate pi and pf, the combined momentum of
the gliders before and after the collision. Record your results in the table.

Table 5.1 Data and Calculations

m1 m2 t1i t2i t1f t2f V1i V2i V1f V2f pi Pf

(m1V1i+m2V2i) (m1V1f+m2V2f)

40
Questions:

1. Was momentum conserved in each of your collisions? If not, try to explain

any discrepancies.
2. If a glider collides with the end of the air track and rebounds, it will have
nearly the same momentum it had before it collided, but in the opposite
direction. Is momentum conserved in such a collision? Explain.
3. Suppose the air track was tilted during the experiment. Would momentum be
conserved in the collision? Why or why not?

41
 Experiment 6: Conservation of Kinetic Energy

EQUIPMENT NEEDED:

Two Photogate Timers, Air Track System with two gliders.

Purpose

In this experiment you’ll examine the kinetic energy before and after a collision
to determine if kinetic energy is conserved in air track collisions.

Theory

Momentum is always conserved in collisions that are isolated from external

forces. Energy is also always conserved, but energy conservation is much harder
to demonstrate since the energy can change forms: energy of motion (kinetic
energy) may be changed into heat energy, gravitational potential energy, or even
chemical potential energy. In the air track glider collisions you’ll be
investigating, the total energy before the collision is simply the kinetic energy of
the gliders:

Ek=(1/2)mV12+(1/2)mV22
Eki = Ekf
Procedure

1. Set up the air track and photogates as shown in Figure 6.1, using bumpers on
the gliders to provide an elastic collision. Carefully level the track.

Figure 6.1

2. Measurem1 andm2, the masses of the two gliders to be used in

the collision. Record your results in Table6.1.

42
 3. Measure and record L1 and L2, the length of the gliders.(e.g. Push glider 1
through photogate 1 and measure the distance it travels from where the LED
comes onto where it goes off again.)
4. Set both Photogate Timers to GATE mode, and press the RESET buttons.

5. Place glider 2 at rest between the photogates. Give glider 1 a push toward it.
Record four time measurements in Table 6.1 as follows:
t1i = the time that glider 1 blocks photogate 1 before the collision.
t2i = the time that glider 2 blocks photogate 2 before the collision.
(In this case, there is no t2i since glider 2 begins at rest.)
t1f = the time that glider 1 blocks photogate 1 after the collision
t2f = the time that glider 2 blocks photogate 2 after the collision.
6. Repeat the experiment several times, varying the mass of one or both gliders and
varying the initial velocity of glider 1.
7. Try collisions in which the initial velocity of glider is not zero. You may need to
practice abit to coordinate the gliders so the collision takes place completely
between the photogates.

➤IMPORTANT: The collision must occur after glider has passed completely through photogate and, after the
collision, the gliders must be fully separated before either glider interrupts photogate..

➤NOTE:Use the memory function to store the initial times while the final times are being measured. Immediately
after the final times are recorded, the gliders must be stopped to prevent them from triggering the photogate again
due to rebounds.

Data and Calculations

1. For each time that you measured, calculate the corresponding glider velocity
(e.g., v1, = L1/t1i).
2. Use your measured values to calculate Eki and Ekf, the combined kinetic
energy of the gliders before and after the collision. Record your results in the
table.

43
 Table 6.1 Data and Calculations

m1 m2 t1i t2i t1f t2f V1i V2i V1f V2f Eki Ekf

Questions

1. Was kinetic energy conserved in each of your collisions?

2. If there were one or more collisions in which kinetic energy was not
conserved, where did it go?

44
 Part 3
Physics II:
Laboratory Experiments
Electricity and Magnetism

45
 Experiment 1: Electronic Apparatus and Circuits Board

EQUIPMENT NEEDED:
AC\DC electronics lab board, D-cell battery, Ammeter, Voltmeter, wire leads

Purpose:
1. To become familiar with the circuits experimental board.
2. To become familiar with the Ammeter and Voltmeter.
3. To learn how to construct a complete electric circuit.
4. To learn how to represent electrical circuits with circuit diagrams.
5. To learn how to find the exact resistor value by using the resistor chart.

BACKGROUND:
1. Key elements of electrical circuits
Many of the key elements of electrical circuits have been to symbol form. Each
symbol represents an element of the device’s operation, and may have some historical
significance. In this lab, we will use symbols frequently, and it is necessary you learn
several of those symbols. Some of them are shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1.1 Key elements of electrical circuits

2. circuits experimental board

The circuits’ experimental board has been designed to conduct a wide variety of
experiment easily and quickly. A labeled symbolic diagram of the experiment board
appears in figure 2.

46
 Figure 2. circuits experimental board

3. Resistor value and resistor chart

The resistor chart can be used to identify the resistor value which is required for some of the individual
experiments. Figure 3 shows the resistor chart with the fourth band values.

Figure 1.2

Figure 1.3 Resistor chart

Table 1.1: Identify the value of a resistor using a color code in the following table:

Resistor Color Measured Actual %

value (Ω) value Error

47
 (Ω)
Brown, black, red, with a gold tolerance band
Orange, orange, orange, with a silver tolerance band
Yellow, violet, brown, with no tolerance band
Yellow, violet, yellow, with a gold tolerance band

4. Ammeter

Current is one of the most important quantities that we would like to measure in an
electric circuit. A devise that measures current is called an ammeter. The current to
be measured must pass directly through the ammeter. This means that the ammeter is
connected in series in the circuit. When using an ammeter to measure current you
must be sure to connect it in the correct manner. The focus of this activity is to learn
how to appropriately place an ammeter in a circuit and to learn how to read the
instrument to obtain a value for current. There are two types of ammeters, analog and
digital (see figures 4 and 5).

4.1 Analog Ammeter

Figure 1.4 Analog ammeter

How to read an analog ammeter:

As in any measurement, you should always read the smallest division on your scale,
and then estimate the next digit.

For Example:

48
Current measurement: 13.4 A

NOTE: Everyone will not likely obtain exactly the same measurement. Therefore, as
long as your estimate for the last digit is reasonable it will be considered to be correct.

Current measurement: Current measurement:

4.1 digital Ammeter

How to read a digital ammeter:

Unlike the analog ammeter, once you have a measurement on your digital ammeter, it
is very simple to read. All you need to do is read the number on the display screen
(see figure 5) and use the correct units, depending on the dial setting you have chosen.

49
 Figure 5 digital ammeter

5. Voltmeter

The potential difference, or change in electric potential, between two points is

measured with a voltmeter. Current flows through a resistor because of a potential
difference applied by a battery or power supply. Potential difference is commonly
measured in units of volts (V) or millivolts (mV = 10-3 V). Common usage refers to a
potential difference relative to ground (0.0 V) as simply the voltage, though it is
prudent to call it by its correct name to emphasize the way it is measured. The
potential difference across a circuit element is measured by placing the two leads of a
voltmeter on the two sides of the element. There are two types of voltmeter:

50
5.1 Analog voltmeter

This type of voltmeter uses a needle which moves along a scale depending on how
much voltage passes through the circuit. There is both an advantage and disadvantage
in the way an analog voltmeter displays measured voltage. Reading the display is not
as easy as that in a digital voltmeter and could take some getting used to, but it allows
you to see even low frequency fluctuations and transients. Another advantage of an
analog voltmeter is that it does not require batteries to operate. However, the needle’s
mechanism is very delicate and the voltmeter’s accuracy is compromised if it is
dropped.

Figure 1.6 analog voltmeter

5.2 Digital voltmeter

Aside from being very easy to use, this type of voltmeter is very accurate and gives a
more precise reading than an analog voltmeter. Because it uses batteries, many
manufacturers have added several features to some of their digital voltmeters. These
include automatic power-off, back-lit display, analog bar graph, measurement hold
feature, provision for connection to PC, automatic AC/DC voltage detection and
measurement switching, among others.

51
Figure 6.2 Digital voltmeter

52
 Experiment 2: Ohm’s Law

EQUIPMENT NEEDED:

AC\DC Electronics Lab Board, D-cell battery.

PURPOSE:
The purpose of this lab will be to investigate the three variables involved in a
mathematical relationship know as Ohm’s Law.

THEORY:
Ohm's Law deals with the relationship between voltage and current in an ideal
conductor. This relationship states that: The potential difference (voltage) across an
ideal conductor is proportional to the current through it. The constant of
proportionality is called the "resistance", R. Ohm's Law is given by:

V=IR

where V is the potential difference between two points which include a resistance R
and I is the current flowing through the resistance

Procedure:
1. Choose one of the resistors that you have been given. Using the resistors
chart (see Exp # 1), decode the resistance value and record that value in the
first column of Table 2.1
2. Measuring current: construct the circuit shown in figure 2.1 a by pressing
the leads of the resistor into two of the springs in the experimental section
on the circuits experimental Board.
3. Set the multimeter to 200 mA range, noting any special connections needed
for measuring current. Connect the circuit and read the current that is
flowing through the resistor. Record this value in the second column of Table
2.1.
4. Remove the resistor and choose another. Record its resistance valve in Table
2.1 then measure and cord the current as in steps 2 and 3. Continue this
process until you have completed all of the resistors you have been given. As

53
 you have more than one resistor with the same value, keep them in order as
you will use them again in the next steps.

Figure 2.1 a

5. Measuring Voltage: Disconnect the multimeter and connect a wire from the
positive lead of the battery directly to the first resistor you used as shown in
figure 2. 2. b. Change the multimeter to 2 VDC scale and connect the leads as
shown in the figure 2.2.b. Measure the voltage across the resistor and record
it in Table 2.1.

Figure 2.2.b
6. Remove the resistor and choose the next one you used. Record its voltage in
Table 2.1 as in step 5. Continue this process until you have complete d all of
the resistors.

54
 Table 2.1

Data Analysis:

1. Construct a graph of current (vertical axis) vs. resistance.

2. For each of your sets of data, calculate the ratio of Voltage/Resistance.
Compare the values you calculate with the measured values of the current.
Questions:

1. From your graph, what is the mathematical relationship between Current and
Resistance?
2. Ohm’s law says that current is given by the ratio of Voltage/Resistance. Does
your data concur with this?
3. What were possible sources of experimental error in this lab? Would you

55
 expect each to make your results larger or to make them smaller?
Experiment 3: Resistances in Circuits

EQUIPMENT NEEDED:

AC\DC Electronics Lab Board, Multimeter, and Resistors.

PURPOSE:
The purpose of this lab is to begin experimenting with the variables that contribute to
the operation of an electric circuit and to learn how to connect resistors by parallel
and series methods.

THEORY:
Components, including resistors in a circuit may be connected together in two ways as
shown in figure 3.1:

1. SERIES, so that the same current flows through all the components but a
different potential difference (voltage) can exist across each one.

2. PARALLEL, so that the same potential difference (voltage) exists across all the
components but each component may carry a different current.

Figure 3.1
For resistors in series: The total resistance of two or more resistors connected in series
is given by simply adding the individual values of the resistors to find the total sum:

56
For resistors in parallel: To calculate the total resistance of a circuit that involves
parallel resistors the following formula can be used:

Procedure:

1. Choose three resistors of the same value. Enter those sets of colors in Table
3.1 below.

Table 3.1

2. Determine the coded value of your resistors. Enter the value in the column
labeled ”Coded Resistance in Table 3.1. Enter the tolerance value as indicated
by the color of the fourth band under Tolerance”.
3. Use the multimeter to measure the resistance of each of your three resistors.
Enter these values in Table 3.1.
4. Determine the percentage error of each resistance value and enter it in the
appropriate column.
Experimental Error = [(‫׀‬Measured – Coded‫)׀‬/ Coded]×100%

5. Now connect the three resistors into the SERIES CIRCUIT, figure 3.2, using the
spring clips on the circuits experiment Board to hold the leads of the resistors
together without bending them. Measure the resistances of the
combinations as indicated on the diagram by connecting the leads of the
Multimeter between the points at the ends of the arrows.

57
 Figure 3.2

6. Construct a PARALLEL CIRCUIT, figure 3.3, first using combinations of two the
resistors, and then using all three. Measure and record your values for these
circuits.

Figure 3.3

7. Connect the COMBINATION CIRCUIT, figure 3.4, and measure the various
combinations of resistance.

58
 Figure 3.4

Questions:
Q.1 How does the % error compare to the coded tolerance for your resistors?

Q.2 What is the apparent rule for combining equal resistance in series
circuits? In parallel circuits? Cite evidence from your data to support your
conclusions.

Q.3 What is the apparent rule for combining unequal resistance in series
circuits? In parallel circuits? Cite evidence from your data to support your
conclusions.

Q.4 What is the apparent rule for total resistance when resistors are added
up in series circuits? In parallel circuits? Cite evidence from your data to
support your conclusions.

59
 Experiment 4: Voltages in Circuits

EQUIPMENT NEEDED:
AC/DC Electronics Lab Board: Wire Leads, Resistors, D-cell Battery, Multimeter

PURPOSE:

The purpose of this lab will be to continue experimenting with the variables that
contribute to the operation of an electrical circuit. You should have completed
Experiment 4 before working on this lab.

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the three equal resistors that you used in Experiment 3 into the series
circuit shown below (figure 4.1), using the springs to hold the leads of the
resistors together without bending them. Connect two wires to the D-cell,
carefully noting which wire is connected to the negative and which is
connected to the positive.
2. Now use the voltage function on the Multimeter to measure the voltages
across the individual resistors and then across the combinations of resistors.
Be careful to observe the polarity of the leads (red is +, black is -).

Series

Figure 4.1

Record your readings below

60
3. Now connect the parallel circuit below (figure 4.2), using all three resistors.
Measure the voltage across each of the resistors and the combination, taking
care with the polarity as before.

NOTE: Keep all three resistors connected throughout the time you are making your
measurements. Write down your values as indicated below

Parallel

Figure 4.2

4. Now connect the circuit below (figure 4.3) and measure the voltages. You can
use the resistance readings you took in Experiment 4 for this step.

Combination

61
 Figure 4.3

Questions
Q.1 On the basis of the data you recorded on the table with Figure 4.1, what
is the pattern for how voltage gets distributed in a series circuit with equal
resistances?

Q.2 According to the data you recorded with Figure 4.4, what is the pattern
for how voltage gets distributed in a series circuit with unequal resistances?

Q.3 Is there any relationship between the size of the resistance and the size
of the resulting voltage?

Q. 4 Utilizing the data from Figure 4.2, what is the pattern for how voltage
distributes itself in a parallel circuit for equal resistances?
Q.5 Based on the data from Figure 4.5, what is the pattern for how voltage
distributes itself in a parallel circuit for unequal resistances?

Q.6 Is there any relationship between the size of the resistance and the size
of the resulting voltage? Do the voltages in your combination circuits (see
Figures 4.3 and 4.6) follow the same rules as they did in your circuits which
Experiment
were purely series 5: state
or parallel? If not, Currents
the rules in
youCircuits
see in operation.

EQUIPMENT NEEDED:
AC/DC Electronics Lab Board: Wire Leads, Resistors, D-cell Battery, Multimeter

PURPOSE:

62
The purpose of this lab will be to continue experimenting with the variables that
contribute to the operation of electrical circuits.

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the same three resistors that you used in Experiments 3 and 4 into the
series circuit shown below (figure 5.1), using the springs to hold the leads of
the resistors together without bending them. Connect two wires to the D-cell,
and carefully note which lead is negative and which is positive.

2. Now change the leads in your DMM so that they can be used to measure
current. You should be using the scale which goes to a maximum of 200 mA.
Be careful to observe the polarity of the leads (red is +, black is -). In order to
measure current, the circuit must be interrupted, and the current allowed to
flow through the meter. Disconnect the lead wire from the positive terminal of
the battery and connect it to the red (+) lead of the meter. Connect the black (-)
lead to R1, where the wire originally was connected. Record your reading in
the table as Io. See figure 5.2.
3. Now move the DMM to the positions indicated in figure 5.3, each time
interrupting the circuit, and carefully measuring the current in each one.
Complete the table on the top of the back page.

Series

Figure 5.1

Figure 5.2

NOTE: You will be carrying values from Experiments 3 and 4 into the table on the
back.

63
 Figure 5.3

4. Connect the parallel circuit below (figure 5.4) , using all three resistors.
Review the instructions for connecting the DMM as an ammeter in step 2.
Connect it first between the positive terminal of the battery and the parallel
circuit junction to measure Io. Then interrupt the various branches of the
parallel circuit and measure the individual branch currents. Record your
measurements in the table below.

Parallel

64
 Figure 5.4

Questions:

Q.1 On the basis of your first set of data, what is the pattern for how current
behaves in a series circuit? At this point you should be able to summarize the
behavior of all three quantities - resistance, voltage and current - in series
circuits.

Q.2 On the basis of your second set of data, are there any patterns to the
way that currents behave in a parallel circuit? At this time you should be able
to write the general characteristics of currents, voltages and resistances in
parallel circuits.

65
 Experiment 6: Kirchhoff’s Rules

EQUIPMENT NEEDED:
AC/DC Electronics Lab Board: Resistors, Wire Leads, (2) D-cell Batteries, Digital
Multimeter (DMM)

PURPOSE:
The purpose of this lab will be to experimentally demonstrate Kirchhoff’s Rules for
electrical circuits.

THOREY

A simple circuit is one that can be reduced to an equivalent circuit containing a single
resistance and a single voltage source. Many circuits are not simple and require the
use of Kirchhoff’s Laws to determine voltage, current, or resistance values.
Kirchhoff’s Laws for current and voltage are given by equations 1 and 2.

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit shown in Figure 6.1 a using any of the resistors you have
except the 10 W one. Use Figure 6.1 b as a reference along with 6.1 a as you
record your data. Record the resistance values in the table below. With no
current flowing (the battery disconnected), measure the total resistance of the
circuit.
2. With the circuit connected to the battery and the current flowing, measure the
voltage across each of the resistors and record the values in the table below
(Table 6.1). On the circuit diagram in Figure 6.1 b, indicate which side of each
of the resistors is positive relative to the other end by placing a “+” at that end
3. Now measure the current through each of the resistors. Interrupt the circuit
and place the DMM in series to obtain your reading. Make sure you record
each of the individual currents, as well as the current flow into or out of the
main part of the circuit, IT.

66
 Figure 6.1 a

Figure 6.1 b

Table 6.1
Resistance, Ω Voltage, volts Current, mA
R1 V1 I1
R2 V2 I2
R3 V3 I3

Analysis
1. Determine the net current flow into or out of each of the four “nodes” in the
circuit.

67
 2. Determine the net voltage drop around at least three (3) of the six or so closed
loops. Remember, if the potential goes up, treat the voltage drop as positive
(+), while if the potential goes down, treat it as negative (-).

Questions

Q.1 Use your experimental results to analyze the circuit you built in terms of
Kirchhoff’s Rules. Be specific and state the evidence for your conclusions.

68
 Experiment 7: Capacitors in Circuits

EQUIPMENT NEEDED:
AC/DC Electronics Lab Board: Capacitors, Resistors, Wire Leads, D-cell Battery
Stopwatch or timer with 0.1 sec resolution, Vacuum Tube Voltmeter (VTVM) or
Electrometer (ES-9054B) or Digital Multimeter (DMM) that has an input impedance
of 10 Mor greater.

Purpose
The purpose of this lab will be to determine how capacitors behave in R-C circuits.
The manner in which capacitors combine will also be studied.

INTRODUCTION

Capacitors are devices that can store electric charge and energy. Capacitors have
several uses, such as filters in DC power supplies and as energy storage banks for
pulsed lasers. Capacitors pass AC current, but not DC current, so they are used to
block the DC component of a signal so that the AC component can be
measured. Plasma physics makes use of the energy storing ability of capacitors. In
plasma physics short pulses of energy at extremely high voltages and currents are
frequently needed. A capacitor can be slowly charged to the necessary voltage and
then discharged quickly to provide the energy needed. It is even possible to charge
several capacitors to a certain voltage and then discharge them in such a way as to get
more voltage (but not more energy) out of the system than was put in.This experiment
features an RC circuit, which is one of the simplest circuits that uses a capacitor. You
will study this circuit and ways to change its effective capacitance by combining
capacitors in series and parallel arrangements.

Theory
A capacitor consists of two conductors separated by a small distance. When the
conductors are connected to a charging device (for example, a battery), charge is
transferred from one conductor to the other until the difference in potential between
the conductors due to their equal but opposite charge becomes equal to the potential
difference between the terminals of the charging device. The amount of charge stored
on either conductor is directly proportional to the voltage, and the constant of
proportionality is known as the capacitance. This is written algebraically as
(1)

Q = CΔV.
The charge C is measured in units of coulomb (C), the voltage ΔV in volts (V), and
the capacitance C in units of farads (F). Capacitors are physical
devices; capacitance is a property of devices.
Charging and Discharging

69
In a simple RC circuit, a resistor and a capacitor are connected in series with a battery
and a switch. See Fig. 1.

Figure 1: A simple RC circuit

When the switch is in position 1 as shown in Fig. 1(a), charge on the conductors
builds to a maximum value after some time. When the switch is thrown to position 2
as in Fig. 1(b), the battery is no longer part of the circuit and, therefore, the charge on
the capacitor cannot be replenished. As a result the capacitor discharges through the
resistor. If we wish to examine the charging and discharging of the capacitor, we are
interested in what happens immediately after the switch is moved to position 1 or
position 2, not the later behavior of the circuit in its steady state. For the circuit shown
in Fig. 1(a), Kirchhoff's loop equation can be written as

(2)

The solution to equation 2 is

(3)

Where Qf represents the final charge on the capacitor that accumulates after an
infinite length of time, R is the circuit resistance, and C is the capacitance of the
capacitor. From this expression you can see that charge builds up exponentially
during the charging process. See Fig. 2(a).
When the switch is moved to position 2, for the circuit shown in Fig. 1(b),
Kirchhoff's loop equation is now given by

(4)
The solution to equation 4 is

(5)
where Q0 represents the initial charge on the capacitor at the beginning of the
discharge, i.e., at t = 0. You can see from this expression that the charge decays
exponentially when the capacitor discharges, and that it takes an infinite amount of
time to fully discharge. See Fig. 2(b).

70
 Figure 2: Change versus time graphs

Time Constant τ
The product RC (having units of time) has a special significance; it is called the time
constant of the circuit. The time constant is the amount of time required for the
charge on a charging capacitor to rise to 63% of its final value. In other words,
when t = RC,

(6)
and

(7)

Another way to describe the time constant is to say that it is the number of seconds
required for the charge on a discharging capacitor to fall to 36.8% (e−1 = 0.368) of
its initial value.

We can use the definition (I = dQ/dt) of current through the resistor and Eq.
(3) and Eq. (5) to get an expression for the current during the charging and
discharging processes.

71
Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit shown in figure 7.1, using a 100 k resistor and a 2200 µF
capacitor. Connect the circuit as shown in figure 7.1. Connect the VTVM so
the black “ground” lead is on the side of the capacitor that connects to the
negative terminal of the battery and set it so that it reads to a maximum of 3 V
DC.

Figure 3

2. Start with no voltage on the capacitor and the switch off. If there is remaining
voltage on the capacitor, use a piece of wire to “short” the two leads together,
draining any remaining charge. (Touch the ends of the wire to points B and C
as shown in figure 3 to discharge the capacitor.)
3. Now close the switch by pushing and holding the button down. Observe the
voltage readings on the VTVM, the voltage across the capacitor. How would
you describe the manner in which the voltage changes?
4. If you now open the switch by releasing the button, the capacitor should
remain at its present voltage with a very slow drop over time. This indicates

72
 that the charge you placed on the capacitor has no way to move back to
neutralize the excess charges on the two plates.
5. Connect a wire between points A and C in the circuit, allowing the charge to
drain back through the resistor. Observe the voltage readings on the VTVM as
the charge flows back. How would you describe the manner in which the
voltage falls? (It would be reasonable to sketch a graph showing the manner in
which the voltage rose over time as well as the manner in which it fell over
time.)
6. Repeat steps 3-5 until you have a good feeling for the process of charging and
discharging of a capacitor through a resistance.
7. Now repeat steps 3-5, this time recording the time taken to move from 0.0
volts to 2 volts while charging, tC, and the time taken to move from 3 volts to
0.55 volts while discharging, tD. Record your times along with the voltage
across capacitor

Resistance = KΩ Capacitance C = F
Voltage V tc
0

Voltage V VV0 tD
V0 1

73
8. Replace the 100 μF capacitor with a 1000 μF capacitor. Repeat step 7,
recording the charging and discharging times in Table 7.1. If a third value is
available, include it in the data table, too.´
9. Return to the original 2200 μF capacitor, but put a 220 k resistor in the
circuit. Repeat step 7, recording your data in Table 7.1. If a third resistor is
provided, use it in the circuit, recording the data.
10. Plot a graph between discharging time and vvo
11. Find the time constant from graph.

Figure 4 VV0 versus discharging time

74
Questions:
1. What is the effect on charging and discharging times if the capacitance is
increased? What mathematical relationship exists between your times and the
capacitance?
2. What is the effect on charging and discharging times if the resistance of the
circuit is increased? What mathematical relationship exists between your times
and the resistance?

75