PHYS1412

WAVE, OPTICS AND THERMODYNAMICS

Laboratory Manual

Department of Physics
The University of the West Indies, Mona Campus
Revised 2023
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GENERAL INFORMATION

Purpose of Physics Labs

Physics labs have several aims, which include but are not limited to:

1. Training you to perform an experiment and to record and analyse the results in an orderly
scientific manner.
2. Teaching you to use scientific instruments.
3. Giving you further insight into the physical laws governing the theoretical concepts you are
learning in class.

General Lab Rules

Please refer to the ‘PHYS Lab Handout’ document for further important guidelines.

1. You will be penalised and possibly required to leave the lab immediately for the following:
a. Eating or drinking in the lab
b. Engaging in horseplay
c. Irresponsible handling of equipment
d. Disrespecting staff or other students
2. Students are required to adhere to the dress code. Any student dressed improperly will not
be allowed into the lab. Your back, midsection and shoulders should be covered, and your
top should not be low cut. Your pants/skirts should cover your knees while you are seated
and should not be too low cut so as to expose your underwear or skin while seated. You are
required to wear closed shoes (front, back and both sides). Socks and slippers cannot
substitute for closed shoes. Additionally, equipment used for specific labs may require that
you take special precautions as it relates to your dress.
3. No bags are to be kept on the tables with experiments/lab equipment. There is a specified
table for your bags and other personal belongings to be stored during the lab.
4. Cell phones, laptops and tablets are allowed in the lab for research purposes only. These
devices are to be kept on silent/vibrate and should not become a source of distraction to you
or other students.
5. Visitors will be granted minimal access to the lab. Visitors must request permission from the
lab demonstrator before going into the lab. No unauthorised persons will be allowed to stay
in the lab.
6. The cupboards, drawers or any other storage areas in the lab are off-limits to students.
Students are not to disturb any lab setups – other than the experiment he/she is working on.
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7. The equipment you are using is your responsibility. You will be liable for any damage to
equipment due to neglect, improper use or failure to adhere to the instructions given.
8. Please keep your lab areas clean and remove any garbage left in that lab space at the end of
the lab session.
9. Any issues that may arise during the lab should be reported to the laboratory technician or
the senior scientific officer or other laboratory staff.
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WRITING A PHYSICS LABORATORY REPORT

The format required in the report is fairly standard and is briefly discussed here.

1. EXPERIMENT NUMBER, TITLE, DATE AND LAB PARTNER

These must be written at the beginning of the report.

2. PURPOSE

A brief statement of the purpose of the experiment is required even if this is already given
on the instruction sheet for the experiment.

3. THEORY

This is given on the instruction sheet for the experiment and need not be reproduced.

4. METHOD

This is also given on the instruction sheet for the experiment and need not be reproduced.

5. RESULTS

Readings are to be tabulated, where necessary. Titles for tables should be written above the
table. Table lines should be done in pencil or pen and the content of the table written in pen.
Graphs should be properly titled, labelled and drawn using a suitable scale. Graphs are to be
done in pencil and the points should be plotted using either an ‘×’ or ‘ꙩ’. Diagrams are to be
drawn to scale where instructed and must be properly labelled.

6. CALCULATIONS AND ESTIMATION OF ACCURACY

Calculations usually include determination of the slope of a graph and determination of

unknown values using the slope. Units are to be included in all answers where necessary.
An estimation of the accuracy of numerical results must be done. Examples of this are given
in the ‘PHYS Lab Handout’ document.

7. DISCUSSION AND ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS

The discussion should include results and conclusions related to the purpose of the
experiment and should indicate whether or not the purpose of the experiment has been
achieved. It is, therefore, a good idea to reread the purpose before starting to write your
discussion. In your discussion you should include descriptions of the graph(s) obtained and
say what conclusion(s) can be drawn from them and how they relate to the theory given.
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Similarly, you should analyse your overall results and draw some conclusions including a
comparison of the theoretical and calculated values. Discuss the sources and magnitude of
error and how it affects the results. Important precautions that may yield better results in
performing the experiment should also be noted. Appraisal of the experiment should be
constructive.

Please refer to the ‘Mock Lab – PHYS14’ document for an example of a laboratory report written
using this format.
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SOME EXCERPTS FROM LABORATORY HANDOUT DOCUMENT

ABSOLUTE ERROR

The absolute error in a quantity is usually expressed in the same unit as the quantity itself.
Example: Length of table, L = 1.65 ± 0.05 m. In this case the absolute error ΔL = ±0.05 m.

FRACTIONAL ERROR AND PERCENTAGE ERROR

𝐴𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟
𝐹𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = 𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑

𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = 𝐹𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 × 100%

SIMPLE RULES FOR ESTIMATING ACCURACY IN A CALCULATED RESULT

1. When quantities are ADDED or SUBTRACTED, their ABSOLUTE ERRORS ADD.

2. When quantities are MULTIPLIED or DIVIDED, their FRACTIONAL ERRORS ADD.

LINE OF BEST FIT

A line of best fit is a line drawn in such a way that the sum of all distances from the line to the
points are the same on both sides of the line and also as small as possible.

Note that the best fit line does not necessarily have to touch or pass through any of the data
points.

FINDING THE ERROR IN THE SLOPE AND INTERCEPT OF A GRAPH

a. If all (or nearly all) of the points fall on the best fit line, then the error in the slope and
intercepts can be obtained by:

∆𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 ∆𝑌 ∆𝑋
= ±( + )
𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑌 𝑋
∆𝑌 ∆𝑋
∆(𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡) = ± 2
and ∆(𝑥 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡) = ± 2
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ΔY and ΔX are taken as the smallest divisions (tiniest boxes) on the y and x axes respectively. Y
and X are shown in Figure 1 below.

Figure 1

Note: the slope triangle must fall outside of all the points on the line of best fit.

b. If the points do not all fall on the best fit line and are instead scattered on either side of it,
then the error in the slope and intercepts can be obtained by using the ‘box’ method:

𝑚𝑎𝑥. 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒−𝑚𝑖𝑛. 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒

∆(𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒) = ± 2√𝑛

𝑚𝑎𝑥. 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡−𝑚𝑖𝑛. 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡

∆(𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡) = ± where n = number of points
2 √𝑛

Refer to ‘PHYS Lab Handout’ document for further explanation.

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List of Experiments

EXP. 1 INTRODUCTORY EXPERIMENT ………………………………………………….…………………… 9

EXP. 2 MECHANICAL RESONANCE ……………………………………………………………………………. 13

EXP. 3 PROPERTIES OF SINE WAVES ………………………………………………………………………. 16

EXP. 4 NEWTON’S RINGS …………………………………………………………………………………………. 22

EXP. 5 CLEMENT AND DESORMES EXPERIMENT ………………………………………………………. 25

EXP. 6 CONSTANT VOLUME GAS THERMOMETER ………………………………………………….. 28

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EXP. 1 INTRODUCTORY EXPERIMENT – INTERFERENCE AND DIFFRACTION

USING A LASER

Purpose
1. To investigate the fringe patterns produced by single slit diffraction.
2. To learn the techniques of writing up a UWI Physics lab.

Apparatus
PASCO scientific diode laser, single slit set and optics bench, metre rule, and paper.

Introduction
The instructor will briefly explain the Lab Guidelines and the Safety Regulations, as well as what
is expected of the students in regards to the Physics lab sessions.

Theory
Interference and Diffraction are discussed in Chapter 35 & 36 Halliday, Resnick & Walker.

In this experiment we study the interference and diffraction pattern produced when collimated,
monochromatic light (laser light) passing through a single aperture is observed on a viewing
screen.

When the apertures/slits are sufficiently small, the light intensity on the viewing screen exhibits
variations (successive maxima and minima) which depend upon the wavelength of the light and
the size and number of the apertures. The existence of the patterns is confirmation of the wave
nature of light.

Single Slit Diffraction

A single slit diffraction pattern results when the light passes through an aperture in an otherwise
opaque surface. The light intensity on the viewing screen exhibits a bright central peak
surrounded by subsidiary peaks. The single slit diffraction pattern is shown in Figure 1.
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Intensity

𝜆 2𝜆 sin 𝜃
𝑎 𝑎

Figure 1

When the path difference between light from one edge of the slit and light from the centre of the
slit is a multiple of half of the wavelength of the light, the waves destructively interfere and there
is a minimum in the pattern. Therefore, for a point of minimum intensity we can write:

𝑎 sin 𝜃𝑚 = 𝑚𝜆 (1)

where a: the single slit width

m: the order of the minima = 1, 2, 3, ...

θm: the angular position of the mth minima

λ: the wavelength of the light

From the geometry of the experimental arrangement (Figure 2) we can also show that:
𝑦𝑚
tan 𝜃𝑚 = ⁄𝐿 (2)

where ym: the distance from the centre of the pattern to the mth minima

L: the slit to screen distance

From theory we can apply small angle approximation where tan 𝜃𝑚 ≈ sin 𝜃𝑚 , therefore
𝑦𝑚
sin 𝜃𝑚 = ⁄𝐿 (3)
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Viewing Screen

Slit

Laser θ
θ

Figure 2

Procedure
Do not stare into the laser beam.

The slit accessory wheel provided contains a number of single slits. For this section use only the
single slit labelled a=: 0.16 (mm) on the wheel.

1. Switch on the laser and direct the beam through the single slit.
2. Observe the diffraction pattern on a sheet of paper placed a distance, L, of 3 metres from the
slit. The diffraction pattern should have an intensity distribution as shown in Figure 1.
3. The values for ym for m = 1 to 6 have been recorded and are shown in Table 1. These readings
were taken using a ruler.
Note that in determining ym it is more accurate to measure the distance between the
corresponding fringes on the right and left of the central bright pattern and halving the
distance.
4. From the results plot a graph of sinθm versus m.
5. Find the slope of the graph and hence determine a value for the slit width a.
6. Calculate the error in the slope and the error in the slit width a. Refer to ‘PHYS Lab Handout’
document for guidance with these calculations.
7. Discuss your results; including a comparison of the experimental and theoretical values of
the slit width a, description of the graph, an assessment of errors and precautions, and an
interpretation of the results with respect to the theory.
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Table 1: Results for Single Slit Diffraction

m ym (cm)
1 2.2
2 3.3
3 4.2
4 5.5
5 6.8
6 7.7

The laser has a wavelength of 650 nm.

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EXP. 2 MECHANICAL RESONANCE

Purpose
To observe the phenomenon of resonance by studying standing waves on a string under tension.

Apparatus
Rotator, string, pulley, mass holder, slotted masses, metre rule, and electronic balance.

Theory
Mechanical Resonance is discussed in Chapter 15 Halliday, Resnick & Walker.

Whenever a system is given a periodic series of impulses at a frequency equal to (or very nearly
equal to) one of its natural frequencies of oscillation, the amplitude of the oscillations becomes
fairly large. This is the phenomenon of resonance.

In this experiment, a string that is under tension as in Figure 1 has one of its ends vibrated
periodically by a mechanical rotator. The rotator has a knurled-head screw which permits the
spindle speed to be varied continuously by moving the spindle friction ring toward the edge or
centre of the drive plate on which it rests. The friction ring may be locked in any position on the
drive plate by a set screw provided. A revolution counter is mounted on the spindle and can be
engaged by applying finger pressure to its starting lever.

pulley

rotator

Mg

Figure 1
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Care should be taken not to apply more pressure than is necessary to engage the gear on the
counter as it may be damaged by excess pressure.

At resonance the standing waves must be such that the ends of the string are nodes. This
condition is satisfied if the length of the string is given by:
𝑛𝜆
𝑙= where n = 1, 2, 3, …
2

n therefore represents the number of half-wave segments in the envelope of the vibrations of
the string.

It can be shown that the natural frequencies of vibration of the system are given by

𝑛 𝑀𝑔
𝑓= √
2𝑙 𝜇

where µ: mass/unit length of the string

Mg: tension in the string

Procedure
Part 1 Varying tension, constant frequency

1. Set up the apparatus as in Figure 1.

2. Adjust the spindle frequency close to its maximum and lock it in place.
3. Measure the number of revolutions that occur over a period of a minute, and hence calculate
the frequency. This measurement should be repeated during the experiment to ensure that
the frequency remains fairly constant.
4. By adjusting the value of the hanging mass M, obtain standing waves for as many values of n
as possible. Record corresponding values of M and n.
1
5. Plot a graph of n2 against M .

Part 2 Varying frequency, constant tension

1. Attach a mass of 50 g to the end of the string.

2. By varying the frequency, obtain standing waves for as many values of n as possible. Record
corresponding values of f and n.
3. Plot a graph of f against n and determine its slope.
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Part 3 Calculation of the mass/unit length

1. Measure l and M and hence calculate the value of µ from the slope of the graph of f against
n.
2. Obtain a value of µ by direct measurement using the sample string provided. Do not detach
the string from the rotator.

Discuss your results.

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EXP. 3 PROPERTIES OF SINE WAVES

Purpose
To investigate the properties of sine waves.

Apparatus
Oscilloscope, signal generator, cables, 470 µF capacitor, 1kΩ resistor, unpowered breadboard,
and connecting wires.

Theory
The Principle of Superposition and Phasors are discussed in Chapter 16 Halliday, Resnick & Walker.

If there are two waves with the same amplitude, frequency and wavelength travelling in the same
direction within the same space, with a phase difference of φ between them we may represent
the two waves using the equations:

𝑦1 = 𝑦𝑚 sin(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡) (1)

and 𝑦2 = 𝑦𝑚 sin(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑) (2)

where 𝑦𝑚 is the amplitude, 𝑘 = 2𝜋⁄𝜆, and 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓.

If we superimpose the two waves the resultant wave may be expressed as:

𝑦𝑅 = 𝑦1 + 𝑦2

𝑦𝑅 = 𝑦𝑚 sin(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡) + 𝑦𝑚 sin(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)

𝑦𝑅 = 𝑦𝑚 [sin(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡) + sin(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)]

𝜑 𝜑
𝑦𝑅 = 𝑦𝑚 [2 sin (𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 + 2 ) cos (− 2 )]

𝜑 𝜑
𝑦𝑅 = (2𝑦𝑚 cos ( 2 )) sin (𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 + 2 ) (3)

𝜑
where 2𝑦𝑚 cos ( 2 ) is the amplitude of the resultant wave.

If there are two waves with the same frequency and wavelength but different amplitudes
travelling in the same direction within the same space, with a phase difference of φ between
them we may represent the two waves using the equations:
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𝑦1 = 𝑦𝑚1 sin(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡) (4)

and 𝑦2 = 𝑦𝑚2 sin(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑) (5)

Since we cannot factor out the amplitudes, we must apply the phasor method to find the resultant
wave:

ϕ-β
ym2

yRm ϕ

ym2

β ym1
ϕ

kx - ωt
x

Figure 1: Phasor method for solving wave equations

Here the resultant wave is:

𝑦𝑅 = 𝑦𝑅𝑚 sin(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 + 𝛽) (6)

Using the Cosine rule we get:

𝑦𝑚2 2 = 𝑦𝑚1 2 + 𝑦𝑅𝑚 2 − 2𝑦𝑚1 𝑦𝑅𝑚 cos 𝛽 (7)

Using the Sine rule we get:

𝑦𝑚2 𝑦𝑚1
= (8)
sin 𝛽 sin(𝜑−𝛽)

Procedure
Switch on the oscilloscope. Ensure that the single horizontal green line trace that appears on the
screen is bright, sharp and centred on the display. If the trace does not appear this way, adjust
the intensity and focus using the INTEN and FOCUS controls and centre the trace using the X-POS
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and Y-POS controls. The TIME/DIV (timebase) control may be adjusted to produce a steady trace.
See Figure 2.

Intensity Variable
Focus POS POS
Control

Timebase

Display (with Trace) Input

Voltage
terminals
Gain

Figure 2: Diagram of oscilloscope

Part 1 Frequency/wavelength analysis

1. Connect the signal generator to input terminal Channel 1.

Figure 3: Diagram of signal generator

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2. Set the signal generator frequency to 100 Hz and output the signal.

Figure 4: Changing the signal generator frequency

3. Adjust the size of the signal from the generator to display a trace that is not clipped at the
top or bottom on the screen (preferably a mid-range position) using the VOLT/DIV control.
Adjust the TIME/DIV setting to ensure that at least one complete cycle of the waveform is
visible on the display.
4. Measure the corresponding peak-to-peak voltage using the oscilloscope. This is obtained by
measuring the vertical distance between the crest and trough of the sinusoidal trace.
Determine the distance between the crest and trough of the trace and then multiply it by the
VOLT/DIV setting. Shift the waveform using the X-POS control to aid in counting the divisions
if necessary.
5. Use the peak-to-peak voltage to determine the amplitude of the sine wave.
6. Measure the period of oscillation of the trace (horizontal distance between two successive
peaks) using the oscilloscope. This is obtained by measuring the horizontal distance between
two peaks of the trace and then multiplying it by the TIME/DIV setting. Shift the waveform
using the Y-POS control for Channel 1 to aid in counting the divisions if necessary. Use this
value to calculate the wavelength of the waveform. Recall that 𝑐 = 𝜆⁄𝑇 where c is the speed
of light.
7. Increase the frequency of the signal generator and measure the corresponding wavelength
while keeping the TIME/DIV setting on the oscilloscope constant. Repeat until you have 8
readings of frequency and wavelength.
8. Draw a graph of f vs. 1⁄𝜆 and find its gradient.
What does this graph suggest about the relationship between f and λ?
What does the gradient of the graph represent?
Discuss your results.
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Part 2 Superposition analysis of waves with the same amplitude, frequency and
wavelength

1. Connect the signal generator to input terminal Channel 1.

2. Set the generator frequency to 50 Hz and output the signal.
3. Adjust the size of the signal from the generator to display a trace at mid-range position using
the VOLT/DIV control. Adjust the TIME/DIV setting to ensure that at least one complete cycle
of the waveform is visible on the display.
4. Determine the amplitude and wavelength of the waveform as done in Part 1.
5. Using equation (1), write an expression for the equation of the wave.
6. Connect the signal generator to input terminal Channel 2 while still connected to Channel 1.
This produces a second wave with a phase shift (φ) of zero.
7. Using equation (2), write an expression for the equation of this second wave.
8. Switch the position knob to DUAL to observe both waves. Ensure that the voltage gain on
both channels is the same.
9. Now switch the position knob to ADD to superimpose the two waves.
10. Determine the amplitude of this output wave.
11. Sketch the input waves together on one graph and the output wave on another graph on the
same graph sheet denoting the values for y and λ.
12. Using equation (3), write an expression for the equation of the resultant wave.

Part 3 Superposition analysis of waves with the same frequency and wavelength

1. Connect the signal generator to input terminal Channel 1.

2. Set the generator frequency to 160 Hz and output the signal.
3. Adjust the size of the signal from the generator and measure the amplitude and wavelength
of the waveform.
4. Using equation (4), write an expression for the equation of the wave.
5. Now, connect the signal generator in parallel to points A and C on the breadboard provided
as shown in Figure 3.

470μF 1kΩ

Figure 3: Schematic for phase shift circuit

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6. Connect input terminal Channel 2 to points B and C. This produces a second wave with a
phase shift (φ).
7. Determine the amplitude of the waveform.
8. Using equation (5), write an expression for the equation of the wave.
9. Switch the position knob to DUAL to observe both waves. Ensure that the voltage gain on
both channels is the same.
10. Now switch the position knob to ADD to superimpose the two waves.
11. Determine the amplitude of this output wave.
12. Sketch the input waves together on one graph and the output wave on another graph on the
same graph sheet denoting the values for y and λ.
13. Using equation (7), calculate the value for β and hence complete the wave equation given in
equation (6).
14. Calculate also the magnitude of the phase shift (φ) using equation (8).
1
15. Given that tan 𝜑 = 2𝜋𝑓𝑅𝐶 (where f: frequency in Hz, R: resistance in Ω, and C: capacitance in
F) calculate the theoretical value of φ and compare with the value obtained from the
experiment.
16. Discuss your results.
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EXP. 4 NEWTON’S RINGS

Purpose
To investigate the interference pattern known as Newton's Rings.

Apparatus
Lens, glass block, sodium lamp, travelling microscope, microscope slide, retort stand and clamp.

Theory
Interference is discussed in Chapter 35 Halliday, Resnick & Walker.

If monochromatic light is incident on the air film formed when a lens of radius of curvature R is
resting on a plane glass surface, the interference pattern known as Newton's Rings is observed.
Interference takes place between rays that are reflected at the lower lens surface and those
reflected at the plane glass surface. Rays reflected from the plane glass travel a path difference
of twice the thickness of the air film more than those reflected at the lower lens surface (see
Figure 1). On reflection from the glass block the rays undergo a phase change of 180° or π (half a
wavelength) as the rays are reflected from a medium of higher refractive index (glass) than that
of the medium in which the incident rays are travelling (air).

Because the thickness of the air film changes as the point under observation moves away from
the point of contact of the lens and glass block, the conditions for maxima and minima are
alternately satisfied. Since the contours of constant air film thickness are circular in nature, the
interference pattern is circular.

0
LENS 0 0 d
π π π
GLASS
BLOCK

Figure 1
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1
The condition for MAXIMA is: 2𝑑 = (𝑚 + 2) 𝜆

where m = 0, 1, 2, 3, …

λ: wavelength of light used

d: thickness of film

The condition for MINIMA is: 2𝑑 = 𝑚𝜆

where m = 0, 1, 2, 3, …
𝑥2
It can however be shown that 𝑑 ≈ 2𝑅 where x is the radius of the interference ring observed and
R is the radius of curvature of the lens.

Therefore, the condition for MINIMA becomes 𝑥 2 ≈ 𝑚𝜆𝑅.

Procedure
1. Set up the apparatus as shown in Figure 2.

Travelling
microscope

Slide
Lamp

Lens
Glass block

Figure 2

2. Switch on the sodium lamp and allow it to warm up for 15 minutes.

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3. Adjust the microscope slide in its holder until the light is reflected onto the lens. At this stage
it should be possible to see the rings when looking vertically downwards without the aid of
the travelling microscope.
It may be necessary to clean the lens and glass block surfaces to obtain an interference
pattern.
4. Focus the travelling microscope on the pattern and record what is observed. Make sure that
the centre of the pattern lies directly below the microscope. In this arrangement the
microscope will move along the diameter of the ring when taking readings.
5. Measure the diameter of the first 6 rings (m = 1 to 6) and hence calculate the radius x of each
ring.
6. Plot a graph of x2 against m and determine its slope.
7. Given that λ = 589 nm for sodium light, calculate the radius of curvature of the lens.
8. Discuss your results and observations.
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EXP. 5 CLEMENT AND DESORMES EXPERIMENT

Purpose
To determine the ratio of the specific heat capacities of air.

Apparatus
Insulated cylinder, U-tube manometer, pump, and hose.

Theory
Kinetic Theory of Gases is discussed in Chapter 19 Halliday, Resnick & Walker.

Air is pumped into a vessel of volume V0 and allowed to reach a steady pressure p1 at room
temperature. The air is allowed to expand rapidly (i.e., adiabatically – AB in Figure 1) until it
reaches the ambient pressure of the room, p0. This adiabatic expansion takes the air from volume
V0 to volume V1 after expansion. If the air had expanded from V0 to V1 isothermally (AC in Figure
1), i.e., if it had been allowed to maintain room temperature during the expansion, it would have
ended at a higher pressure, p2. This state can be attained by allowing the air contained in the
vessel after the adiabatic expansion (AB) to gain heat from the surroundings until it reaches room
temperature and has the steady pressure, p2 (BC in Figure 1).

p1 A

p2 C

p0 B

V0 V1

Figure 1
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𝛾 𝛾
For the adiabatic expansion AB 𝑝1 𝑉0 = 𝑝0 𝑉1 (1)

where γ is the ratio of the specific heat capacities of air.

For the isothermal change AC 𝑝1 𝑉0 = 𝑝2 𝑉1 (2)

𝑝1 𝑝 𝛾
Combining (1) and (2), we get = ( 1)
𝑝0 𝑝 2

log 𝑝1 −log 𝑝0
Taking the log of both sides, 𝛾= (3)
log 𝑝1 −log 𝑝2

Pressure in the vessel is read from a manometer.

Thus 𝑝1 = 𝑝0 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ1 (4)

where h1 is the height difference between the arms of the manometer and ρ is the density of the
liquid in it.

Similarly, 𝑝2 = 𝑝0 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ2 (5)

Substituting (4) and (5) in (3), we obtain

𝜌𝑔ℎ
log 𝑝0 (1+ 𝑝 1 )−log 𝑝0
0
𝛾= 𝜌𝑔ℎ1 𝜌𝑔ℎ
log 𝑝0 (1+ 𝑝 )−log 𝑝0 (1+ 𝑝 2 )
0 0

𝜌𝑔ℎ1
log(1+ )
𝑝0
so that 𝛾= 𝜌𝑔ℎ 𝜌𝑔ℎ (6)
log(1+ 𝑝 1 )−log(1+ 𝑝 2 )
0 0

Expanding (6) by the log series and neglecting squared and higher terms (justified because

ρgh1 and ρgh2 are much smaller than po).

𝜌𝑔ℎ1
𝑝0 ℎ1
𝛾= 𝜌𝑔ℎ1 𝜌𝑔ℎ2 = (7)
− ℎ1 −ℎ2
𝑝0 𝑝0

Procedure
1. Ensure that the release valve of the cylinder is closed. Connect the pump to the cylinder via
the outlet on top and pump air into the cylinder until a difference between the arms h of 15-
20 cm is indicated on the manometer.
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2. For some time after pumping has been discontinued the pressure indicated by the
manometer will fall slowly. This is due to the air, which was heated during the compression,
slowly attaining room temperature. When a stationary pressure is indicated, read the height
difference h1 from the manometer. (Note: this represents point A in Figure 1.)

A major source of error in this experiment will occur if insufficient time is allowed for steady
conditions to be obtained. Five (5) minutes generally suffices but it is important to ensure that a
steady state is achieved before taking readings of h.

3. Depress the release valve for 2 seconds then close the valve again. This will allow the pressure
to fall to that of the atmosphere sufficiently rapidly to prevent significant transfer of heat
during the expansion. We can therefore consider the expansion to be adiabatic (AB in Figure
1). The temperature of the air in the cylinder will slowly increase to that at the start of the
experiment (BC in Figure 1), during which time the pressure in the cylinder will rise to p2.
4. After a steady state is reached, record the height difference h2.
5. Repeat the experiment four more times recording h1 and h2 in each case.
6. Calculate a value of γ for each set of readings and calculate the mean value of γ (γavg).
7. Find the deviation from the mean (|γavg – γ|) in each case and the mean deviation (average
of the deviations from the mean, Δγ).
8. Given that the accepted value of γ = 1.4, discuss your results in relation to this value.
 28

EXP. 6 CONSTANT VOLUME GAS THERMOMETER

Purpose
To plan and design a lab to calibrate and test a constant volume gas thermometer.

Apparatus
PASCO scientific Science Workshop Interface and absolute pressure sensor, rubber tube, rubber
bung, round bottom flask, thermometer, calorimeter, and calorimeter stirrer.

Theory
The Constant Volume Gas Thermometer is discussed in Chapter 18 Halliday, Resnick & Walker.

The relationship between the pressure, temperature, mass, and volume for gases at relatively low
pressures and high temperatures is referred to as the ideal gas equation of state:

𝑝𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇 (1)

where p: pressure

V: volume

T: temperature

N: number of moles

R: universal gas constant = 8.315J/(mol.K)

From this equation we see that p α T. We may use this thermometric property of gases to design
a thermometer. Given that the volume of the system is constant, equation (1) becomes:
𝑛𝑅
𝑝= 𝑇 = (𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡)𝑇 (2)
𝑉

Procedure
Part 1 Taking temperature and pressure readings

1. Calibrate the sensor:

a. Connect the pressure sensor to one of the Analog Channels of the interface. Open
DataStudio and select ‘Create Experiment’.
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b. In the ‘Experiment Setup’ window, click on the ‘Add Sensor or Instrument’ tab then select
‘Pressure Sensor (Absolute)’. Make sure the flask is not attached and that the tube and
sensor are open to the atmosphere.
c. Select a sample rate of 20 Hz.
d. Go to the ‘Calibrate Sensors’ tab and select the ‘1 Point (Adjust offset only)’ option for
calibration type then click on the button ‘Read From Sensor’ on the right. This should
give the reading for atmospheric pressure.
2. Connect the pressure sensor to the rubber bung in the round bottom flask via the rubber
tube.
3. Drag and drop the graph icon from the ‘Displays’ pane on the lower left into the
window. This shows a Pressure vs. Time graph.
4. Now, pour the boiling water into the calorimeter until it is half full then place the flask into
the water, ensuring that the flask is completely immersed.

5. Press the ‘Start’ button in the top left of the screen to begin taking readings from the
pressure sensor.
6. Allow the air in the flask to heat up and record the maximum steady temperature reached
using the thermometer. Ensure that the thermometer is not in contact with the flask or
calorimeter. Do not use the thermometer as a stirrer.
7. Record the pressure reading from the graph associated with this temperature.
You may choose to keep track of the corresponding temperature readings on the Pressure vs.
Time graph by clicking on the ‘Note Tool’ button and entering the temperature value for
the relevant pressure on the graph.
8. You will need to record pressure readings for at least 8 different temperatures ranging from
the maximum temperature to as close to 0 °C as possible.
To vary the temperature, begin by adding ice to the calorimeter to aid the cooling process.
As the temperature approaches room temperature, add more ice to allow the temperature
to reach as close to 0 °C as possible. Record steady temperature and pressure readings
throughout this process.
9. Plot a suitable straight-line graph and write the associated straight-line equation. Ensure in
plotting your graph that you are able to read the y-intercept.

Part 2 Plan and design – Calibrate and test the constant volume gas thermometer

1. Use the results from Part 1 to design an experiment to create a constant volume gas
thermometer. Include in your design:
a. A clear description of your experimental procedure including the steps taken to calibrate
the thermometer
 30

b. The use of the theory above to justify your procedure

c. Potential sources of error
d. Appropriate precautions to minimize experimental error
2. Test your thermometer by measuring the temperature of the room.
3. Compare this value with the value measured directly using the thermometer.
4. Discuss your design.