ARBAMINCH UNIVERSITY

College of Natural Sciences

PHYSIC LABORATORY
Department of Physics

PHYS 1011

PREPARED BY
GENERAL
MANUAL

November, 2019
 General Physics Laboratory Manual 2019

LABORATORY RULES

When entering the laboratory premises you are entering a working professional environment
therefore, you are expected to adhere to the following rules:

1. Food or drinks are not allowed in the laboratory.

2. The use of cell phones or music players is not permitted.

3. Behave in a professional and respectful manner towards your instructor and your fellow students.

4. Punctuality is critical. Arrive on time to each laboratory session or equipment may be removed
from your workbench. Punctuality is factored into your grade.

5. Laboratory reports must be submitted as soon as you enter the laboratory room, otherwise points
may be deducted for lateness.

6. Bring a scientific calculator, a notebook and pen/pencil for each laboratory session.

7. Your laboratory partner and you are responsible for the equipment and workbench you use during
an experiment. Please handle equipment with care, do not make any markings or write on any
piece of equipment or on your workbench. Being responsible on the handling of equipment and
caring for your work station is also factored into your grade.

A Return or leave equipment as it was given to you when the laboratory session started. Be mindful
that students from other laboratory sections use the same equipment and work stations; please
cooperate to maintain everything in working conditions.

B After completing an experiment and before leaving the premises check that your workbench is
clean and clutter free, push in your chair.

C Be sure to take all your belongings, the laboratory is not responsible for any lost items. Your
cooperation in abiding by these rules will be highly appreciated.

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REPORT FORMAT FOR PHYSICS LABORATORY

Please keep this list handy so that you can refer to it when taking data and writing your lab report.
All reports must be typed. Reports must be neat, well organized, have good grammar and correct
punctuation. Things must be done in a logical, proper order. Also, always use complete sentences
when writing discussions or answering questions. Please remember that an unclear statement is
considered wrong, always.

Please spread your report out based on the following report writing format

COVER PAGE:

Your cover page should include the following information:

8. The title of the experiment

9. The authors of the report; these are the people that wrote the report and who will get credit for it.

10. The course name and time; for example, Physics 1011 Monday at 8:00 PM

11. The date the experiment was performed.

OBJECTIVE:

Here you will write the purpose of the experiment. This is a few sentences explaining what you
are trying to accomplish and solve the problem or question in this experiment. The objective goes
after the cover sheet and before the equipment.

EQUIPMENT:

List all the apparatus that you used during the experiment. If some piece of data gathering
equipment is used (oscilloscope, computer, etc.) list the make and model number. Remember,
others may want to duplicate your results, and they need to know what gear you used. Write this
as a list not a paragraph.

THEORY:

This part include an outline of the theory underlying an experiment as a help in underlying why
certain things are done and how the readings are of in calculating the final result.

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PROCEDURE:

List all the steps that you took to complete the experiment. Theses should be written in your own
words in PAST PASSIVE tense, example “The solid was weighed and completely immersed in
water …”. Do not copy the procedure of the lab manual as you will not be giving credit for copying.

DATA:

Here you will list, using tables, all the values (with units) that you have measured. List only the
values that you measured; any value that is calculated does not belong here. The “data” must
have correct units, proper significant figures and be organized in a neat fashion.

DATA ANALYSIS:

In this section, you will use your data as written in the data section, to complete required
calculations. Keep as many digits as your calculator allows, to obtain a more accurate answer.
We will take care of significant figures and instruments’ precision in the result section.

Calculations must be typed using an equation editor.

The following steps provide the acceptable format for calculations:

D Write the equation first in symbols.

E Substitute the numbers using correct units.

F Finally write the numerical result.

G For repetitious calculations, a single sample calculation of the type described above suffices.

Graphs:

The graphs will need to be completed in Excel. Make your graphs large. It is often best to devote
an entire page to the graph. Also, graphs must have titles, the axes must be labeled (have titles)
and the axis must have units. Finally, the graphed information must be presented in an easy to
understand way.

ERROR ANALYSIS:

Percent Error and Percent Difference

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If necessary, calculate the percent error or the percent difference between your experimental
results and the expected values. You should do this before leaving the lab in case you need to
retake data.

If the percent error or percent differences are too high then it is expected that you:

I. Recognize the problem. If you fail to recognize that a problem exists, or if you just ignore it, you
will surely receive a bad grade on that report.

II. Fix the problem if possible, or at least provide an intelligent explanation for why there is a
problem.

QUESTIONS:

Some of the experiments have questions throughout the experiment and/or at the end that you must
answer. Include those answers in this section. Please use complete sentences and proper grammar.

CONCLUSION:

Report your findings. Give a brief explanation of your results. What did you learn from the
experiment?

Finally, this document covers most of the formatting and presentation information that you will
need when writing a lab report. But, of course, it cannot cover every possible situation or answer
every possible question. So if you have questions about a formatting or presentation issue, then
pleaseask.

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Table of Contents
LABORATORY RULES ........................................................................................................................ii

REPORT FORMAT FOR PHYSICS LABORATORY ................................................................................iii

EXPERIMENT 1 ............................................................................................................................... .1

MEASUREMENTS OF BASIC CONSTANTS LENGTH, MASS AND VOLUME………………………………….…1

EXPERIMENT 2 ................................................................................................................................ 7

HOOK’S LAW ................................................................................................................................... 7

EXPERIMENT 3 .............................................................................................................................. 15

DENSITY OF A SUBSTANCE ............................................................................................................ 15

EXPERIMENT 4 .............................................................................................................................. 20

DETERMINATIONS OF GRAVITY (g) USING SIMPLE PENDULUM .................................................. 20

EXPERIMENT 5 .............................................................................................................................. 23

OHOM’S LAW, SEIRE-PARALLEL DC CIRCUTE ................................................................................ 23

EXPERMENT 7 .................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

I-V CHARACTERISTICS OF A DIODE VS. A RESISTOR ..................................................................... 35

REFERENCES .................................................................................................................................. 35

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EXPERIMENT ONE
MEASUREMENTS OF BASIC CONSTANTS LENGTH, MASS AND
VOLUME

OBJECTIVES

o To practice measuring of length, mass and volume with different instruments

o To calculate derived physical quantities from measured fundamental physical quantities.
APPARATUS

Metric ruler, Varner caliper, triple beam balance, spring balance, Rectangular block, Spherical
shaped object, cylindrical shaped objet

THEORY

Physical quantities are quantities that can be measured and expressed in numbers and units. The
physical quantities that can be measured by using the measuring instruments are called
fundamental physical quantities. The others are derived from the combination of fundamental ones
(measured indirectly) are called derived physical quantities.

We have seven fundamental physical quantities and the rest are derived from them.

Fundamental quantity Unit/ abbreviation

Length meter (m)

Time second ( s)

Mass kilogram (kg)

Electric Current ampere( A

Temperature kelvin ( K)

Amount of Substance mole (mol)

Luminous intensity candela (cd)

In this experiment we are going to practice measuring the length mass and volume of the following
objects.
1. Rectangular block

The length l width W and edge ℎ of the block can be measured with the length measuring device.

Mass can be measured with beam balance

Volume of the block: 𝑉𝑏 = 𝑙𝑥𝑤𝑥ℎ 1.1

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𝑴
Density: 𝝆𝒃 = 1.2
𝑽

2. Cylindrical object

We can measure the diameter d of the base of cylinder and height ℎ in length measuring device.
𝑑
Base area 𝐴 = 𝜋( 2 )2 1.3

Volume 𝑉𝑐 = 𝐴𝑥ℎ 1.4

3. Spherical object

The diameter of the sphere can be measured

𝟒 𝒅
Volume 𝑽𝒔 = 𝟑 𝝅(𝟐)𝟑 1.5

Procedures
1. Check that all the beam balance measures zero value without a mass

2. Check that length measuring devices starts from zero initial value.

Part I. Rectangular block

1. Measure the length width and edge of the rectangular block with a ruler and record on the
data table

2. Repeat procedure 1. Using Varner caliper and record on the table

3. Measure the mass of the block using triple arm beam balance

4. Again measure the mass with spring balance

Part II: Cylindrical block

1. Measure the diameter of the base of the cylinder with ruler calculates the radius, record on the
data table.

2. Repeat procedure 1. With Varner caliper

3. Measure the mass of the cylinder using both Beam balance and record on the table

Part III: Sphere

1. Measure the radius of the sphere and calculate the radius, record in data table.

2. Measure the mass of the sphere and record on the data table.

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DATA TABLES

Part I: Rectangular Block

Length (m) Width Height 𝑉 = 𝑙𝑥𝑤𝑥ℎ Mass m (in kg)

(m) (m)

Metric ruler Triple beam Spring

balance balance

Vernire caliper

Part II: Cylindrical Block

Diameter Base area Height 𝑉 = 𝐴𝑥ℎ Mass ( kg)

(m) 𝑑 (m)
𝐴 = 𝜋( 2 )2

Metric ruler Triple beam Spring

balance balance

Vernire
caliper

Part III: Sphere

Diameter in Volume 𝑽𝒔 = Mass m (in kg)

(m) 𝟒 𝒅
𝝅(𝟐)𝟑
𝟑

Metric ruler Triple beam Spring balance

balance

Vernire caliper

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Analysis and Questions

1. Calculate the densities using the measurements obtained based the combinations of the
𝑴
given instrument. (Density:𝝆𝒃 = )
𝑽

Rectangular block Cylindrical Sphere

Metric ruler and Triple

beam balance

Metric ruler and Spring

balance

Vernier caliper and

Triple arm balance

Vernier caliper and Spring

balance

Mean density

Percentage deviation

Note that: “Metric ruler +Triple arm balance” means the volume is obtained from measurement
done by metric ruler and mass is by triple beam balance.

2. Calculate the deviation of the density?

3. What do you think the source of the errors in your measurement? How to minimize the errors?

4. From this experiment which quantities are fundamental and which derived physical quantities?

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EXPERIMENT TWO

HOOKE'S LAW

OBJECTIVES

At the end of this course students are expected to:

o learn about the oscillation period and frequency, harmonic oscillation, the spring constant
and Hook’s law.
o test Hooke's Law by measuring the spring constants of springs and spring systems

APPARATUS

o Spring
o Meter stick
o Variety of masses
o Base with Stands

THEORETICAL BACK GROUND

Hooke's Law

Elastic force occurs in the spring when the spring is being stretched/compressed or deformed (∆𝑥
) by the external force. Elastic force acts in the opposite direction of the external force it tries to
bring the deformed end of the spring to the original (equilibrium) position. See Fig. 2.1.

Figure 2.1: diagram representation for hooks law

To deform a material requires the application of a force. Some materials deform more easily than
others. Materials that return to their original dimensions after the deforming force has been

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removed are called elastic. All materials exhibit some degree of elasticity but not always in
sufficient quantity to be useful from a practical sense.

The elasticity property makes its presence known through a restoring force that opposes the
deformation force and tries to maintain the original dimensions of the material.

We will be considering elasticity in only one dimension. The restoring force is proportional to the
magnitude of the deformation. This can be expressed in an equation known as Hooke’s Law after
the discoverer of the effect, Robert Hooke.

𝐹 = − 𝑘𝑥∆ 2.1
Where k is a constant, usually called the spring constant, and ∆𝑥 is a stretch (the difference
between the new x and the equilibrium position). The minus sign in front of the spring constant in
equation (1) indicates that the elastic force and stretch act in the opposite direction.

Figure 2.2: stretching a spring from elongation X0 to elongation X1.

2𝜋
One can calculate the period of the motion using the angular frequency 𝜔= for small
𝑇
amplitude

𝑚
𝑇 = 2𝜋√ 𝑘 2.2

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:

1. Make the Experimental set-up as shown in Fig.2.2 with no mass suspended and the
indicator pin is exactly at Zero mark of Meter rule.

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2. Suspend the mass 10 or 20gm and record the elongation caused by the weight of its mass
W=mg and record your measurements on the data table.

Figure 2.3: Experimental set-up of Hooke’s law.

3. Repeat the step 2 for different masses. (𝑚2, 𝑚3)
4. Calculate the applied force for different masses and spring.
5. Plot a graph of the weight (W) versus the elongation, X.
6. Determine the slope of the graph that gives the spring constant, K.

Part II
1. Suspend the mass and release the mass10 or 20gm with small amplitude and using a
counter (stopwatch) measure the time for 10 periods (3 times). Repeat the measurement
for 20 or 30gm and record your measurements on data table 2.
2. Calculate the spring constant from the Eq. (2.2) for each measurement and record it on
the data table 2.
3. Calculate the average of the spring constant for both loading mass using arithmetic mean
and record the result on the data table 2.
4. Recording the spring constant found above and compare with what is found in Part I

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Data table format

Mass + K Mass1+ holder Mass2+ holder

X(m) W(N)
holder (N/m)
Tri _______kg ________kg
(kg)
als
0.05 10 T T K 10 T T K
0.1 (s) (s) (s) (s) (N/m)
(N/m)
0.15
1
0.2
2
0.25 3
0.3 K1ave= ________N/m K2ave=

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EXPERIMENT THREE

DENSITY OF A SUBSTANCE

OBJECTIVES:

At the end of this experiment students are expected to:

o determine the density of a known liquid (water)

o identify an unknown liquid by determining its density
o determine the density of a regular solid and an irregular solid
o distinguish between accuracy and precision

APPARATUS

In this experiment the following apparatus are used:

o 10-mL pipette and pump

o 100-mL (or 50 mL) graduated cylinder
o 50-mL beaker
o Metric ruler
o Samples of known and unknown liquids
o Samples of regular and irregular solid
o Beam balance

THEORETICAL BACK GROUND

Measuring Density:

Much of what is done in the physics laboratory involves taking measurements. A measurement is
a quantitative observation that has both a numerical value and a unit. How well a measurement is
taken determines both its precision and its accuracy.

Precision is related to the reproducibility of the measurement. It is a comparison of several

measured values obtained in the same way. For example, a student measures the volume of a
liquid three times, obtaining in the same way.

For example, a student measures the volume of a liquid three times, obtaining the values 3.66 mL,
3.62mL, and 3.64mL. These measurements have high precision; there is only a 0.040 mL
difference between the highest and lowest values.

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Figure 3.1: displacement of water using an overflow cup

Accuracy is a comparison of a measured value to the accepted, or true, value. Suppose the volume
of the liquid had actually been 5.44 mL. Then the accuracy of the three measurements taken would
be low because a difference of 1.80 mL between the average measured value and the true value is
relatively large.

A good scientist is always trying to achieve both high precision and high accuracy in the
laboratory.

In this laboratory, you will practice taking measurements and recording them to the correct degree
of uncertainty while determining the density of various samples. Density defined as mass per unit
volume and can be calculated using the equation

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑀𝑤
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 OR 𝜌𝑤 = 3.1
𝑉𝑤

Once you determine a density experimentally, you will need to evaluate the precision and accuracy
of your results. We shall use a calculation called percent range to express precision and a
calculation called percent error to express accuracy. The necessary formulas are:

ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒−𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑠𝑡
𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛: %𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 = ( ) 𝑥100% 3.2
𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒−′′𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒′′ 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑦: %𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = ( ) 𝑥100% 3.3
′′𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒′′ 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

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PROCEDURE

Part A: Procedure: Density of Water

1) Determine the mass of an empty graduated cylinder to the nearest tenth (0.1) and record
data in Table 3.1.
2) Determine the mass of the water and graduated cylinder and record data in Table 3.1.
3) Fill the graduated cylinder with 50-100 mL of water and record the volume in Table
3.1. Remember to read at the bottom of the meniscus.
4) Calculate the mass of just the water by subtracting the mass of the empty graduated
cylinder from the mass of the water and graduated cylinder.
5) Repeat steps #1-3 with 2 greater volumes of water (you decide).
6) Empty the graduated cylinder, dry it and go on to step #7.
Table1: Density of Water
No Measuring parameters Calculated values
Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3
1 Mass of empty graduated cylinder (g)
2 Mass of graduated cylinder and water (g)
3 Mass of water (g)
4 Volume of water (mL)
5 Density of water (g/mL)

Density of Unknown

7) Record the mass of the empty graduated cylinder in Table 2.

8) Repeat steps #2-5 with your unknown liquid. Remember to record the liquid # in Table
2.
Table 2.2: Density of Unknown sample

No Measuring parameters Calculated values

Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3
1 Mass of empty graduated cylinder (g)
2 Mass of graduated cylinder and water (g)
3 Mass of unknown liquid (g)
4 Volume of unknown liquid (mL)
5 Density of unknown liquid (g/mL)

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Part B: Density of Solids

Regular Solid

1. Record the identity of your sample (or sample letter).

2. Determine and record the mass of your sample using a beam balance. (Note: sample must
be either cylindrical or rectangular.)
3. If your sample is cylindrical, measure the diameter of the circular face and the height (h).
From the diameter, determine the radius (r) for the cylinder. The radius is ½ the diameter
of the circular face.
4. Determine the volume (V) of your solid cylindrical sample using the formula:
𝑉𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 = 𝜋 ∗ 𝑟 2 ∗ ℎ

5. Calculate the density of your sample and record this value in the data table given below.
Table3.3: Density of Solids
No Mass Height of radius (r) of volume (V) of Density of
cylinder the cylinder cylindrical cylindrical
sample sample
1
2
3
4

Irregular Solid

1. Using a 1000 mL graduated cylinder, obtain roughly 200 to 300 mL volume of an irregular
solid sample.
2. Record your sample number (or substance name).
3. Determine and record the mass of your sample (be sure it’s dry).
4. Add approximately 500 mL of water to a 1000 mL graduated cylinder.
5. Read and record the water volume.
6. Carefully place your solid sample in the graduated cylinder with the water. Gently agitate the
graduated cylinder to eliminate trapped air bubbles.
7. Read and record the new volume of water. This is the volume of the water and the metal
sample.
8. Calculate the volume of your sample by subtracting the initial water volume (no sample) from
the final water volume (with sample).
9. Calculate the density of your sample.

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Table 3.4: Irregular Solid
No Mass of initial volume of final volume Change of the density of
Irregular water of water volume of sample
sample water
1
2
3
4

Calculations:

1) Calculate the mass and density of the water and unknown and write in the data table.

2) Determine the average density of water:

3) Determine the average density of the unknown:

Appendix 1: Accepted Density Values

The “CRC” (short for Chemical Rubber Company Handbook of Chemistry & Physics) is a
commonly used source of physical and chemical data. Among the information compiled in this
resource are the density values for all of the solid and liquid elements and numerous compounds.
Refer to this data when identifying your unknown substance.

A) Physical Constants of Inorganic Compounds (solids):

Substance Density (g/cm3)
lead 11.3
gold 19.3
Copper 8.96
Aluminum 2.70
Iron 7.87
zinc 7.14
Tin 7.265
Potassium chloride 1.988

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EXPERIMENT FOUR

DETERMINATIONS OF GRAVITY (g) USING SIMPLE PENDULUM

OBJECTIVE:

At the end of this experiment students are expected to:

o To measure the acceleration due to gravity at Arba Minch using a simple pendulum
o Appreciate the law of physics, in which theory and practice are related
EQUIPMENT LIST

Experimental setup for simple pendulum: -

o 1m stand
o Mass less thread
o Spherical mass or bob
o Metric Ruler
o Electronic Stopwatch.

THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

The simple pendulum consists of a small bob (in theory a particle) of mass m suspended by a
light inextensible thread of length 𝑙 from some point about which it is allowed to swing back and
forth as shown in Figure 4.1 bellow.

The forces on the bob are the tension in the thread 𝑇 and the weight 𝑚𝑔 of the bob acting vertically
down wards (as shown in Figure 4.1). Resolving 𝑚𝑔 radially and tangentially at point 𝐴, we see
that the tangential component is the unbalanced restoring force acting towards the equilibrium
position O.

Figure 4.1: Schematic diagram of simple pendulum

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If 𝑎 represents the acceleration of the bob along the arc at point A due to the presence of force
(𝑚𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃) then the equation of motion of the bob is represented by;
−𝑚𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 𝑚𝑎 4.1
The negative sign indicates that the force is towards point ‘O’ (restoring force) while the
displacement ′𝑥 ′ is measured along the arc from ‘O’ in the opposite direction.
When ′𝜃 ′ is small, then we can consider sin 𝜃 ≃ 𝜃 in radians and 𝑥 = 𝑙𝜃
Hence
𝑥
−𝑚𝑔𝜃 = −𝑚𝑔 𝑙 = 𝑚𝑎 4.2
𝑔
𝑎 = − 𝑙 𝑥 = −𝜔2 𝑥 4.3
2 𝑔
where, 𝜔 = 𝑙 . The motion of the bob is thus a simple harmonic motion since the acceleration of

the bob is directly proportional to its distance from the equilibrium point O and is always
directed towards that point.
Here 𝜔 is a constant representing the angular frequency of the motionin radian per second and so
the period T is constant and given by;
2𝜋 𝐿
𝑇 = = 2𝜋√𝑔 4.4
𝜔
As we see from the above equation 𝑇 is therefore independent of the amplitude of the oscillation
and at a given place on the earth’s surface where 𝑔 is constant; it depends only on the length 𝑙 of
the pendulum.

PROCEDURE

The period T of a simple pendulum (measured in seconds) is given by the formula:

𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 20 𝑜𝑠𝑐𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠

𝑇= 4.5
20 𝑜𝑠𝑐𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠

Using equation (1) to solve for “g”, L is the length of the pendulum (measured in meters) and g is
the acceleration due to gravity (measured in meters/sec2). Now with a bit of algebraic rearranging,
we may solve Eq. (4.4) for the acceleration due to gravity g. (You should derive this result on your
own).

4𝜋 2 𝐿
𝑔= 4.6
𝑇2

1. Measure the length of the pendulum to the middle of the pendulum bob. Record the length of
the pendulum in the table below.

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2. With the help of a lab partner, set the pendulum in motion until it completes 30 to and fro
oscillations, take care to record this time. Then the period T for one oscillation is just the number
recorded divided by 20 using (eq. 2).

3. You will make a total of six measurements for g using different values of the length L.

L(meter) Mass Time for 20 Period T T2 39.44𝐿

𝑔=
oscillation (second) 𝑇2

1
2
3
4
5
6
Average value of gravity g=

QUESTIONS

1) From your data what effect does changing the length have on the period (for a given value of
the length L)?

2) What role, if any, does air resistance have on your results? Explain your reasoning.

3) Would you conclude that Galileo was correct in his observation that the period of a simple
pendulum depends only on the length of the pendulum?

4) On the moon, the acceleration due to gravity is one-sixth that of earth. That is

𝑚
𝑔𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ 9.8 𝑠 2 𝑚
𝑔𝑚𝑜𝑜𝑛 = = = 1.63 2
6 6 𝑠

5) What effect, if any, would this have on the period of a pendulum of length L?

6) How would the period of this pendulum differ from an equivalent one on earth?

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EXPERMENT FIVE

OHM’S LAW, SERIES-PARALLEL DC CIRCUITS

5.1. OHM’S LAW

OBJECTIVE

At the end of this experiment students are expected to:

o Examines Ohm’s law, one of the fundamental laws governing electrical circuits. It states
that voltage is equal to the product of current times resistance.

THEORY OVERVIEW

Ohm’s law is commonly written as V = I * R. That is, for a given current, an increase in resistance
will result in a greater voltage. Alternately, for a given voltage, an increase in resistance will
produce a decrease in current. As this is a first order linear equation, plotting current versus voltage
for a fixed resistance will yield a straight line. The slope of this line is the conductance, and
conductance is the reciprocal of resistance. Therefore, for a high resistance, the plot line will appear
closer to the horizontal while a lower resistance will produce a more vertical plot line.

EQUIPMENT

o Adjustable DC Power Supply

o Digital Multimeter
o 1 kΩ resistor, 6.8 kΩ resistor and 33 kΩ resistor

Schematic

Figure 5.1
PROCEDURE

1. Build the circuit of Figure 6.1 using the 1 kΩ resistor. Set the DMM(??) to measure DC current
and insert it in-line between the source and resistor. Set the source for zero volts. Measure and

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record the current in Table 6.1. Note that the theoretical current is zero and any measured value
other than zero would produce an undefined percent deviation.

2. Setting E at 2 volts, determine the theoretical current based on Ohm’s law and record this in
Table 6.1. Measure the actual current, determine the deviation, and record these in Table 6.1.
Note that Deviation = 100 * (measured – theory) / theory.

3. Repeat step 2 for the remaining source voltages in Table 6.1.

4. Remove the 1 kΩ and replace it with the 6.8 kΩ. Repeat steps 1 through 3 using Table 6.2.

5. Remove the 6.8 kΩ and replace it with the 33 kΩ. Repeat steps 1 through 3 using Table 6.3.

6. Using the measured currents from Tables 6.1, 6.2, and 6.3, create a plot of current versus
voltage. Plot all three curves on the same graph. Voltage is the horizontal axis and current is
the vertical axis.

DATA TABLES
Table 5.1 (1 kΩ)

E (volts) I theory I measured Deviation

0 0
2
4
6
8
10
12

Table 5.2 (6.8 kΩ)

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E (volts) I theory I measured Deviation

0 0
2
4
6
8
10
12

Table 5.3 (33 kΩ)

E (volts) I theory I measured Deviation
0 0
2
4
6
8
10
12

QUESTIONS

1. Does Ohm’s Law appear to hold in this exercise?

2. Is there a linear relationship between current and voltage?

3. What is the relationship between the slope of the plot line and the circuit resistance?

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5.2. SERIES-PARALLEL DC CIRCUITS

OBJECTIVE

At the end of this experiment students are expected to:

o analysis the basic series-parallel DC circuits with resistors.

o solve for desired currents and voltages of series-parallel DC circuits with resistors.

THEORY OVERVIEW

Simple series-parallel networks may be viewed as interconnected series and parallel sub-networks.
Each of these sub-networks may be analyzed through basic series and parallel techniques such as
the application of voltage divider and current divider rules along with Kirchhoff’s Voltage and
Current Laws. It is important to identify the most simple series and parallel connections in order
to jump to more complex interconnections.

EQUIPMENT

o Adjustable DC Power Supply

o Digital Multimeter
o 1 kΩ, 2.2 kΩ, 4.7 kΩ and 6.8 kΩ

Schematics????

Figure 5.2

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Figure 5.3
PROCEDURE

1. Consider the circuit of Figure 5.2 with R1 = 1 k, R2 = 2.2 k, R3 = 4.7 k and E = 10 volts. R2
is in parallel with R3. This combination is in series with R1. Therefore, the R2, R3 pair may
be treated as a single resistance to form a series loop with R1. Based on this observation,
determine the theoretical voltages at points A, B, and C with respect to ground. Record these
values in Table 5.4. Construct the circuit. Set the DMM to read DC voltage and apply it to the
circuit from point A to ground. Record this voltage in Table 5.4. Repeat the measurements at
points B and C, determine the deviations, and record the values in Table 5.4.

2. Applying KCL to the parallel sub-network, the current entering node B (i.e., the current
through R1) should equal the sum of the currents flowing through R2 and R3. These currents
may be determined through Ohm’s Law and/or the Current Divider Rule. Compute these
currents and record them in Table 5.5. Using the DMM as an ammeter, measure these three
currents and record the values along with deviations in Table 5.5.

3. Consider the circuit of Figure 5.5. R2, R3 and R4 create a series sub-network. This sub-network
is in parallel with R1. By observation then, the voltages at nodes A, B and C should be identical
as in any parallel circuit of similar construction. Due to the series connection, the same current
flows through R2, R3 and R4. Further, the voltages across R2, R3 and R4 should sum up to
the voltage at node C, as in any similarly constructed series network. Finally, via KCL, the
current exiting the source must equal the sum of the currents entering R1 and R2.

4. Build the circuit of Figure 5.5 with R1 = 1 k, R2 = 2.2 k, R3 = 4.7 k, R4 = 6.8 k and E = 20
volts. Using the series and parallel relations noted in Step 3, calculate the voltages at points B,

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C, D and E. Measure these potentials with the DMM, determine the deviations, and record the
values in Table 5.6.

5. Calculate the currents leaving the source and flowing through R1 and R2. Record these values
in Table 5.7. Using the DMM as an ammeter, measure those same currents, compute the
deviations, and record the results in Table 5.7.

DATA TABLES
Table 5.4

Voltage Theory Measured Deviation

VA
VB
VC

Table 5.5
Current Theory Measured Deviation
R1
R2
R3

Table 5.6
Voltage Theory Measured Deviation
VB
VC
VD
VE

Table 5.7

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Current Theory Measured Deviation

Source
R1
R2

QUESTIONS

1. Are KVL and KCL satisfied in Tables 7.1 and 7.2?

2. Are KVL and KCL satisfied in Tables 5.4 and 7.4?

3. How would the voltages at A and B in Figure 5.2 change if a fourth resistor equal to 10 k was
added in parallel with R3? What if this resistor was added in series with R3?

4. How would the currents through R1 and R2 in Figure 7.2 change if a fifth resistor equal to 10
k was added in series with R1? What if this resistor was added in parallel with R1?

EXPERMENT SIX

I-V CHARACTERISTICS OF A DIODE VS A RESISTOR

OBJECTIVE:

The object of this experiment is to compare the I-V characteristics of a diode with those of a
resistor.

APPARATUS:

 DC Power Supply
 Germanium
 2-1K Ohm Resistors
 6 lead wires (including those on the power supply)
 Milliammeter
 Voltmeter

THEORY:

When a voltage is applied across a resistor, an electric field is established. This electric field
"pushes" the charge carriers through the resistor. This "push" gives the charge carriers a "drift

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velocity" in the direction from high potential energy to low potential energy. As the voltage
increases, the drift velocity increases. Since the amount of current flowing through a resistor is
directly proportional to the drift velocity, the current is directly proportional to the voltage, which
produces the electric field, which produces the drift velocity. This is the origin of Ohm's Law.
A diode is a two-terminal electronic component with asymmetric conductance; it has low (ideally
zero) resistance to current in one direction, and high (ideally infinite) resistance in the other. A
semiconductor diode, the most common type today, is a crystalline piece of semiconductor
material with a p–n junction connected to two electrical terminals.

In PN junction of a diode the region close to the junction, the carriers (electrons & holes) are
depleted, whereas only positive and negative ions can exist. This region is referred to as “Depletion
Region”.

The force that prohibits the electrons and holes from passing the junction due to the effect of ions
in the depletion region is referred to as “barrier voltage”. The typical barrier voltage in the p-n
junction of germanium (Ge) is around 0.2 ~ 0.3 V, whereas it is around 0.6 V for silicon (Si).

Figure 6.1 - V characteristic curve of a diode

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From the characteristic curve we can see that the current is very low if the forward bias applied
to the diode is lower than the cutin voltage (Vr). Once the forward biases exceed the cutin
voltage (0.2 V for germanium diode, 0.6 V for silicon diode), the current (IF) will be
dramatically increased, in the manner that the diode will function as short-circuit (with VF
being around 0.7 V).

The reverse current before breakdown is very low, which can be treated as an open-circuit.
When the reverse bias has reached the breakdown voltage, IR will be dramatically increased

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Procedure:

1. Build a circuit as shown in figure below. Do not turn on the power supply

Figure 6.2 Circuit diagram for for measurement of voltage and current for diode
and resistor

2. Check to make sure the lead wires on the power supply are connected to the DC terminals.
3. Rotate the voltage and current (if applicable) dial to zero. Rotate the current dial one quarter
turn clockwise.
4. Now turn on the power supply.
5. Slowly rotate the voltage dial clockwise, and watch the milliammeter and voltmeter dials. If
the needle moves to the right, the meters are correctly connected. If the needle moves to the
left, reverse the lead wires on that meter.
6. Prepare a table as shown below two table for diode and two table for resistor
7. All measurement of voltage and current in the forward direction diode should be in one table
and all measurement of voltage and current in the reverse direction of diode should be in the
other table
8. Do the same thing for resistor and write the result in two tables

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Data Tables:

Resistor Data Table

V(volts) I(mA) V/I

Diode Data Table

V(volts) I(10-6A) V/I

Divide the value of V (volts) by the value of I (amps) to find values of V/I and complete the
data table.

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DATA ANALYSIS

Plot the voltage (horizontal axis) vs. the current (vertical axis) from the resistor and diode data
table on graph paper.

QUESTIONS (To much so minimize or summarized form )

 What is the shape of the graph of the data for the resistor?
 What is the shape of the graph of the data for the diode?
 If the shape is linear, determine the slope and the equation of the line.
 Compare the slope with the V/I values.
 According to Ohm's Law, V/I represents what measurable quantity?
 For the graph that is nonlinear, how did the values of V/I vary as the values of V increased?
 Which device conducts electricity both directions?
 Which device conducts electricity only in one direction?
 Name the 2 types of charge carriers.
 In a diode, what changes to allow more current to flow as the voltage is increase

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REFERENCES
1. Halliday& Resnick, Fundamentals of Physics,9th ed
2. Serway Jewet- Physics for Scientists and Engineers 6th ed.
3. ??
4. ??
5. ??
6. ??/

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