Lab Instruction Manual 2013 14 Revnew

Chemistry Lab: Lab Manual®
Tenafly High School
©September 2013
9th edition
1
Lab # CHEMISTRY LAB - ACTIVITY TITLES Page
1 Lab Safety 3
2 Matter Classification 5
3 Classifying Physical and Chemical Changes 6
4 Chemical Properties of Four Liquids 8
5 Density of Pennies 10
6 Percent Cu in Pennies 12
7 Law of Definite Composition 13
8 Particle Size Probability 15
9 Emission Spectroscopy 17
10 Flame Test 19
11 Electron Probability – An Analogy 21
12 Mendeleev for a Day 23
13 Periodic Trends: Reactivity of Metals 25
14 Ionic and Molecular Compounds 28
15 Models of Covalent Compounds 30
16 Chemical Name and Formula Writing 32
17 Composition of Hydrates 34
18 Aluminum Foil 36
19 Empirical Formula 38
20 Types of Reactions 40
21 Single Replacement Reactions 42
22 Double Replacement Reactions 44
23 Four Solution Problem 46
24 Moles Fe and Cu 47
25 Mole-Mass Relationship & % Yield 49
26 Understanding Half-life 51
27 Determining the Half-life of Ba-137m 53
28 Back to Chernobyl 55
29 Changes in Physical State 57
30 Boyle's Law 59
31 Determination of Absolute Zero 61
32 Molar Volume of Gas 63
33 Paper Chromatography 65
34 Ice Cream Lab 67
35 Rate of a Reaction 69
36 Investigation of Chemical Equilibrium 71
37 Change in Enthalpy of a Reaction 72
38 pH and Indicators 74
39 Acid Base Titration 75
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1. LAB SAFETY
INTRODUCTION
Welcome to Chemistry. The first order of business is to become familiar with the lab, lab equipment,
and safety rules. You will be expected to behave and perform labs in a safe manner throughout the
year, and before you can perform any other labs, you will be assessed on your understanding of
safety rules and your familiarity with lab equipment. You should use the Flinn safety contract and lab
equipment diagrams at the front of your lab manual to help you complete this lab and study for the
assessment.
OBJECTIVE
1. Recognize and understand the function of safety and lab equipment.
2. Review and apply safety rules.
PRE-LAB QUESTIONS
1. What is the objective of this lab activity?
2. Define the word “corrosive.”
MATERIALS
SAFETY: HCl is corrosive. Flush with water if skin contact occurs.
nylon albumin hydrochloric acid watch glass forceps
pipet Bunsen burner striker numbered lab equipment
PROCEDURES
1. Put on your laboratory apron and safety goggles.
2. Start at the station where you are seated, and stay with your lab table
group.
3. Perform the activity as stated and record information on the data table.
4. Clean up after you are finished with each station.
5. When entire group is ready, go to the another station – stations can be
done in any order.
6. When finished with all stations, return to classroom desks to complete lab
writeup.
Station #1: Effect of Acid on CLOTHING

 MAKE SURE YOU ARE WEARING GOGGLES & GLOVES!
 The materials are labeled A-D. Match each letter with the name on
your data table.
 Use the forceps to take a one piece of nylon from the beaker and put
it on the watch glass.
 OBSERVE THE NYLON BEFORE.
 Use the small dropper bottle filled with ACID to drop 2-3 drops of acid on the nylon.
 OBSERVE THE NYLON AFTER.
 CLEANUP: Rinse the nylon and acid off of the watch glass into the waste beaker. Wipe watch
glass clean and dry with paper towel, and return to station. Put paper towel in garbage.
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Station #2: Effect of Acid on SKIN or EYES
 MAKE SURE YOU ARE WEARING GOGGLES & GLOVES!
 The materials are labeled A-D. Match each letter with the name on your data table.
 Use the plastic pipet to take 2-3 drops of albumin (egg white) from the beaker and put it on
the watch glass.
 OBSERVE THE ALBUMIN BEFORE.
 Use the small dropper bottle filled with ACID to drop 2-3 drops of acid on the albumin.
 OBSERVE THE ALBUMIN AFTER.
 CLEANUP: Rinse the albumin and acid off of the watch glass into the waste beaker. Wipe watch
glass clean and dry with paper towel, and return to station. Put paper towel in garbage.
Station #3: Lighting a BUNSEN BURNER

 MAKE SURE YOU ARE
WEARING GOGGLES!
 Watch the instructor
demonstrate the
technique of how to
light the Bunsen
burner with the
striker.
 Try it yourself.
The diagram to the right shows

the different parts of the Bunsen
burner)
Station #4: NOT ready

to begin lab work
Imagine your lab group is set up to work at this lab table, and the equipment you need for this lab has been
placed at your table.
 DO NOT CHANGE THE SETUP OF THIS TABLE – YOU ARE ONLY OBSERVING.
 Observe/ list at least 4 things that need to be fixed/ addressed BEFORE you can begin lab work.
Station #5: Safety equipment

 Identify the two important pieces of safety equipment located at this station.
 Observe what is WRONG at this station.
Station #6: Equipment & Use

 Identify each numbered piece of lab equipment.
 Give a brief description of its use.
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CONCLUSION
1. Complete the data tables.
2. Answer the conclusion questions on your lab write-up (you may use the Flinn contract and lab
equipment diagrams at the front of your lab manual to help you).
1.
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2. CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER
INTRODUCTION
There are many ways to classify or group matter. Chemists have agreed upon a general system of
classification. After you become familiar with the terms you will examine different samples and
classify them.
DO NOT OPEN VIALS
OBJECTIVE
1. Observe and classify different types of matter.
PRE-LAB QUESTIONS
2. Define the vocabulary words on the chart provided.
MATERIALS
SAFETY: Mercury (Hg) is a toxin that affects the central nervous system –
DO NOT OPEN VIALS (Hg is taped shut).
16 sample vials of matter
PROCEDURES
1. Work in lab groups assigned by your teacher.
2. Examine the sample in the vials. DO NOT OPEN THE VIALS.
3. In the chart provided, indicate the physical state of matter as: S = solid, L = liquid, or G = gas.
4. Describe some physical characteristic (color, shape, appearance, etc.)
5. Sort the substances into similar categories. (Example: all the elements …..).
6. CLEANUP: Un-sort the substance, and before leaving the lab area, arrange neatly on table. Wash
your hands.
CONCLUSION
1. Complete the data tables.
2. In the conclusion chart, list the formulas of the substances that belong in each of the five
categories – the number of substances in each category is given in parentheses
(Note: each substance only belongs to one category, except for C. Molecules – choose these
formulas from the ELEMENT or COMPOUND formulas)
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3. CLASSIFYING PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHANGES
INTRODUCTION
There are two types of changes that occur in nature: physical and chemical.
In a physical change, bonds are NOT broken or formed, and no new substances are formed. One or
more physical properties of the substance may change but the composition remains the same. For
example, phase changes like boiling are physical changes.
In a chemical change, bonds are broken and/ or formed, and this results in the formation of one or
more “new” substances. The physical and chemical properties of the new substance will be different,
and the composition of the new substance will be different from the original substance.
In this experiment, you will observe a number of changes and will classify the change as physical or
chemical based on your observations.
OBJECTIVE
1. Observe and classify changes as chemical or physical changes.
PRE-LAB QUESTIONS
2. List three examples of physical change.
3. List three observable indications that a chemical change has occurred. (Look it up)
MATERIALS
SAFETY: AgNO3 will stain skin and clothing; HCl is corrosive; CuCl2 is an irritant.
glass plate candle beaker hot plate test tube with wax
sugar cube test tubes Bunsen burner ring stand deflagrating spoon
mortar & pestle thermometer test tube clamp NaHCO3 AgNO3
Al foil CuSO4 CuCl2 HCl Fe and S8
PROCEDURE
Expt Procedures
1a  Put on your laboratory apron and safety goggles
 Attach a small candle to a glass plate
 Light the candle and move it out of the way
 Observe the candle and glass plate at the end of the lab
1b  Heat water in a beaker on a hot plate
 Place the test tube with wax in hot water (don’t get water inside t.t.) until you see a change.
 Observe the changes occurring in the test tube
 CLEAN UP: remove the test tube to a rack and allow it to cool (DO NOT DUMP IT OUT).
2a  Place 1 sugar cube in a mortar and grind the cube
 Observe the change occurring in the mortar (save sugar for 2b and 2c)
2b  Take ½ of the ground sugar in a small test tube
 Fill test tube half-way with water & stir tube with stir rod
 Observe the change occurring in the test tube
 CLEAN UP: dump contents down the sink & rinse/ clean test tube – return to rack.
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Expt Procedures
2c  Take the remaining ground sugar, and put in a deflagrating spoon
 Heat the spoon over a Bunsen burner
 Observe the change occurring in the spoon
 CLEAN UP: when cool, wash contents down the sink & rinse/ clean spoon, and dump any
remaining sugar in mortar into the garbage
3a  Add a small scoop of baking soda (NaHCO3, sodium bicarbonate) to a test tube
 Add water to a height of about 1 cm (~width of your pinky nail), and stir with stirring rod
 Observe the change occurring in the test tube (save solution for 3b)
3b  Add ~2-4 drops of silver nitrate solution to the baking soda solution in the test tube
 Observe the change occurring in the test tube
 CLEAN UP: dump contents into WASTE BEAKER/ FLASK & rinse/ clean test tube with a test-tube
brush to scrub off residue inside – return to rack.
3c CAUTION: ACID can cause severe burns. Wash immediately if any acid touches skin.
 In another test tube, create another baking soda solution (as you did in 3a).
 Add ~2-4 drops of hydrochloric acid to the baking soda solution in the test tube
 Observe the change occurring in the test tube.
 Carefully touch the bottom of the dry test tube with your ungloved fingertips
 Observe any sensation.
 CLEAN UP: dump contents into WASTE BEAKER/ FLASK & rinse/ clean test tube – return to rack
4  Place a small scoop of copper sulfate (CuSO4) in a test tube
 Clamp test tube onto ring stand, and heat gently over a Bunsen burner.
 Observe the change occurring in the test tube & Observe any material accumulating at the mouth
of the test tube.
 CLEAN UP: when cool, carefully add tap water to test tube, and wash contents down the sink with
plenty of running water & rinse/ clean test tube with a test-tube brush to scrub off residue inside
– return to rack.
5a  Place about 25 mL of de-ionized water to a 100 mL beaker
 Add a level spoonful of copper chloride (CuCl 2) to the beaker, and stir until solid disappears.
 Measure the temperature with a digital thermometer when the solid is gone.
 Observe the change occurring in the beaker (save solution for 5b).
5b  Submerge a piece of aluminum in the copper chloride solution.
 Measure the temperature after 1 minute and after 5 minutes.
 Observe the change occurring in the beaker
 CLEAN UP: dump contents into WASTE BEAKER/ FLASK & rinse/ clean beaker – return to table.
WASH YOUR HANDS WHEN DONE!
Instructor demonstration if time permits.

6a Iron (Fe) and sulfur (S8) are mixed and added to a test tube. A magnet is run along the side of the test
tube. Observe.
6b The test tube from 6a is heated over a Bunsen burner in the fume hood. When cool, a magnet is run
along the side of the test tube. Observe.
CONCLUSION
1. For each experiment indicate whether the change was chemical or physical. Briefly explain each. Summarize
your findings in a chart.
2. Does the formation of bubbles always indicate a chemical change? Explain.
3. Does heating a substance always cause a chemical change? Explain.
4. Does burning (combustion) always indicate a chemical change? Explain.
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4. CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF FOUR LIQUIDS
INTRODUCTION
The first task of a chemist is to identify substances so that one can be distinguished from another.
Sometimes this is simple. If, at room conditions, substance A is a green solid, substance B a red
liquid, and substance C a colorless, odorless gas, one can tell them apart by simply looking at them.
Color, odor, and physical state at room conditions are examples of physical properties. Physical
properties are those that can be tested without changing the chemical formula of the substance.
Chemical properties are revealed when, for example, a solid substance is placed in water and rapid
bubbling occurs, or when an iron nail is placed in an unknown liquid and a reddish substance forms
on it. When chemical properties are tested, substances with new chemical formulas are formed.
Every substance has both physical and chemical properties.
In this experiment, you will collect data to determine if any of four liquids are the same or if all four
are different. All of the liquids have similar physical properties. They are all clear and odorless at
room temperature. You will test their chemical properties, and then reason logically to determine
whether the liquids are the same or whether they are different. You will also match the identity of an
unknown to one of the four liquids.
OBJECTIVE
1. Observe and compare the chemical properties of four liquids and an unknown to help identify
them.
PRE-LAB QUESTIONS
2. Give three examples of characteristic chemical and physical properties.
3. How many characteristic properties of two substances must be alike for the two substances to be
the same?
4. How many characteristic properties of two substances must be different for the two substances to
be the different?
5. If a liquid bubbles or fizzes, what kind of change has occurred?
MATERIALS
Apparatus Reagents
Two 24 well micro plate blue litmus paper
Pipet with unknown red litmus paper
Wash bottle with de-ionized water universal indicator
Forceps aluminum pellets
Laboratory apron zinc pellets
Safety goggles manganese (IV) oxide powder
Small straw scoop liquids A, B, C, & D
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PROCEDURE
2. Place 10 drops of liquid A into each of the six wells in the 1st row of a 24-well micro plate.
Place 10 drops of liquid B into each of the six wells in the 2nd row.
Place 10 drops of liquid C into each of the six wells in the 3rd row.
Place 10 drops of liquid D into each of the six wells in the 4th row.
Place 3 drops of your unknown liquid into each of the six wells in the 1st row of ANOTHER 24-well
micro plate.
3. Tear a piece of red litmus paper into five pieces, and put one piece into each of the wells of the 1st
column of BOTH MICRO PLATES. RECORD YOUR OBSERVATIONS.
4. Repeat step 3 using blue litmus paper placed into each of the wells of the 2nd column.
RECORD YOUR OBSERVATIONS.
5. Be sure there are no flames in the laboratory before you add 1 drop of universal indicator to each
of the wells of the 3rd column. RECORD YOUR OBSERVATIONS.
6. Add one piece of zinc to each of the wells of the 4th column. Wait at least 2 minutes and then
RECORD YOUR OBSERVATIONS.
7. Add one piece of aluminum to each of the wells of the 5th column. Wait at least 2 minutes and
then RECORD YOUR OBSERVATIONS.
8. Add a small amount of manganese (IV) oxide to each of the wells of the 6th column. Wait at least 2
minutes and then RECORD YOUR OBSERVATIONS.
9. CLEANUP:
 -Use forceps to remove the pieces of litmus paper, zinc, and aluminum from the micro
plate and place them on a paper towel, which you can throw into the TRASH.
-Rinse and dry the forceps.
 -Empty the liquids remaining in the micro plate into the SINK.
-Rinse the micro plate with tap water by gently pouring water over the wells then turning
the micro plate over to drain it into the sink. Dry off excess water.
 Before leaving the laboratory, neatly arrange materials and wash your hands.
CONCLUSION
1. Besides your unknown, could any two liquids A-D be the same? Explain.
2. List three of the characteristic chemical properties that you observed to distinguish between
substances.
3. Give one additional characteristic chemical or physical property (not tested in this experiment) that
might help to differentiate and positively identify each of the liquids.
4. Match each liquid with the actual identity based on the properties in the chart.
5. What is the identity of your unknown? Explain in detail how you identified it.
6.
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5. DENSITY OF PENNIES
INTRODUCTION
Today's penny is quite different from the penny of a decade ago. Before 1982, pennies were made of
an alloy of copper. Since then, they have been made with an outside coating of copper and an inner
core of a different metal. The difference in composition between older and more recently minted
pennies impact the penny’s characteristics, including its density, or mass per unit of volume. In this
experiment, you will determine and compare the densities of pennies minted before 1982 and after
1983. You will then use this data to try to identify the metal used in the core of pennies minted after
1983.
OBJECTIVE
1. Make accurate measurements with a balance and graduated cylinder (with the correct number of
significant figures)
2. Graphically determine and compare the density of pre-1982 and post-1983 pennies.
3. Identify the metal in the core of post-1983 pennies.
PRE-LAB QUESTIONS
2. Give the formula for density.
3. Give the formula for calculating the slope of a line.
4. Give the formula for calculating the % error.
5. What technique and lab equipment will be used to measure the volume of the pennies?
6. What errors would be introduced if you used wet pennies?
7. Give one reason why the mass of five pennies is taken at a time rather than just the mass of one
individual penny.
8. Give one reason why the volume of five pennies is taken at a time rather than just the volume of
one individual penny.
9. Look up (online) and list the density (in g/ mL or g/ cm3) of aluminum, copper, silver, and zinc.
MATERIAL
Vial with 25 pre-83 pennies Vial with 25 post-83 pennies
100 mL graduated cylinder Balance
Paper towel
PROCEDURE
FIRST, RECORD THE MASS.
1. Work with one set of pennies at a time; either pre-1982 pennies or post-1983 pennies. Find the
mass of 5 pennies from one set. RECORD THE MASS.
2. Add 5 more pennies to the first group and obtain the mass of these 10 pennies. RECORD THE
MASS.
3. Repeat step 2 three more times, each time adding more pennies to those already on the balance,
until you have massed 15, 20, and 25 pennies. RECORD THE MASSES.
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THEN, RECORD THE VOLUME.
4. Fill a 100mL graduated cylinder to the 20-mL mark with water. Be sure to use the bottom of the
meniscus to measure the water level. RECORD THE INITIAL VOLUME.
5. Still working with the same set of 25 pennies; gently drop 5 of the pennies into the graduated
cylinder—DON’T LET THE WATER SPLASH OUT! RECORD THE NEW VOLUME.
6. Add 5 more pennies to the graduated cylinder, making a total of 10 pennies—DON’T LET THE
WATER SPLASH OUT! . RECORD THE NEW VOLUME.
7. Repeat step 6 three times until you have recorded the volumes with 15, 20, and 25 pennies in the
cylinder. RECORD THE VOLUMES.
CLEAN-UP: DUMP WATER, DRY PENNIES & RETURN.

8. Drain the water without losing any pennies. Dry the pennies with a paper towel and either pass
them to another group to use or give them to your teacher. Rinse out the graduated cylinder, let
air dry.
REPEAT WITH OTHER SET.

9. Repeat step 1-8 using the 25 pennies in the other set of coin. Record your data in the other table.
CALCULATE NET VOLUME.

10. Complete your data tables. Find the net volume of each group of pennies by subtracting your
starting volume from the total volume recorded for each group (column 3). Enter the net volume
for each group in column 4 of the data tables.
WASH YOUR HANDS WHEN DONE!
CALCULATIONS
1. Graph Mass (y) vs. Volume (x) for both pre-1982 and post-1983 pennies on the same graph & draw
a straight best-fit line.
2. Calculate the slope of each best-fit line.
CONCLUSION
1. What do the values you obtained for the slopes of the lines represent?
2. Compare the densities of the pre-1982 and post-1983 pennies.
Are the pre-1982 pennies more or less dense than copper?
Calculate the percent error for the pre-1982 pennies.
3. What is the density of the post-1983 pennies?
Are the post-1983 pennies more or less dense than the pre-1982 pennies?
Which metal replaced the copper inside the post-1983 pennies? Support your answer.
Useful Formulas
Density = Mass (g) Slope = Y2 –Y1
Volume (mL) X2 – X1
% Error = [Theoretical - Experimental] x 100
Theoretical
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6. PERCENT COPPER IN A PENNY
INTRODUCTION
You have determined that pennies made after 1983 contain other metals electroplated with copper
to appear the same as pre-1982 pennies. If you take a metal file and score the surface of a post-1983
penny, you will note the silvery color of metal beneath the surface. In this activity, you will remove
the other metal by reacting the penny with hydrochloric acid, leaving only copper shell. By carefully
massing before and after the reaction with acid you will be able to determine the percent of copper in
post-1983 pennies.
OBJECTIVE
1. Experimentally determine the percentage of copper in a post-1983 penny.
PRE-LAB QUESTIONS
2. What must you do to expose the metal on the inside of the penny to the acid?
MATERIAL
Safety Precaution: HCl in this experiment is highly concentrated and VERY corrosive!
One post-1983 penny triangular file small beaker, watch glass balance
hydrochloric acid (HCl) acetone forceps
PROCEDURE
2. Mass the penny.
3. Make four heavy scratches at 45º angles on the edges of the penny using the file as demonstrated.
4. Label the beaker with your name, and place the penny in the beaker and carefully pour about 25
mL of hydrochloric acid into the beaker. Cover with a watch glass.
5. OBSERVE THE REACTION AND RECORD YOUR OBSERVATIONS. Place your beaker on the tray
provided. This reaction will continue overnight.
6. NEXT DAY: OBSERVE your beaker and some of the other beakers. RECORD YOUR OBSERVATIONS.
7. With your goggles on, carefully add about 25 mL of water to the beaker to dilute any unreacted
acid. Pour off (decant) as much liquid as you can into the WASTE BEAKER (NOT the sink), leaving
the penny in the beaker.
8. Repeat washing the penny in the beaker with water several times, decanting water into SINK. Do
a final rinse with acetone (leave acetone in beaker—do NOT dump into sink or acid waste).
9. Use forceps to carefully remove the penny from the beaker and set it on the paper towel. Let
stand for several minutes. Mass the penny when dry.
10. CLEANUP: After getting all masses, throw penny in trash, dump any acetone into FUME HOOD
WASTE BEAKER, clean glassware with tap water and place on lab bench. Wash your hands.
CONCLUSION
1. Calculate the percent of copper in the penny. Show set up.

2. Some of the pennies were floating the next day. What was the cause of this?
3. What can you conclude about the effect of hydrochloric acid on copper?
13
7. THE LAW OF DEFINITE COMPOSITION
INTRODUCTION
ELEMENTS are a type of matter that cannot be broken down further by ordinary chemical means.
COMPOUNDS, on the other hand, are chemical combinations of elements. Compounds have their
own properties, distinct from the properties of the elements from which they were made. But, how is
a chemical combination different from just any combination of elements?
MIXTURES can be in any proportion, and unlike compounds, the properties of the mixture are
dependent upon the properties of the individual components of the mixture. For example, a mixture
of N2 and O2 can be mixed in any ratio, and the properties of the mixture of that of N 2 and O2.
The LAW OF DEFINITE COMPOSITION states that the elements forming a compound always combine
in the same proportion by mass. The compound water, H2O, is always a chemical combination of
hydrogen and oxygen in a 1:8 mass ratio, and water has properties that are distinct from H 2 and O2. If a
mixture of hydrogen and oxygen were combined in another mass ratio, water would be formed, but
some hydrogen or oxygen would remain unreacted.
In this experiment, you will examine the reaction between magnesium metal, Mg, and oxygen gas, O 2.
Because Mg ribbon reacts over time with the O2 in the air to form an ashy dull surface over the shiny
metal, this partially reacted magnesium must be removed before performing the lab. To quickly and
completely react the Mg, it will be heated strongly in an open crucible for several minutes. Once cool,
you will measure the mass of the Mg and the mass of magnesium oxide that is formed, using your data
to calculate the mass ratio of Mg to O in the compound. Masses must be measured when objects are
cool; otherwise, convection currents may cause the mass to be too high or too low. You will then
evaluate how accurately you performed the experiment and look for sources of error by calculating the
% error between your experimental ratio and the actual ratio in the compound.
OBJECTIVE
1. Experimentally determine the mass ratio of magnesium and oxygen.
PRE-LAB QUESTIONS
2. Why is it important to start the experiment with a clean and dry crucible?
3. What is the purpose of making sure the surface of the magnesium ribbon is clean and shiny?
4. Write the balanced chemical equation for magnesium reacting with the air.
5. Should the crucible gain or lose mass as the reaction continues?
6. In the procedure you are asked to reheat the crucible repeatedly until the lass two masses agree to
within 0.03 gram. What is the purpose of this reheating?
7. Suppose a compound of sodium and chlorine is formed in a ratio of 1.54 g of Cl for every 1.00 g of
Na. How many grams of Na would you need to completely react with 45.0 grams of Cl?
MATERIAL
crucible & lid laboratory apron pipe stem triangle magnesium ribbon
crucible tongs goggles ceramic tile de-ionized water
electronic balance ring stand & ring sandpaper/steel wool
Bunsen burner striker
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PROCEDURE
2. PREP MAGNESIUM (Mg): Obtain a piece of Mg ribbon from your teacher. If the surface is not
shiny, use a piece of sandpaper/ steel wool to shine the surface.
3. SETUP APPARATUS & FUME/ CLEAN CRUCIBLE
 Setup the apparatus shown to the right. Make sure Bunsen burner has a flame with a blue
inner cone.
 Obtain a crucible and cover. Rinse crucible with water and dry, and then place (open) on
pipestem triangle and heat strongly for
5 minutes to evaporate off water and fume off any impurities.
 Turn off Bunsen burner, and use crucible tongs to place crucible on ceramic tile. Let cool
(minimum 7 minute wait time).
4. RECORD MASS BEFORE (Empty crucible & cover; AND with Mg)
 RECORD MASS of the clean crucible AND cover.
 Break the Mg into small pieces and place them into the crucible.
 RECORD MASS of the crucible, cover, AND Mg.
5. HEAT/ REACT Mg (Total 12 minutes heating)
 Place the crucible on the pipe stem triangle. Heat the crucible gently with the lid completely
on for about 4 minutes by moving the flame around underneath the crucible.
Remove the heat temporarily if a large amount of smoke comes out of the crucible.
 Use crucible tongs to carefully slide the lid aside. Heat the crucible to redness for 4 more min.
 Finally, remove the lid completely and heat strongly for 4 more min. (Put the lid on the ceramic
tile – it is very hot!)
 Turn off Bunsen burner, and use tongs to place crucible on ceramic tile. Put the lid back on the
crucible, and let cool (minimum 7 minute wait time).
6. RECORD MASS AFTER (Crucible, cover, & magnesium oxide – 1 st, 2nd, and maybe 3rd heating)
 RECORD MASS of the crucible, cover, and contents (1st heating).
 Repeat heating of the same sample for about 5 minutes. Turn off Bunsen burner, and use tongs
to place crucible on ceramic tile. Put the lid back on the crucible, and let cool (minimum 7
minute wait time).
 RECORD MASS of the crucible, cover, and contents (2nd heating).
 Compare the masses found in steps 13 and 16. If within 0.030 gram, STOP.
7. If NOT, reheat the crucible for an additional 4 minutes, cool 7 minutes, and RECORD MASS (3rd
heating). Repeat this step until you get two consecutive readings that agree to within 0.030
gram. This is known as “heating to constant mass”.
8. CLEAN UP:
 Once all masses have been recorded, dump contents of crucible in trash, and rinse crucible and
cover with tap water and dry.
 Put away ring stand, ring, triangle, and burner (after cool!) if last group performing lab.
 Neatly arrange other materials and wash your hands thoroughly.
CONCLUSION
1. If some Mg did not react, would your calculated Mg: O mass ratio be higher or lower? Explain.
2. Use your textbook to lookup and write that formula for the magnesium oxide.
3. Use the accepted ratio to determine the mass of Mg that would combine with 16.0 grams of O.
15
8. PARTICLE SIZE FROM COLLISION PROBABILITIES
INTRODUCTION
Most of the information we have about the structure of the atom was derived by indirect means
because the technology was not available to make direct measurements. In this activity, we are going
to assume that for some reason we are not able to directly measure the diameter of a marble. We
will use an indirect method to determine the size of the diameter by counting how often we succeed
in hitting a marble when we shoot another marble at a group of them. The experimental
arrangement is shown in the figure below.
•
•
•
•
•
• •
•
•
•
•
The probability of a “hit” is related to a number of variables: the size of the marbles, the distance
between the walls of the enclosure, the number of trials, and the number of target marbles. An
equation can be derived using these variables. You will collect the necessary data and use the
equation to determine the diameter of a marble. After determining the diameter by this method,
you can check its success by direct measurement of the diameter of the marbles and find out how
well the indirect method worked.
OBJECTIVE
1. Determine marble diameter indirectly (with a probability equation) and directly, and compare
PRE-LAB QUESTIONS
2. Define probability.
3. How are the target marbles to be lined up (2 important requirements)?
4. Why will 3 meter sticks be needed?
5. What is the formula for percent error?
MATERIALS
11 marbles tacky material 3 meter sticks
16
PROCEDURE
1. Obtain ten target marbles and one marble with which to bombard them. Arrange the target
marbles inside a three sided enclosure made of meter sticks. The target marbles may be placed in
any random position EXCEPT that
a. There must always be room for the bombarding marble to get through between any two
target marbles
b. No marble should be shielded from being hit (i.e. each target marble must be a potential
target).
The target marbles may need to be rearranged after each hit to achieve this. See figure in
introduction.
2. You must have at least 200 rolls for good results. More than 500 do not increase the accuracy of
the results. One partner should roll and count number of rolls and the other record number of
hits. You may switch rolls half way.
a. The ROLL:
 must be hard enough to reach the back “wall”
 Parallel to the side walls
 Rolled randomly. DO NOT AIM. It may help to close your eyes.
b. The HIT: If the bombarding marble collides with several target marbles before hitting the
wall, this is ONE hit.
3. RECORD number of marbles rolled and the number of hits on the Data Table.
4. To get a direct measurement, line up your ten target marbles so that they touch each other in a
straight line between two meter sticks and measure the length in centimeters to the hundredths
place.
5. CLEANUP: Remove all tacky material from floor & attach to inside edge of plastic beaker. COUNT
and return marbles to beaker (make sure you have 11—report extra or missing marbles). Return 3
meter sticks to your table. Before leaving the lab area, arrange all materials neatly, and wash
hands.
CALCULATIONS
1. Calculate the diameter using the equation: D = Hxd

2N x Tr
where: Tr = number of trials
N = number of target marbles
H = number of hits
d = distance between the walls
D = diameter
2. Calculate the diameter of one marble using the direct measurement.
3. Calculate the percent error between the calculated and the measured diameter, assuming the
measured diameter is the true value.
CONCLUSION
1. List two specific sources of error and indicate how they would affect your calculated diameter.
2. How did Rutherford describe the atom as a result of his experiment?
3. In what ways does the situation in this experiment (which is a model of Rutherford’s experiment)
differ from Rutherford’s experiment in which alpha particles were used to bombard a foil
composed of gold atoms? (Hint: consider the charges on the subatomic particles.)
17
9. EMISSION SPECTROSCOPY
INTRODUCTION
All atoms give off electromagnetic radiation if their gases or ions are energized by heating or by high
voltage electrical discharge. If the light emitted by a gas is passed through a spectroscope, a discrete
banding pattern of light, also known as the emission spectrum or bright-line spectrum, is produced.
Each element produces its own emission spectrum that differs from the spectra of every other
element, so the emission spectrum of an element can be used as a means of identification, just as
fingerprints (or DNA) can be used to identify a human being. Because spectroscopic analysis can
identify elements, it is often used in astronomy to identify the elements present in a stars.
The unique frequencies of light emitted in an emission spectrum correspond to the set energy given
off as electrons drop from higher allowed energy states (levels) to lower ones. When an electron
absorbs a set amount of energy, it jumps from its lowest allowed energy level (ground state) to a
higher allowed energy level. This “excited” electron cannot remain at the higher allowed energy level
if there are unoccupied lower energy levels closer to the nucleus. The electron is attracted back to
one of the lower allowed energy levels, and as the electron drops back it emits a photon, a set
amount of energy in the form of electromagnetic radiation. The amount of energy that the electron
emits is equal to the energy difference between the higher energy level of the excited state and the
lower energy level to which the electron dropped.
The energy of each transition is given by Max Planck’s equation:

E = hv ,
where E = energy difference between allowed states in Joules
v = frequency in Hertz
h = a constant (Planck’s constant).
OBJECTIVE
1. Use a spectroscope to observe continuous spectra and bright-line spectra from gaseous elements.
PRE-LAB QUESTIONS
2. According the modern theory of the atom, where may an atom’s electrons be found?
3. How do electrons become “excited”?
4. What form of energy emission accompanies the return of excited electrons to ground state?
5. State two equations that are used to relate the energy content of a packet of light and its
wavelength.
6. Calculate the energy of the red line of the hydrogen spectrum (look up the wavelength).
7. A line spectrum is sometimes called a “fingerprint” of an element. What do you think is
meant by this term?
MATERIALS
WARNING: DO NOT TOUCH POWER SUPPLIES OR TUBES.
spectroscope incandescent light source fluorescent light source
high-voltage power supplies spectral tubes colored pencils
(Ar, He, H2, Hg, Ne, Kr, & unknown)
18
PROCEDURE
A spectroscope works similarly to a prism to split up light of different wavelengths:
When using a spectroscope, line up the slit so that it is parallel to the spectral tube (light bulb).
Slit Scale
Violet Red
Eyepiece
1. Using your spectroscope, look at the spectrum of the incandescent and fluorescent light sources
around the room. RECORD/ DRAW WHAT YOU SEE in the space provided – if you see discrete
bands, color discrete bands; if you see a continuous rainbow spectra, color in a continuous spectra.
2. Using your spectroscope, look at the atomic emission tubes set up around the room. RECORD/
DRAW WHAT YOU SEE in the space provided—draw the specific spectral lines)
3. CLEAN UP: Return all colored pencils – there should be no stray colored pencils on the floor or on
lab tables. The instructor will turn off the power supplies.
CONCLUSION
1. Compare the spectra produced by incandescent and fluorescent sources.
2. How are these spectra different from those observed in the elemental spectral tubes?
3. What causes the differences in the bright-line spectra of different elements?
4. Which element showed more lines in the red region?
5. Which element showed more lines in the blue-violet region?
6. Prior to its discovery on Earth, the existence of helium was first confirmed in the sun. Explain how
this can be possible.
19
10. FLAME TESTS
INTRODUCTION
When elements are heated to high temperatures they may enter an “excited state”, which occurs
when electrons absorb energy and move to higher energy levels. When the electrons return to
“ground state”, (the original state), they release the amount of energy that had been absorbed. This
energy can be seen in the form of visible light. Each element gives off a unique set of wavelengths,
which our eyes recognize as a particular color.
In this lab you will observe the colors given off by pure solutions of metal ions, and one mixture. You
will then use this property of atoms to identify an unknown metal ion by comparing the color
observed with the colors of known metal ions.
OBJECTIVE
1. Observe the colors given off by different metal ions when heated in a flame.
2. Identify an unknown metal by its color in a flame test.
PRE-LAB QUESTIONS
2. What is meant by ground state?
3. How do electrons become “excited” in this lab?
4. When the absorbed energy is released, what must the electrons do?
5. What form of energy is released?
6. How should the burner flame be adjusted for best results?
7. Why is this lab done without room or outdoor lighting?
MATERIALS
Goggles Wood splints Salts of different metal ions Waste beaker
Bunsen burner Cobalt glass Unknown sample De-ionized
water
PROCEDURE
2. Record your unknown number.
3. Light the Bunsen burner. Be sure to have a good blue flame with the inner cone clearly visible.
4. The wooden splints are in a beaker of de-ionized water (not tap water, which has too much sodium
dissolved in it). Take a splint, shake off excess water, and put a few crystals of a metal ion’s salt or
some of the metal ion’s solution on the end of the splint. (If you put too much solid on the end –
you will end up contaminating the Bunsen burner). Keep vials with metal ion salts capped unless
you are actively using them.
20
5. Place the end of the splint with the metal ion crystal or solution at the tip of the inner blue cone’s
flame of the burner. RECORD THE COLOR of the initial flame – do not record the color of the wood
burning.
6. Extinguish splints in a beaker of TAP water. DO NOT PUT SPLINTS IN SINK – this will clog the drain!
7. Repeat steps 3-5 for all metal ions, the sodium/ potassium mixture, and your unknown. Make
sure to also observe the color of the flame through the cobalt glass for potassium, sodium, the
sodium/ potassium mixture.
8. CLEANUP: Remove splints and solid debris from waste beaker and put in TRASH. Wash waste
water down SINK. Put away burner if last group performing lab. Before leaving the laboratory,
neatly arrange materials and wash your hands.
CONCLUSION
1. What metal ion was in your unknown sample?
2. Explain how you identified your unknown using your data. Be specific.
3. Give two reasons why the flame test is not always valid to identify a metal.
4. What would be observed if a spectroscope were used during a flame test?
5. What color was the flame for the mixture of sodium and potassium? Explain.
6. Is it possible to use the flame tests to identify each individual metal in any mixture? Explain.
7. (optional) What is the purpose of viewing the flame through the cobalt glass?
21
11. ELECTRON PROBABILITY – AN ANALOGY
INTRODUCTION
The Bohr model (aka planetary model) states that the electron travels in a specific orbit
around the nucleus, and that its position in space and its momentum can be readily determined.
Werner Heisenberg in his wave mechanical model showed that this is impossible since both
position and momentum cannot be known at the same time. This is the famed Heisenberg
Uncertainty Principle. We must therefore use probability when describing the location of the
electron in the atom.
If it were possible to conduct an experiment to determine the frequency of the electron’s
appearance at different points in space surrounding the nucleus, these data could be plotted on a
three-dimensional graph. Boundaries could be established which would outline the regions of space
in which the electron could be found 95% of the time. These regions of space are called orbitals.
Since it is impossible to conduct such an experiment, we shall perform one which, by analogy,
will help give meaning to the concepts of probability distribution graphs, radii of maximum
probability, maximum electron density, and orbitals.
In this experiment, you will define regions of space about a bullseye in which there is a specific
probability of locating a spot resulting from the impact of a pen dropped from a specific distance to
the target. The spots represent the points in space about the bullseye (analogous to the nucleus)
where the pen (analogous to the electron) is observed. This experiment is designed to locate the
region of space within which the pen is most likely to strike (analogous to an atomic orbital).
The distance from the nucleus where an electron is most likely to be found (with the highest
spot density) is called the radius of maximum probability. You will determine this radius by plotting
the number of dots (analogous to places electrons might be observed) per cm 2 vs the distance from
the bullseye (nucleus).
OBJECTIVE
1. To draw a physical analogy to some of the concepts associated with the wave-mechanical model of
the atom.
2. Determine the region of space with the greatest probability of finding an electron.
PRE-LAB QUESTIONS
2. Why must the target be cushioned?
3. Describe Bohr’s model of the atom. (Key feature of the electron position).
4. What is the formula to calculate the area of a circle?
5. What is your prediction about the outcome of the activity—in what region will the electron most
likely be located?
MATERIALS
Bulls eye target masking tape
Ball point pen Cushioning material
PROCEDURES & CALCULATIONS

1. Place paper as cushioning under the target, and secure to floor using masking tape.
2. Stand above target, in such a way so that your hand is 2 meters above the bull’s eye.
22
3. AIM for the bull’s eye, and drop the pen (pointed side down)…..a total of 100 times ON THE
TARGET (If you miss the paper or the target, try again).
4. Locate the 95 dots closest to the bulls-eye (you can circle them as you count so you don’t lose
track).
5. Draw a smooth shape that encompasses all 95 dots to represent the ORBITAL.
6. For each circle preprinted on the target, count the number of pen dots ON or INSIDE of that circle,
but OUTSIDE of any smaller circles (in the area in between rings), and record. For example, for
circle 2, count dots BETWEEN circle 1 and 2 and any that fall ON circle 2; For circle 3, count dots
BETWEEN circle 2 and 3 and any that fall ON circle 3; etc, etc.
7. Divide the number of dots in each circular region by the area of that region. This quotient is the
number of dots per square centimeter. Multiply the quotient by 10 to give more easily plotted
numbers. Record this value on the data table.
8. CLEAN UP: Return and neatly arrange cushioning & masking tape (to your lab table or to the
teacher).
CONCLUSION QUESTIONS
1. Graph the dots/cm2 (x 10) value vs. average radius. Draw a smooth curve, and START at (0,0).
2. When you throw a pen at a target, can you predict precisely where it will strike? Explain.
3. The s (spherical) orbital is non directional. Is the orbital you drew around the 95 dots non-
directional or is there a directional bias? Explain.
4. Interpreting the graph, at what radius is the maximum probability (of locating an electron)
5. ATTACH YOUR TARGET TO YOUR LAB WRITEUP BEFORE SUBMISSION!
YOUR TARGET LOOKS LIKE THIS, but larger….:

(DON’T USE THIS ONE – this is just for reference)
23
12. MENDELEEV
FOR A DAY
INTRODUCTION
As more and more elements were discovered during the 1800’s, it became important to categorize
them according to similarities in chemical and physical properties. A Russian chemist, Dmitri
Mendeleev (1834-1907) was the first to do so successfully. He arranged the elements in vertical
columns in order of increasing atomic mass. The columns were then arranged so that elements with
similar chemical properties were placed side by side.
Mendeleev left numerous spaces in his table because there were no known elements with the
appropriate properties to fill the spaces. He then predicted the properties of these unknown
elements based on the properties of the elements next to them on his periodic table. When these
“missing elements” were discovered, they were found to have properties very similar to those he
predicted.
As a model of Mendeleev’s work, in this investigation you will group the solutions of 9 unknown
compounds (instead of elements) according to their chemical behaviors. You will see if a precipitate
formed when the unknown solution is mixed with two different solutions (A & B). You then will
observe which precipitates are dissolved by another solution (D). Finally you will record any color
changes that occur when the unknown solutions are mixed with solution C. After analyzing your
data, you will place each unknown solution into a group with other solutions of similar characteristics.
OBJECTIVE
1. To model Mendeleev’s ideas, AND To group nine unknown compounds based on their chemical
behaviors.
PRE-LAB QUESTIONS
2. How does Mendeleev’s periodic table differ from the modern periodic table?
3. Why did Mendeleev leave blank spaces on his periodic table?
24
4. What is the underlying (structural) reason (unknown to Mendeleev) that elements in the same
group have similar properties?
5. Why is it necessary to rinse the stirring rod between test tubes?
MATERIALS:
SAFETY: Solution D is very corrosive.
Wash with soap and water if skin contact occurs.
3 test tubes labeled A, B, C Test tube rack 10-mL graduate cylinder
Stirring rod Unknown solutions 1-9
4 dropper pipets containing test solutions A, B, C & D
PROCEDURE:
2. Each group will work with one of the unknown solutions. These unknown solutions are identified
by numbers 1-9. The data will then be shared with the class at the end of the experiment.
3. Label three test tubes A, B, C.

4. Obtain one unknown solution. Note the number. Place 1 mL of the unknown solution in each of
the three labeled test tubes.
5. To test tube labeled A, add 12 drops of test solution A.
To test tube labeled B, add 12 drops of test solution B.
To test tube labeled C, add 12 drops of test solution C.
6. Any test tube that does not show an immediate change should be stirred for about 10 seconds.
Make sure you rinse the stirring rod after each use to avoid contaminating the next solution.
7. RECORD YOUR OBSERVATIONS in the correct space on the Data Table.
8. To any test tube that contains a precipitate, add 20 drops of test solution D and stir for at least 15
seconds. Again rinse the stirring rod after each use. RECORD THE RESULTS.
CLEANUP:
9. Dispose of all solutions in the waste container provided, then rinse out the test tubes and
graduated cylinder in the sink (use a test tube brush, if necessary).
10. Before leaving the laboratory, neatly arrange materials on bench and wash your hands.
1. Why do you think this investigation is titled “Mendeleev for a Day”?
2. Based on your observations, group the unknown solutions into “Families” in the chart according to
similarities in chemical behavior. Arrange your groups in a chart.
3. Justify your arrangements by referring to your data—why did you group the solutions this way.
4. Some members of the same “family” that show similar but not identical reactions. Give an example
of this.
25
5. No members of Group 18 (the noble gases) of the modern periodic table can be found on
Mendeleev’s version of the periodic table. Suggest an explanation for their absence.
26
13. PERIODIC TRENDS: Reactivity of Metals
INTRODUCTION
The periodic table is arranged so that both periodic and group trends in properties such as atomic
size, ionization energy, electronegativity, and reactivity can be observed.
In Part 1 of this lab, you will observe the reactivity of alkali metals with water in a demonstration (by
the instructor or on a video-clip). You will then test the reactivity of selected alkaline earth metals
and aluminum with water at your lab tables. Reactive metals (M) react with water to produce
hydrogen gas (which is flammable), basic metal hydroxides, and heat:
M (s) + H2O (l)  H2 (g) + MOH (aq) + Heat
To detect the presence of the metal hydroxide product, which is basic or alkaline, a phenolphthalein
indicator will be used that changes color in the presence of base. If enough H2 is generated, a burning
splint or match can also be used to test for its presence.
In Part 2 of this lab, you will test the reactivity of alkaline earth metals by observing the precipitation
reactions that occur between compounds of alkaline earth metals and various reagents. The more
active a metal, the more reactions will be observed. Formation of a precipitate will indicate that a
reaction has occurred. You will also identify an unknown by comparing it to your data.
OBJECTIVE
1. Determine group and periodic reactivity trends for metals by observing reactivity with water and
precipitation reactions.
2. Identify an unknown group 2 metal compound based on its reactivity.
PRE-LAB QUESTIONS
2. Write a chemical reaction of a reactive metal (M) with water.
3. Read the textbook section on the reactivity of metals. What is the trend in activity as the atomic
number increases:
a. In a group?
b. In a period?
MATERIALS
SAFETY: Calcium metal is corrosive to skin. Do not touch/ wear gloves.
PART 1:
test tubes test tube rack calcium piece magnesium ribbon
aluminum pellet phenolphthalein match forceps
steel wool hot plate test tube holder
PART 2:
spot plate
dropper pipets containing solutions of Mg(NO3)2, Ca(NO3)2, Sr(NO3)2, Ba(NO3)2,
dropper pipets containing solutions of H2SO4, Na2CO3, Na2CrO4.
27
PROCEDURE
PART 1:
2. The reactivity of alkali metals with water will be observed by demonstration (by instructor or on a
video-clip).
ACTIVITY:
3. Turn on hot plate (careful, it may already be HOT from a previous lab group!), and put a CLEAN 50
mL beaker filled half-way with de-ionized water on the hot plate to make it boil.
4. You will test the reactivity of Ca, Mg, and Al.
DO NOT TOUCH THE CALCIUM WITH YOUR HANDS. IT IS CORROSIVE TO SKIN.
5. Obtain 5 clean, dry test tubes and label them: Ca, Mg, Mg, Al, and Al.
6. Pour about 5 mL of de-ionized water into the test tube labeled for Ca and place in test tube rack.
7. Using the forceps, add a piece of Ca to the water, and immediately hold a larger inverted dry test
tube over the reactant tube to collect any gas being released. OBSERVE/ RECORD.
8. Keeping the larger test tube inverted, raise it up and test for hydrogen gas by bringing a burning
splint or match to the mouth of the upper test tube. OBSERVE/ RECORD.
9. Test for metal hydroxide (base) by adding a drop of phenolphthalein solution to the solution in the
test tube. OBSERVE/ RECORD.
10. Clean the surface of the Mg ribbon with steel wool. Break it into small pieces and repeat the
above procedure (steps 4-7, but for Mg).
11. If there is no visible reaction, repeat procedure but use 5 mL of HOT (recently boiled) de-ionized
water.
12. Repeat the procedure followed for Mg with one Al pellet.
13. CLEANUP: Dump all test-tubes into waste container, straining out solids. TRIPLE-RINSE (to get rid
of phenolphthalein residue) test tubes with tap water, and do a final rinse with de-ionized water.
Leave upside down on test tube rack to dry. Dump beaker on hot plate into sink and place near
test tube rack. Put away hot plate (after cool!) if last group performing lab.
PART 2:
BARIUM (Ba) and STRONTIUM (Sr) compounds are TOXIC.
Avoid contact with these chemicals and WASH YOUR HANDS THOROUGHLY after use.
1. Place 10 drops of Mg(NO3)2 into three wells (1st column) of a spot plate.
a. Add 2 drops of H2SO4 to the 1st well. RECORD whether precipitate appears, relative amount, &
color. If no precipitate appears, write NR.
b. Add 2 drops of Na2CO3 to the 2nd well. RECORD whether precipitate appears, relative amount,
& color. If no precipitate appears, write NR.
c. Add 2 drops of K2CrO4 to the 3rd well. RECORD whether precipitate appears, relative amount, &
color. If no precipitate appears, write NR.
2. Repeat step 1 procedures, but using 10 drops of Ca(NO3)2 in the 2nd column of the spot plate.
Repeat step 1 procedures, but using 10 drops of Sr (NO3)2 in the 3rd column of the spot plate.
Repeat step 1 procedures, but using 10 drops of Ba(NO3)2 in the 4th column of the spot plate.
3. Obtain an unknown solution—RECORD the number. The solution will contain ions of one of the
alkaline earth elements: Mg2+, Ca2+, Sr2+, or Ba2+.
(procedures cont’d on next page)
28
4. Repeat step 1 procedures, but using 10 drops of UNKNOWN in another spot plate.
5. CLEAN UP: The amounts used here are miniscule – rinse off/ clean spot plates in sink, using paper
towel to wipe off any settled precipitates. Dry and leave clean for next lab group – there should not
be any visible residue left on the spot plates. WASH YOUR HANDS.
CONCLUSION
1. Did this experiment verify the predicted group reactivity trend of Group 1 and 2 elements? Explain
using your observations.
2. Predict what you would have observed if the following elements had been tested: Beryllium,
Strontium, Francium.
3. Did this experiment verify the predicted periodic reactivity trend of Group 1 and 2 elements?
Explain using your observations.
4. If zinc and iron had been tested, how would their reactivity compare to the metals in the same
period that you observed in this lab? Explain your answer.
5. Describe the relationship between the number of precipitates formed by each alkaline earth metal
and is position on the periodic table.
6. What is the identity of your unknown compound? Explain in detail how you identified it – refer to
your data.
29
14. IONIC AND MOLECULAR COMPOUNDS:
COMPARING PROPERTIES
INTRODUCTION
Compounds can be classified by the types of bonds that hold their atoms together. Ionic compounds
are composed of ions held together by ionic bonds. Molecular compounds are composed of atoms
held together by covalent bonds. Because solid ionic and molecular compounds looks similar, you
cannot determine the type simply by looking at a sample. Instead, to determine the type of
compound, you must observe certain characteristic properties like melting point, water solubility, and
electrolytic behavior.
Ionic compounds are usually hard, water-soluble, have high melting points, and conduct electricity
when dissolved in water (i.e. they are electrolytes). Molecular compounds can be soft or hard, are
usually less water-soluble, tend to have lower melting points, and cannot conduct electricity when
dissolved in water (i.e. they are non-electrolytes). Because of the difference in their melting points,
ionic compounds are always solids at room temperature, while molecular compounds can be solids,
liquids, or gases.
In this activity, you will perform several tests to determine whether several compounds are ionic or
molecular.
OBJECTIVE
1. Classify eight substances as ionic or molecular using observations of melting point, solubility, and
electrolytic behavior.
PRE-LAB QUESTIONS
2. List three characteristics of ionic compounds.
3. List three characteristics of molecular compounds.
MATERIAL
Hot plate Glass slides or aluminum foil cups 8 samples in vials
Spot plate Conductivity tester with battery Stirring rod
PROCEDURE
2. Obtain eight solid sample vials.

3. TEST MELTING POINT: Using a clean scoopula or wood splint for each sample, place several grains
on either a glass slide or an aluminum foil cup (that you form) to observe melting. Place on
hot plate surface no more than 3 minutes. OBSERVE/ RECORD which samples melt.
VAPOR HAZARD – make sure windows are open & fume hood is turned on.
4. CLEAN UP: Use forceps to help you remove the glass slide or aluminum foil cup onto a paper towel.
If using aluminum foil cups, let cool and throw in garbage. If using glass slides, let cool, and
then rinse/ scrub clean in sink with paper towel and tap water (and soap, if needed).
(procedures cont’d on next pag

30
5. TEST SOLUBILITY: Place several grains of each sample into their own spot plate well. Add de-
ionized water – stir with stirring rod. Clean stirring rod with de-ionized water and wipe dry
before stirring each sample OBSERVE/ RECORD which samples dissolve (keep solutions in
spot plate for next test).
6. TEST SOLUTION CONDUCTIVITY: Using the solutions you made in step 4, place the conductivity
tester electrodes into each well. Clean apparatus electrodes with de-ionized water and wipe
dry before each testing OBSERVE/ RECORD which mixtures cause the light to glow or flash
the fastest. Compare results with de-ionized water, used as a control (it should NOT flash).
7. CLEAN UP: The amounts used here are small - dump solutions down sink, and clean spot plates
with water. Dry with paper towel. Put away hot plate (after cool!) if last group performing
lab. Neatly arrange all materials back at your lab table. WASH YOUR HANDS.
CONCLUSION
1. List the substances in the experiment that are ionic. Explain your conclusion referring to your data
(be specific).
2. List the substances in the experiment that are molecular. Explain your conclusion referring to your
data (be specific).
3. If you know the formula of the compound can you predict whether it is ionic or molecular? Explain.
a. Predict the following, based on the patterns established in this experiment:
a. Solubility of sodium iodide (NaI) in water(high/low)
b. Relative melting point of benzoic acid (C6H5COOH ) (high/low)
c. Electrical conductivity of glucose (C6H12O6) in water
d. Electrical conductivity of magnesium chloride (MgCl2) in water
31
15. MODELS OF COVALENT COMPOUNDS
INTRODUCTION
Why should people care about the shapes of molecules? The properties of molecules depend not only
on their molecular composition, but on their shape as well. Molecular shape affects a compound's
boiling point, freezing point, and the nature of its reactions.
The shape (geometry) of a small molecule can be predicted by examining the central atom and
identifying the number of atoms bonded to it (i.e. bonding areas) and the number of unshared
electron pairs surrounding it (i.e. nonbonding areas). The names of the shapes you will be able to
identify are: linear, bent, trigonal pyramidal, tetrahedral, and trigonal planar. Any molecules
composed of only two atoms is automatically linear.
Covalent bonds are formed when electrons are shared by two nonmetal atoms. If more than one pair
of electrons is shared, this results in a double or triple bonds. If the two atoms have the same or
similar electronegativity values, the bond is said to be nonpolar covalent. If the atoms have a large
difference between their electronegativity values, the bond is polar covalent.
Molecules can also be polar or nonpolar. Polarity of the molecule depends on both the bonds and the
shape.
a. If all the bonds are nonpolar covalent bonds, the molecule will be NONPOLAR.
b. If all the bonds are polar covalent bonds, but the polar bonds are symmetrically arranged
around the central atom (i.e. linear, trigonal planar, or tetrahedral), the molecule will be
NONPOLAR because the bond dipoles cancel each other out (if the bonds are the same).
c. If all the bonds are polar covalent bonds and the arrangement of the polar bonds is
asymmetrical, the electrons will be attracted more to one end of the molecule and a POLAR
molecule or dipole will result.
d. If some of the bonds are polar covalent bonds and some are nonpolar covalent bonds OR if
the polar covalent bonds are different, no matter the arrangement (symmetric or
asymmetric), the bond dipoles will NOT cancel out, and a POLAR molecule will result.
A model in chemistry is a way of thinking about the structure of matter. In this laboratory, you will
build molecular models based off of electron-dot diagrams and determine the molecular shape from
them. You will also determine bond and molecular polarity.
To give additional illustrations, this lab will also introduce you to organic compounds. These
substances contain carbon chains, and can form more complex shapes built upon the more basic
shapes you know. (examples: C2H2, C2H4, C2H6 )
OBJECTIVE
1. Build molecular models based off of electron-dot diagrams and determine molecular shape.
2. Determine bond and molecular polarity.
32
PRE-LAB QUESTIONS
2. List three properties of compounds that are affected by the shape of the molecule.
3. List five shapes that molecules can have.
4. What types of elements bond to form: a. polar bonds b. nonpolar bonds
5. a. Calculate the electronegativity difference for each pair (use your periodic table).
b. Predict the bond type (ionic, polar covalent, nonpolar covalent) for the following using the
electronegativity difference:
i. Na and Cl ii. C and H iii. S and O iv. N and N

6. Summarize the two factors that determine if a molecule is polar or nonpolar
MATERIALS
Molecular models kits Model color-coded key (on kit)
PROCEDURE
1. Draw dot diagrams for the molecules in the data table, and determine the bond type.
2. Assemble models (use the model color-coded key on the box, e.g. BLACK = Carbon) for the
formulas, sketch the model using pencil and colored pencils, and determine the shape and bond
angle.
3. Determine the molecular polarity based on the type of bond and shape of the molecule.
4. CLEAN UP: Put all colored pencils back (there should be no stray pencils laying around), and break
down and return all pieces of the molecular model kit, making sure kits close properly.
CONCLUSION
1. Which shapes always produce polar molecules if the bonds are polar? Explain why.
2. List the two nonpolar molecules which have polar bonds. Explain why these molecules are
nonpolar even though they have polar bonds.
3. Both water (H2O) and carbon dioxide (CO2) are molecules composed of three atoms and 2 bonds.
One is polar and the other is nonpolar. Explain which is which, and why.
4. Why is CH3Cl polar, while CCl4 is not?
5. The polarity of a substance can have a great effect on its solubility. A rule of thumb for solubility is
“like dissolves like”. What is the polarity of alcohol if alcohol dissolves in water?
6. Classify each of the compounds using one of the following (Use the electronegativity chart to
determine bond type.)
ionic bonding
polar covalent bonds in polar molecules
polar covalent bonds in nonpolar molecules
nonpolar covalent bonds in nonpolar molecules.
a. I2 b. CBr4 c. H2S d. NaF
33
16. CHEMICAL NAMES AND FORMULAS
INTRODUCTION
Chemical substances are described not only by unique names but also by unique chemical formulas.
We use this language to communicate about chemistry. In this lab activity you will combine certain
ions, and produce new compounds. This type of formation occurs when a cation is able to combine
with an anion. The formation of these new compounds will be visible to the unaided eye. These
specific co will then be named and their formulas written. Some of these ionic compounds will need
roman numerals in their names. You will need to refer to your textbook, reference charts and class
notes for additional assistance.
OBJECTIVE
1. Identify cations and anions, and write names and formulas for ionic compounds.
2. Observe precipitation compounds, and use solubility chart.
PRE-LAB QUESTIONS
2. What is a precipitate?
3. Why must a roman numeral be used in the name of certain compounds?
4. Which cations require the use of roman numerals (where are they on the periodic table)?
5. What is a cation? List the cations in this experiment (formula & name).
6. What is an anion? List the anions in this experiment (formula & name).
7. Complete Data Table 1, writing the name or formula of the ionic compound, and using your
solubility chart to determine if the substance is soluble (aq) or insoluble (ppt)
MATERIALS
SAFETY: AgNO3 will stain skin and clothing.
9 solutions in dropper pipets spot plate or plastic reaction surface
de-ionized water goggles and aprons
PROCEDURE
2. Clean spot plate or plastic reaction surface thoroughly, and rinse with de-ionized water.
3. Collect solutions from indicated area (unless they have been set-up at your table already).
4. Mix three drops of each indicated solutions according to the grid (a cloudy or grainy appearance
indicates the formation of a precipitate).
5. Record observations in the numbered DATA TABLE 2 (*Reaction #1 has been done for you).
a. In the first row of each grid, write the formula of the precipitate formed.
b. In the second row of each grid, write the name of the precipitate formed (Some will require
Roman numerals).
c. In the third row of each grid, record your observation of the color and appearance.
6. CLEAN UP: The amounts used here are miniscule – rinse off/ clean spot plates in sink, using paper
towel to wipe off any settled precipitates. Dry and leave clean for next lab group – there should not
be any visible residue left on the spot plates. Neatly arrange all equipment at your table, and
WASH YOUR HANDS.
CONCLUSION
34
1. Write the formulas for the following compounds: lead (II) chloride, lead (II) chlorate, zinc
phosphate, zinc phosphide.
2. What distinguishes binary ionic compounds and ionic compounds with polyatomic ions:
a. in name b. in formula.
35
17. COMPOSITION OF HYDRATES
INTRODUCTION
Hydrates are ionic compounds (salts) that have a definite amount of water (water of hydration) as part of
their structure. The water is chemically combined with the salt in a definite ratio. Ratios vary in
different hydrates, but are specific for any given hydrate. The formula of a hydrate is represented in a
special manner. The hydrate of Cobalt (II) chloride has the formula CoCl 2 • xH2O. The unit formula for
the salt appears first, and the water formula is last. The dot means that water is loosely bonded to the
salt. The coefficient x stands for the number of molecules of water bonded to one unit of salt. This
special formula illustrates the law of definite composition.
When hydrates are heated, the "water of hydration" is released as vapor. The remaining solid is known
as the anhydrous salt. The general reaction for heating a hydrate is:
hydrate  anhydrous salt + water
The percent of water in a hydrate can be found experimentally by accurately determining the mass of
the hydrate and the mass of the anhydrous salt. The difference in mass is due to the water lost by the
hydrate. The percentage of water in the original hydrate can easily by calculated.
OBJECTIVE
1. Use the experimentally determined % of water in an unknown hydrate to identify it from a given
list of hydrates.
PRE-LAB QUESTIONS
2. Write the chemical reaction (with physical states) of a sample hydrate, A xBy • nH2O, being heated.
3. Calculate the theoretical percent of water in the following hydrates—show all work and observe
significant figures (HINT: One of these will be your unknown!): MgSO4 • 7 H2O,
CuSO4 • 5 H2O, BaCl2 • 2 H2O, Na2SO4 • 10 H2O, CaCl2 • 2 H2O
MATERIALS
SAFETY: Barium salts are toxic – since this may be your unknown, work carefully.
Be cautious in handling hot glassware.
Evaporating dish scoopula balance, ring stand
crucible tongs or mitten iron ring ceramic tile
wire gauze burner vial containing unknown hydrate sample
PROCEDURE
2. FUME CLEAN THE EVAPORATING DISH:
 Set up a ring stand and a ring with wire gauze. Adjust the ring on the stand so that it is about
8-10 cm from the barrel.
 Adjust the Bunsen burner so that there is a double blue cone.
36
 Wash and dry an evaporating dish then heat it in the hottest part of the (blue) flame for 1
minute, You may need to lift the burner—DO NOT ADJUST RING STAND ONCE YOU START
HEATING – IT WILL BE VERY HOT!
 Turn off burner, and remove dish using tongs or mittens to ceramic tile to let cool. Allow dish
to cool thoroughly (wait at least 5 minutes).
b. MASS THE EMPTY EVAPORATING DISH (when cool). Massing dish while warm will cause
experimental error.
c. MASS EVAPORATING DISH & HYDRATE:

 Obtain a sample of unknown hydrate. Be sure to record the number on the vial.
 Mass about 2 grams of the hydrate into an evaporating dish. RECORD THE EXACT MASS. Do
not waste time trying to get exactly 2 grams.
 Break up any lumps.
d. HEAT HYDRATE:
 Avoid any popping and splattering AND if the edges of the hydrate start to turn brown, remove
the heat momentarily and resume heating at a gentler rate.
 Heat dish gently by moving the burner flame back and forth along the bottom, for 5 minutes.
Increase the heat gradually and set burner down on stand. Heat strongly for an additional 5
minutes.
 Turn off burner, and remove dish using tongs or mittens to ceramic tile to let cool. Allow dish
e. MASS THE EVAPORATING DISH & ANHYDROUS SALT (when cool). Massing dish while warm will
cause experimental error.
f. HEAT TO CONSTANT MASS: Repeat heating (steps 4 and 5) to obtain the second heating value. If the
mass changes by 0.1g or more, heat a third time. Repeat until there is essentially no change in the
mass. You can then assume that all the water has been driven off.
g. CLEAN UP: After getting all masses, dump anhydrous salt in designated WASTE CONTAINER, and
rinse off/ dry/ return clean evaporating dish to table. Return unused hydrate sample to teacher. Put
away ring stand, ring, wire mesh, and evaporating dish (after cool!) if last group performing lab.
WASH YOUR HANDS.
CONCLUSION
1. Write the number and complete formula of your unknown hydrate? Why did you select it from the
list? support your choice using your calculations.
2. Why is it necessary to measure the mass of the anhydrous salt immediately after cooling? Be specific
about what would happen to the mass if you waited too long.
3. A hydrate compound has a mass of 1.632 g before heating and 1.008 g after heating. Calculate the
experimental percentage of water in the hydrate—SHOW ALL WORK.
37
18. ALUMINUM FOIL ACTIVITY
INTRODUCTION
In this activity, you will NOT be given detailed procedures to follow – you will need to use what you
know (both given information and previously learned information) and what you want to determine
(your objectives) to determine how you will perform your lab. This may be challenging and
frustrating, but this is what professional scientists do on a regular basis.
This activity will be done cooperatively. All members of the group must be involved and one grade
will be given to the group. (If however, I observe that a member of the group is not participating, that
person will receive a lower grade.)
Here is some information that may be helpful:

1. Aluminum’s density is 2.69 g/cm3.
2. An atom’s diameter is 2.50 x 10-8 cm. (Assume the atom is a sphere.)
There are three rules that must be observed:

1. You may NOT destroy, crumble, tear or fold your piece of foil. It must be returned in exactly
the same condition that you received it.
2. You may NOT spy or eavesdrop on other groups. You can only confer with members of your
group. Your group will be given a ZERO should I see you talking with other groups or looking
at/ listening to what other groups are doing. That said, please work quietly.
3. You may NOT remove any papers from this lab. All materials must be turned in by the end of
the period.
OBJECTIVE
1. Determine the thickness of the piece of aluminum foil to three significant digits.
2. Determine the thickness of the piece of aluminum foil in terms of atoms.
3. Determine the total number of atoms in the piece of aluminum foil.
PRE-LAB QUESTIONS
1. What are the three objective of this lab activity?
2. What three rules must be followed.
3. You may need to use some (or all) of the following given/ previously learned information: What is:
a. The formula of density?
b. The formula for the volume of a box?
c. The formula for the volume of a sphere?
d. The molar mass of aluminum?
e. The number of atoms in a mole?
f. The density of aluminum?
g. The diameter of an atom?
MATERIALS
Aluminum foil Lab equipment or tools (at your disposal)
38
SOME DIRECTIONS:
1. Write the names of the group members.
2. You may use any equipment that is presently in the room.
3. Decide on a procedure and write it. Be specific.
4. Prepare a data table. It must contain every measurement, given number, or result of a calculation.
5. Show calculations clearly (but NOT on the data table) – put this in a separate section.
GROUP WRITEUP:
WHAT IS TO BE SUBMITTED BY THE END OF THE PERIOD
1. The names of the group members.
2. The procedure
3. The data table.
4. The calculations with the results of the objectives clearly marked (circle or box answers).
5. The aluminum foil
CONCLUSION QUESTION:
If the population of the world is about 7 x 109 people, how many atoms of aluminum from your foil
could you distribute to each person in the world? SHOW YOUR WORK, CIRCLE YOUR ANSWER.
39
19. EMPIRICAL FORMULAS
INTRODUCTION
You will be given an unknown binary compound to analyze. The general formula of each compound
will be AxBy. Heating any of the compounds will cause them to decompose according the following
equation:
AXBY (s)  x A (s) + y B (g)
Since “B" is released as a gas, strong heating will leave only the" A" of the unknown in the evaporating
dish.
OBJECTIVE
1. Analyze a binary compound, AxBy, to determine its formula.
PRE-LAB QUESTIONS
2. Write the chemical reaction (with physical states) of A xBy being decomposed:
3. A 0.750 g sample of tin is oxidized with nitric acid to form tin oxide. Calculate the empirical formula
of tin oxide if the original tin sample gained 0.201 g of oxygen. Show all work, and circle final
answer.
4. Excess sulfur reacts with 0.565 g of cobalt to give 1.027 g of cobalt sulfide. Find the empirical
formula of the product. Show all work, and circle final answer.
5. If 1.164 g of iron filings reacts with chlorine gas to give 3.384 g of iron chloride, what is the
empirical formula of the compound? Show all work, and circle final answer.
6. Why should you wait at least 5 minutes before massing the evaporating dish (i.e. why would
measuring a hot evaporating dish lead to an inaccurate measurement)?
MATERIAL
SAFETY: The solids are safe if handled properly.
If any solid comes in contact with your skin, wash with soap and water
evaporating dish wire screen balance tongs or mittens
Bunsen burner striker iron ring ring stand
PROCEDURE
(similar to Lab #17: Composition of Hydrates)
2. WASH, DRY, & FUME CLEAN THE EVAPORATING DISH (set up ring stand, ring, wire mesh, and Bunsen
burner)
3. MASS THE EMPTY EVAPORATING DISH (when cool—minimum wait time 5 minutes). Measure to
0.01 g (round). Massing dish while warm will cause experimental error.
4. MASS EVAPORATING DISH & UNKNOWN COMPOUND:
i. Obtain a sample of unknown compound. Be sure to record the number on the vial.
ii. Mass about 3 grams of the hydrate into an evaporating dish. RECORD THE MASS TO 0.01 g.
Do not waste time trying to get exactly 3 grams.
iii. Break up any lumps.
40
5. HEAT COMPOUND:
i. Begin heating slowly. Heat dish gently by moving the burner flame back and forth along the
bottom, increasing the heat gradually until you have heated the dish strongly for about 10
minutes. You are driving off all of the “B” in your unknown in this step.
ii. Turn off burner, and remove dish using tongs or mittens to ceramic tile to let cool. Allow dish
6. MASS THE EVAPORATING DISH & CONTENTS (now just the “A” in your unknown) when cool.
7. HEAT TO CONSTANT MASS: Repeat heating (steps 4 and 5) to obtain the 2nd heating value. If the
mass changes by 0.1 g or more, heat a 3rd time. Repeat until there is essentially no change in the
mass. You can then assume that all the “B” has been driven off.
8. CLEAN UP: After getting all masses, dump anhydrous salt down SINK DRAIN with plenty of water, and
rinse off/ dry/ return clean evaporating dish to table. Return unused sample to teacher. Put away
ring stand, ring, wire mesh, and evaporating dish (after cool!) if last group performing lab. WASH
YOUR HANDS.
CONCLUSION
1. Complete calculations in data table (showing all work). Use the atomic masses in the following
table (different for each unknown number):
THE ATOMIC MASSES OF “A” AND “B” CAN DETERMINE FROM THIS TABLE
Unknown Atomic Mass Atomic Mass Unknown Atomic Mass Atomic Mass
Number of “A” of “B” Number of “A” of “B”
1 106 20.7 13 34.1 39.9
2 35.3 62.0 14 63.3 24.8
3 89.6 35.0 15 212 41.4
4 46.6 27.3 16 68.2 79.8
5 68.9 13.5 17 70.6 124
6 30.5 71.3 18 61.0 142.6
7 122 35.7 19 46.0 80.6
8 46.1 53.9 20 92.2 107.8
9 23.0 40.3 21 106 20.7
10 92.2 27.0 22 35.3 62.0
11 47.7 41.9 23 89.6 35.0
12 78.5' 11.5 24 46.6 27.3
2. What is the number and empirical formula of your unknown.
3. What is an empirical formula?
4. What additional information would you need to calculate the molecular formula?
41
20. TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS
INTRODUCTION
There are five basic reaction types that we can observe in this course: Single replacement, double
replacement, decomposition, synthesis, combustion (complete or incomplete). In this lab activity you
will carefully perform and observe five reactions. Using class discussion, other lab activities,
demonstrations, your textbook, and class notes, you will then determine the reaction types and write
balanced equations for these reactions.
OBJECTIVE
1. Perform and observe several different reaction types.
2. Identify and write balanced equations for each reaction.
PRE-LAB QUESTIONS
2. a. Write balanced chemical equations to describe the following chemical reactions:
b. Identify each type of reaction (if there is more than one possible type, list all).
1. Aluminum reacts with the oxygen in the air to form aluminum oxide.
2. Hydrogen peroxide, H2O2, decomposes into water and oxygen gas.
3. Hydrochloric acid reacts with magnesium to produce hydrogen gas and magnesium chloride.
4. Hydrochloric acid also reacts with sodium hydroxide to produce table salt and water.
MATERIALS
right-angle glass bend large test tubes (3) splints burner
large beaker small beaker forceps small test tubes (2)
solid stoppers test tube rack ring stand one-hole stopper
rubber tubing test tube holder/ clamp wash bottle
PROCEDURE
Put on your laboratory apron and safety goggles. Keep goggles on when
cleaning up.
A. REACTION A
1. Place CuCO3 in a small test tube to a height of about 1 cm (about the width of a pinky nail).
OBSERVE/ RECORD the appearance of the sample.
2. Using the test tube holder or a test tube clamp, heat the tube strongly for about 3 minutes
(pointing the opening AWAY from other people). OBSERVE/ RECORD any changes in the
appearance of the solid in the test tube.
3. Turn off the burner, and quickly hold a burning splint or match into the test tube. OBSERVE/
RECORD the result. Extinguish the burning splint or match with tap water.
4. CLEAN UP: Let test tube cool, then carefully add water to test tube with wash bottle (be careful,
contents may bubble and release heat – make sure your goggles are on!) Dump contents into
sink with plenty of running water. Wash out test tube with test tube brush and water, removing
all solid residue – return to table. Place wet splint or match in garbage.
42
B. REACTION B
1. Obtain a piece of magnesium ribbon. Polish with steel wool.
2. Using crucible tongs to hold the ribbon, ignite the magnesium in the Bunsen burner and hold it
over a watch glass. (DO NOT LOOK DIRECTLY AT THE BURNING MAGNESIUM!)
3. Examine the material in the watch glass. OBSERVE/ RECORD what you see.
4. CLEAN UP: Wash the contents of the watch glass down the sink. Rinse and dry the watch glass
and crucible tongs.
C. REACTION C
1. In the small test tube mix 4 drops of AgNO3 and 4 drops of HCl. OBSERVE/ RECORD what you
see.
2. CLEAN UP: Dispose of liquids in the ACID WASTE CONTAINER in the FUME HOOD. Rinse/ clean
test tube and return to lab table.
D. REACTION D (See figure to right)

1. Place 10 ml of hydrochloric acid (HCl) in one test tube. Insert the
one- hole stopper with the glass tube into the test tube.
3. Clamp test tube onto a ring stand.
4. SET UP GAS COLLECTION TUBE: Fill a test tube with tap water,
and invert the tube into a large beaker of tap water as shown
(without losing any water in test tube). Keep the test tube mouth
under the water.
5. Run the rubber tubing to the collection test tube so that the free
end of the test tube is just inside the mouth of the tube.
6. Obtain some pieces of mossy zinc (Zn). Open the test tube containing the HCI and carefully drop in
the zinc. OBSERVE/ RECORD what happens.
7. Allow the gas collection tube to fill with gas. Collect another if necessary.
8. Stopper the tubes of gas with solid stoppers and remove from the water. Keep them inverted (you
will need these for REACTION E).
9. CLEAN UP: Dispose of Zn and HCl in test tube in the ACID WASTE CONTAINER in the FUME HOOD.
Rinse/ clean test tube and return to lab table. Dump beaker of tap water into sink.
E. REACTION E
1. Dry the gas collection tube(s) from REACTION D on the outside. Keeping inverted, remove the
stopper from the test tubes and carefully bring a burning splint to the mouth of the gas-filled
tube. OBSERVE/ RECORD what happens and any change in tube.
2. CLEAN UP: Put away ring stand and test tube clamp if last group performing lab. WASH YOUR
HANDS.
CONCLUSION
1. Study the observations you recorded, and write a balanced chemical equation for each reaction, and
then identify the type of reaction that took place in each case (A-E).
43
21. SINGLE REPLACEMENT REACTIONS
INTRODUCTION
Most single replacement reactions occur in aqueous solutions. In a single replacement reaction, one
element replaces (or displaces) another element in a compound as indicated by the general
equations:
A + BX → AX + B or Y + BX → BY + X
In the first type, a CATIONIC SINGLE REPLACEMENT, a metal replaces the cation (either hydrogen or a
metal) in the compound. For example, zinc reacts with hydrochloric acid to replace hydrogen,
liberating hydrogen gas:
Zn + 2 HCl → ZnCl2 + H2.
In the second type, an ANION SINGLE REPLACEMENT, a nonmetal (halogen) replaces the anion (a
halide) in the compound. An example of this is For example, chlorine reacts with potassium
bromide, liberating bromine:
Cl2 + 2 KBr → 2 KCl + Br2.
In order for a single replacement reaction to occur, the element that is replacing the element in the
compound must have a higher activity. Otherwise, there is no reaction. Elements have differing
abilities to replace other elements, and they can be organized into a list called the activity series. The
most active element, which is placed at the top of the series, can replace every element below it.
In this experiment, you will perform cationic single replacement reactions, and use your observations
to determine the order of activity of Pb, Cu, Zn, Mg, Cu, Ag, and H2.
OBJECTIVE
1. Perform single replacement reactions to experimentally determine the order of activity of elements.
PRE-LAB QUESTIONS
2. In the single replacement reaction, A + BX, what must be true in order for A to replace B?
3. During a single replacement reaction, what happens to the metal that is least reactive?
4. Give the following reactions of metals A,B,C, and D:
a. Write < or > to indicate the relative activity of metals in the given reactions.
b. Order metals A-D from most reactive to least reactive.
5. Why must the spot plate be cleaned after each trial?
MATERIALS
24-well micro plate 6 solutions in dropper pipets
De-ionized water 4 types of metals in vials (Pb, Cu, Zn, Mg)
44
PROCEDURE

2. Clean micro plate wells. Do a final rinse with de-ionized water.
3. Put 5 drops of Cu(NO3)2 solution into each well of column #1,
Put 5 drops of Pb(NO3)2 solution into each well of column #2,
Put 10 drops of Zn(NO3)2 solution into each well of column #3,
Put 5 drops of AgNO3 solution into each well of column #4,
Put 5 drops of HCl into each well of column #5, and
Put 5 drops of Mg(NO3)2 into each well of column #6.
4. To each well of row #1, add a clean piece of Pb.
To each well of row #2, add a clean piece of Cu.
To each well of row #3, add a clean piece of Zn.
To each well of row #4, add a clean piece of Mg.
5. If an immediate reaction is not visible, wait at least 10 minutes. OBSERVE/ RECORD the results.
6. CLEAN UP:
 -Use forceps to remove the pieces of metal from the micro plate and place them in the
designated SOLID WASTE CONTAINER.
-Rinse and dry the forceps.
 The amounts used here are miniscule – Empty the liquids remaining in the micro plate into the
SINK.
 -Rinse the micro plate with tap water by gently pouring water over the wells then turning the
micro plate over to drain it into the sink. Use paper towel to wipe off any settled precipitates—
there should not be any visible residue left on the spot plate. Dry off excess water.
 Before leaving the laboratory, neatly arrange materials and WASH YOUR HANDS.
CONCLUSION
1. Write balanced equations for each reaction that occurred (make sure to cross charges and
remember diatomic elements).
2. Based on your observations, list the order of decreasing activity (most active first) for Pb, Cu, Zn, Mg,
Cu, Ag, and H2. Justify your answer.
45
22. DOUBLE REPLACEMENT REACTIONS
INTRODUCTION
Precipitation reactions (usually double replacement reactions) occur when two solutions mix and
form a solid product that is insoluble in water and falls out of solution like rain or snow. The insoluble
product, a precipitate, separates from the solution and can be identified by the cloudy, milky,
gelatinous, or grainy opaque appearance it gives to the mixture. Over time, precipitates settle to the
bottom of the container. The symbol used to represent the physical state of a precipitate can be (s),
(ppt), or ().
In this activity, you will mix solutions of lead, silver, and calcium compounds with other solutions. You
will observe and describe the precipitates that are formed. You will then write and balance complete
chemical equations for the precipitation reactions.
OBJECTIVE
1. Observe and write equations for double replacement precipitation reactions.
2. Use solubility rules to identify the precipitate in each reaction.
PRE-LAB QUESTIONS
2. What are cations? Where on the periodic table are they found. Give two examples.
3. What are anions? Where on the periodic table are they found. Give two examples.
4. Define the terms: a. solution b. precipitate
MATERIALS
11 solutions in pipiets plastic reaction surface (transparency sheet) de-ionized water
PROCEDURE
2. Place the plastic reaction surface (transparency sheet) on the lab table. Make certain it is clean by
rinsing with de-ionized water. Dry with paper towel.
3. Do NOT let the tip of the pipet touch the drop to avoid contamination and false reactions . Place
one drop of each solution as shown in lab table, combining the substances in the columns with the
substances in the rows according to the grid.
4. OBSERVE/ RECORD observations on data table. Write “ppt” if a precipitate forms, and the color of
the precipitate. Write “NO” if no precipitate forms.
5. CLEAN UP: The amounts involved are miniscule—rinse off the reaction surface in the sink with
plenty of running water. Use paper towel to wipe off any settled precipitates—there should not be
any visible residue left on the transparency sheet. Dry off excess water. Before leaving the
laboratory, neatly arrange materials and WASH YOUR HANDS.
(conclusion on next page)
46
CONCLUSION
1. How do you know a double replacement reaction occurs?
2. Based on your observations, list two cations that commonly form precipitates:
3. Based on your observations, list two cations that never form precipitates:
4. Based on your observations, list one anion that never forms precipitates:
5. a. Write balanced chemical equations for all the precipitation reactions of AgNO 3 that you observed
(be sure to combine ions in formulas according to their charges).
b. Write (s) after the formula of the precipitate.
6. a. Write balanced chemical equations for all the precipitation reactions of CaCl 2 that you observed
(be sure to combine ions in formulas according to their charges).
b. Write (s) after the formula of the precipitate.
47
23. FOUR SOLUTION PROBLEM
INTRODUCTION
You will be provided with 8 pipets containing aqueous solutions. Four are identified and labeled
AgNO3, FeCl3, KSCN and NaOH (Note: SCN- is a polyatomic ion called the “thiocyanide” ion). The other
four pipets contain the same solutions but labeled only A, B, C, and D. You are expected to identify
what solution each pipet contains using your observations of the four known solutions. You will then
use your solubility chart to write net ionic equations for any precipitation reactions observed.
OBJECTIVE
1. Identify the contents of pipets A, B, C, and D.
PRE-LAB QUESTIONS
2. Define the terms: a. net ionic equation b. spectator ions
MATERIALS
AgNO3, FeCl3, KSCN and NaOH in labeled pipets
AgNO3, FeCl3, KSCN and NaOH in pipets labeled A, B, C and D.
plastic reaction surface (transparency sheet)
de-ionized water bottle.
PROCEDURE
2. React each of the “known solution” with each other. Record your observations for each reaction in
Data Table 1. If a precipitate is formed, use the solubility chart to predict which compound was the
precipitate and its color. Record the formula and color of the precipitate in the Table 1, using
colored pencils to indicate the color.
3. Once you have reacted all known reactants, react each unknown with each known. If a precipitate
forms, observe the color of the precipitate using colored pencils. Record your observations in Data
Table 2. Use this data to determine the identity of the unknowns.
CONCLUSION
1. Write the chemical and net ionic equation for each reaction in which a precipitate was formed from
Table 1.
2. What is the identity of the unknown pipets (A-D)?
48
24. A CHEMICAL REACTION:
MOLES OF IRON AND COPPER
INTRODUCTION
You will be provided with 8 pipets containing aqueous solutions. Four are identified and labeled
AgNO3, FeCl3, KSCN and NaOH (Note: SCN- is a polyatomic ion called the “thiocyanide” ion). The other
four pipets contain the same solutions but labeled only A, B, C, and D. You are expected to identify
what solution each pipet contains using your observations of the four known solutions. You will then
use your solubility chart to write net ionic equations for any precipitation reactions observed.
OBJECTIVE
1. Determine the formula and name of the iron chloride produced when iron and copper (II) chloride
react by experimentally determining the iron to copper mole ratio.
PRE-LAB QUESTIONS
2. What are the two possible formulas for iron chloride (Fe+2 or Fe+3)?
3. Write the two balanced equations that could occur in this lab when iron reacts copper II chloride. (In
one assume FeCl2 is formed and in the other FeCl3).
4. What does it mean to decant in the context of the lab activity?
5. Why must the product of this reaction be completely dry before massing?
MATERIALS
SAFETY: HCl is corrosive.
100 mL beaker 250 mL beaker graduated cylinder
stirring rod wash bottle w/de-ionized water forceps
balance steel wool copper(II) chloride
drying oven or heat lamp iron nail 1.0M HCl solution
PROCEDURE
2. MASS the 100 mL beaker. RECORD.
3. Add about 2.50 g of copper chloride to the beaker. Add 15 mL of de-ionized water and stir until all
the copper chloride dissolves.
4. Use the steel wool to make the nail shiny (if not new) and MASS the nail. RECORD. Place the nail in
the beaker containing the solution. Leave it for about 20 minutes.
5. Use forceps to pick up the nail. Any copper that
is adhering to the nail should be added to the
beaker by scraping and washing it off with water
in the wash bottle. Set the nail aside to dry on a
paper towel. See figure to right.
6. Carefully decant* the liquid from the copper.
Pour the liquid into the large beaker so if some
of the copper is poured, off you can retrieve it.
Discard the liquid in the sink. See figure to right.
7. Rinse the copper again with 15 mL de-ionized water. Decant and repeat this step three more times.
49
8. Wash the copper with 10 mL 1.0M HCl, decant and wash one more time with the water.
9. MASS the nail. RECORD.
10. Label the beaker and dry off copper by placing in drying oven or letting air-dry until the next day
(teacher will indicate where to place beaker).
11. CLEAN UP (Day 1): After massing nail, place in waste container indicated by teacher. Clean up lab
area, and WASH YOUR HANDS.
12. MASS the beaker with the dry copper. RECORD. At this point the beaker with the Cu must be
completely dry.
13. CLEAN UP (Day 2): Clean out the copper into a waste basket. Rinse the beaker clean, and return to
location indicated by teacher. WASH YOUR HANDS.
CALCULATIONS
Show all set-ups on the table. Make certain to use units.
1. Calculate the mass of copper that formed. (beaker with Cu – beaker)
2. Calculate the moles of copper that formed.
3. Calculate the mass of the iron that reacted. (nail before reaction – nail after reaction)
4. Calculate the moles of iron that reacted.
5. Determine the ratio of moles of iron to moles of copper (round). Is the mole ratio of iron to copper
closer to 1:1 or 2:3?
6. Use the ratio of Fe to Cu you calculated to write the balanced chemical equation that best describes
the reaction that occurred in this lab. (Refer to prelab question #3.)
CONCLUSION
1. What type of reaction is this?
2. Can a reaction occur with copper nails and iron chloride? Explain.
50
25. MOLE-MASS RELATIONSHIP & % YIELD
INTRODUCTION
In a balanced chemical equation, the total number of atoms of each element must be the same on
each side of the equation to satisfy the law of conservation of mass.
Reactants and products can be converted from grams to moles of a particular substance using the
molar mass (in grams) of each substance. The mole relationship, given by the coefficients of the
balanced equations, can be used to calculate how many moles of every substance will take part in the
reaction.
In this experiment, you will investigate the quantitative relationships in the reaction:
NaHCO3 (s) + HCl (aq) ↔ NaCl (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (g)
A known mass of sodium hydrogen carbonate will be reacted with excess hydrochloric acid. Knowing
the mass of NaHCO3(s) that reacts, you can determine from the balanced equation the mass of NaCl
that should be produced. You can compare this theoretical value with the actual experimental mass
of NaCl produced, and calculate the percentage yield.
OBJECTIVE
1. Apply the mole-mass relationship to calculate the theoretical mass for a reaction.
2. Calculate the percentage yield after performing a reaction and obtaining the experimental mass of
the product.
PRE-LAB QUESTIONS
2. What information is given by the coefficients in chemical reactions?
3. What is a ratio? Give an everyday example of a ratio.
4. How are ratios related to chemical reactions?
5. How can you experimentally demonstrate that mass is conserved in a chemical reaction?
MATERIALS
SAFETY: HCl in this experiment is highly concentrated and VERY corrosive.
Be cautious in handling hot glassware.
balance burner spatula evaporating dish
ring stand iron ring wire gauze watch glass
6M hydrochloric acid (HCl) sodium hydrogen carbonate (NaHCO3)
PROCEDURE
2. Flame dry a clean evaporating dish by heating it in the hot part of a (blue double cone) burner flame
for about 5 minutes. Allow the dish to cool.
3. MASS an evaporating dish plus a watch glass. RECORD. (Do not lose track of which evaporating dish
and watch glass you massed!)
51
4. Leaving the watch glass and evaporating dish on the balance, add about 2.50 g sodium hydrogen
carbonate (NaHCO3) to the evaporating dish. RECORD.
5. Set up the ring stand, ring and wire gauze. Place the watch glass on top of the evaporating dish and
place the dish on the wire gauze.
6. Obtain about 5 mL of 6M hydrochloric acid (HCl). CAUTION: Handle this acid carefully. It can cause
painful burns if it touches your skin. While keeping most of the evaporating dish covered with the
watch glass, wlowly add HCl to the NaHCO3 in the evaporating dish, a few drops at a time. The
watch glass will prevent any acid from spattering out.
7. Continue adding acid until the reaction (bubbling) stops. Carefully tilt the evaporating dish back and
forth a couple of times to make sure that the acid has contacted all the NaHCO 3.
8. After making sure that all bubbling has stopped, remove the watch glass and place it curved side up
on the lab bench.
9. Holding the burner in your hand, gently heat the evaporating dish using a low flame (adjust needle
valve) and move the burner back and forth to avoid spattering.
10. When almost all the liquid is gone remove the burner and replace the watch glass on the
evaporating dish (IMPORTANT: as the product dries, it will start to spatter! Make sure you have a
watch glass on top before that happens!). Leave a small opening for vapor to escape. Heat gently
again until no liquid remains. Allow the dish to cool.
11. MASS the watch glass, evaporating dish and contents (NaCl). RECORD.
12. CLEAN UP: Wash contents of evaporating dish down sink drain with plenty of running water. Rinse/
clean the evaporating dish and watch glass. Dry off with paper towel, and return to lab table.
Arrange items neatly, and WASH YOUR HANDS.
CONCLUSION
1. Complete calculations in data table.

2. According to the balanced equation for the reaction used in this experiment, what is the ratio of
moles of NaHCO3 to moles of NaCl?
3. What is the experimental mole ratio of NaHCO3 used to NaCl formed? Is it the same as the ratio
obtained from the balanced equation?
4. List one source of error that would account for a yield that is less than 100%.
5. List one source of error that would account for a yield that is more than 100.
6. If the masses of all but one of the substances that take part in a chemical reaction are known,
explain, why is it possible to determine the unknown mass by subtraction?
52
26. UNDERSTANDING HALF-LIFE
INTRODUCTION
In any sample of a radioactive isotope (radioisotope), the individual atoms are decaying in a random
fashion. It is impossible to predict which atom is the next to decay, yet statistically you can predict
how many atoms will decay within a certain period of time. Scientists measure how much time
elapses when half of the atoms in a given radioactive sample decay. This time is called half-life. For
example, the half-life of carbon-14 is 5730 years. This means that if you were to start with 100 grams
of carbon-14 today, in 5730 years you would have 50 grams left. After another 5730 years (11,460
years total) you would have 25 grams left.
Half-lives of radioisotopes vary greatly, from a fraction of a second to billions of years. The half-life is
a very important consideration when choosing a radioisotope for a specific application. For example,
you would use a radioisotope with a longer half-life for dating fossils, and a radioisotope with a
shorter half-life for medical imaging and tracing.
OBJECTIVE
1. Use a model to understand the relationship between radioactive decay, half-life, and a decay graph.
PRE-LAB QUESTIONS
2. What is meant by the term half-life?
3. What is the half life of carbon-14?
4. How can carbon-14 help in determining the age of a (human) fossil?
5. A radioisotope has a half-life of 2 years and you have 800 grams of this substance today.
a. How much will you have left 2 years from today?
b. How much will you have left 8 years from today? Show work.
6. Is the quantity of a radioisotope ever equal to exactly zero? Explain your answer.
MATERIALS
Cardboard box about 200 pennies
PROCEDURE
1. Count the number of pennies in the box. You should have 200. RECORD YOUR STARTING NUMBER
(if you do not have 200, record the actual number).
2. Place all pennies into the box and put the lid on. Shake the box for about 5 seconds, then open the
box and remove all the pennies that have the “heads” side up. These are your “decayed atoms”.
COUNT & RECORD THE NUMBER OF PENNIES REMOVED. Do not put the pennies back in the box.
3. Shake the box again for 5 seconds. Open the box and again remove “heads” side up pennies.
COUNT & RECORD THE NUMBER OF PENNIES REMOVED. Do not put the pennies back in the box.
4. Repeat step 3 until you have either one penny or no pennies left.
5. Calculate the # of pennies remaining using subtraction. To determine the % removed each time,
take the number of pennies removed after a particular shake, and divide it by the # of pennies
remaining from the previous shake.
6. CLEAN UP: Put all the materials away and work on completing the lab.
53
CONCLUSION
1. Make a graph of your results: pennies remaining (y) vs. time (x).
2. Describe the shape of your graph.
3. If you had started with 1000 pennies, would the shape of the graph be different? Explain.
4. Approximately what percent of the pennies were removed each time?
5. Is it possible to identify which specific pennies will be “heads” up? Explain.
6. Is it possible to predict approximately how many pennies will be “head” up for each shake? Explain.
54
27. DETERMINING THE HALF-LIFE OF Ba-137m
(Class Experiment)
INTRODUCTION
The half-life of a radioactive isotope (radioisotope) is the time required for the activity (or mass) of a
sample to be reduced to one half of its original activity (or mass). Today, the class will determine the
half-life of the radioisotope Ba-137m. The m stands for “metastable”, a condition of temporary
stability. A Ba-137 generator will be used as the source of the Ba-137m. The generator contains Cs-
137, which decays by beta emission to Ba-137m. Cs-137 has a half-life of over 30 years. The Ba-137m
that is produced possesses more energy than is normally possessed by a stable nucleus and “cools”
(decays) to stable Ba-137 by gamma emission. You will determine the half-life of Ba-127m.
A dosimeter or Geiger counter is used to detect radioactive emission, and the unit used is counts per
minute (cpm). There is always some level of radioactive emission occurring, also known as the
“background.” Therefore, to measure just the emission from the Ba-137m decay (the net cpm), the
background cpm must be subtracted from the total (or gross) cpm.
OBJECTIVE
1. Determine the half-life of Ba-137m using experimental decay data and the decay curve.
PRE-LAB QUESTIONS
2. If you are taking a 5 minute background reading, how do you calculate the counts per minute
(cpm)?
3. If your readings are taken for 30 seconds, how do you calculate the cpm (gross)?
4. How do you calculate the cpm (net) from the cpm (gross)?
MATERIALS
A Cs-137/Ba-137m “minigenerator, Geiger tube and sample holder, and Geiger counter (scalar).
PROCEDURE
1. The Geiger counter will be turned on by your teacher and allowed to run without a sample for 5
minutes so that a background radiation count can be taken. RECORD the counts.
2. Your teacher will “milk” the minigenerator to wash out a 7 or 8 drop sample of Ba-137m into the
small metal dish. A Geiger tube will be placed over the sample in a sample holder.
3. The counter will be turned on for 30 seconds and then stopped. You will quickly record the counts.
4. The counter will then be set to zero and restarted 30 seconds after it was turned off. In this manner
you will collect several 30 second readings with a 30 second “rest” between each reading. This will
continue for about 10 minutes.
5. Fill out your data sheet as the experiment proceeds.
6. Construct a graph of the data. Your cpm (net) should be plotted on the y-axis and the time (either in
seconds or minutes) on the x-axis. Use the beginning of each interval as your time. (For example:
for the interval 0-30 sec, plot your activity versus 0 seconds.) Remember to draw the best fit
smooth curve.
7. Use your graph to calculate the half-life of Ba-137m. Choose any convenient cpm (net) for your first
activity and find the time that corresponds to that activity. Then take half of that first activity (this is
55
your second activity) and find the time that corresponds to that. Repeat using half of the second
activity. Be sure to do at least two trials and average the results. Show all your work either on the
graph paper or on a separate sheet of paper.
CONCLUSION
1. Based on your graph, what is the half-life of Ba-137m? Show your work on the graph, and explain
how you arrived at your answer.
2. If the “accepted” value for the half-life is 2.6 minutes, what is your percent error? Show your
calculation. If you plotted your graph in seconds, remember to convert your units
3. Some Cs-137 is always mixed into the Ba-137m sample. Does this affect the measurement of the
half-life of the Ba-137m sample? Explain.
4. Why is it safe to throw the remaining Ba-137 down the drain after 10 or 15 minutes?
56
28. BACK TO CHERNOBYL
(Documentary & Discussion)
The film “Back to Chernobyl” looks at the impact of the Chernobyl accident on Pripyat, the Soviet
Union, Europe, and the rest of the world three years after the nuclear accident. Chernobyl was the
first disaster to have large-scale impacts upon the public, and many of the lessons learned there can
be applied to the more recent nuclear disaster in Fukushima Daiichi, Japan (2011).
At 1:23 a.m. on Saturday, April 26, 1986, Reactor #4 at the Chernobyl (in the former Soviet
Union) nuclear power plant exploded. The first of two explosions released a huge plume of
radioactive material that spread and settled over most of Europe. Only a shell of the reactor building
remained as the reactor fuel core began to burn its way through the concrete floor toward the earth
below. Meanwhile, Soviet scientists and firefighters tried to determine how to extinguish the fire.
The heat of the main explosion carried the plume so high that initial radiation levels near the
plant were surprisingly low. Heavy winds carried radiation away from Kiev, a nearby city of 2.5 million
people, and into Scandinavia and the rest of Europe. On Monday, April 28, scientists at a power plant
north of Stockholm, Sweden detected levels of radiation 4 to 5 times higher than normal. It was not
until later that evening that Soviet officials announced that an accident at Chernobyl had occurred.
Following the explosion, contaminated material was removed from the Chernobyl plant and
Reactor #4 was sealed. The three other reactors were put back into operation—one only six months
after the accident, the other two shortly thereafter. The Chernobyl accident prompted significant
changes in nuclear policy within the Soviet Union.
Pripyat, located near the Chernobyl plant, was a thriving city of 50,000 before the accident.
Although there were no visible effects in Pripyat after the explosion, radioactive material scattered
over the entire countryside, and the city still remains uninhabited.
Indian Point 3 –
Plant with a
containment
building
57
Document Released on Eve of Chernobyl Disaster Anniversary 2003
Days before the 17th anniversary on 26 April 2003 of the disaster at Ukraine's Chernobyl
nuclear reactor, a Ukrainian intelligence agency declassified several documents that show
design flaws, shoddy workmanship, and major violations of safety rules at the plant. The 121
documents released exposed 29 accidents that occurred before the 1982 accident, including a
1982 accident that caused the release of small doses of radiation.
Russia has responded by claiming that post-Soviet Ukraine has not properly maintained the
concrete canopy covering the faulty reactor, which was only built to last five years. Atomic
Energy Minister Alexander Rumyantsev warned that "nobody has inspected these walls in
detail. We do not know what reactions are taking place under the shield." The Ministry has
also claimed that there are holes in the so-called sarcophagus through which radiation could
leak. A collapse of the structure would likely spread a cloud of radioactive dust and panic
throughout the region.
Preceding the disaster's anniversary, 5,000 Chernobyl victims marched in downtown Kiev
protesting the continuing lack of funding for cleanup and victim compensation, including
housing and healthcare. On April 26 hundreds of people gathered at a small hill with marble
plates inscribed with victims' names, and a bell tolled 17 times for each year that has past
since the explosion at the plant initiated a disaster whose effects are still being felt in the
region.
The United Nations estimates that 15,000 to 30,000 people living in the contaminated zones
have since died due to radiation exposure. Russian activists claim that these figures do not
include the 300,000 Russian "liquidators," those who were sent to clean up the disaster and
have now fallen victim to radiation related illnesses.
More than 2.45 million people have been hospitalized in Ukraine as of early 2002 with
illnesses sparked by the disaster, including 472,400 children, according to the Ukrainian Health
Ministry. According to a study published in a July 1999 issue of the journal Cancer, the rate of
thyroid cancer among Ukrainians age 15 and younger increased 10-fold in the years following
the accident.
Activists and survivors of the accident are not distracted by the blame trading going on
between the Russian 'Id Ukrainian governments that are nether compensating victims nor
doing enough to protect future I generations. One activist was quoted in the Christian
Science Monitor as saying, "What we want is for the (post-Soviet) governments of Russian,
Ukraine, and Belarus to work together in dealing with the legacy of Chernobyl, but there is no
sign of that happening."
(sources: Christian Science Monitor, April 25, 2003; World Environment News, April 28, 2003;
United Press International, April 26, 2003; Associated Press, April 26, 2003)
Compiled by Devon Chaffee, Research and Advocacy Coordinator of the Nuclear Age Peace Foundation.
c/ Copyright 2002 Nuclear Aqe Peace Foundation
Reproduction of material from this site is encouraged.
Please acknowledge source and provide Foundation contact information in all copies.
58
29. CHANGES IN PHYSICAL STATE:
Cooling & Heating Curves
INTRODUCTION
A pure substance can exist in three physical states: solid, liquid, and vapor (gas). During a change in
physical state (aka phase change), the temperature stays constant at a temperature that is
characteristic for the substance. Some examples of phase changes are solids melting or subliming,
liquids freezing and boiling, and gases condensing or depositing. In this experiment you will examine
what happens when a pure substance, an organic compound called lauric acid (formula
CH3(CH2)10COOH), undergoes a change in state. This substance is a waxy solid at room temperature.
In Part 1, the substance will be melted and heated to a temperature above its normal freezing point.
As it cools, temperature readings will be made at regular intervals until the substance is a solid at a
temperature below its freezing point.
In Part 2, the procedure will be reversed. Starting with the solid, heat will be added and temperature
readings taken until the substance is a liquid.
OBJECTIVE
1. Observe and experimentally determine the melting and freezing point of lauric acid by
interpretation of a cooling and heating curve.
PRE-LAB QUESTIONS
2. List the six phase changes a substance can undergo and state whether each is endothermic or
exothermic.
3. Which two phase changes will be observed in this lab activity?
4. What do you predict will be the relationship between the freezing point and melting point?
5. Explain how you will determine the freezing point and melting point from your data?
MATERIALS
SAFETY: Lauric acid gives off irritating fumes when heated above 60 0C.
Do NOT heat above 600C and avoid inhaling irritating fumes.
Do NOT dispose of lauric acid in sink.
hot plate test tube containing lauric acid 2 thermometers
beaker for hot water bath cool water bath stop watch
ring stand with clamps gloves (mittens) test tube rack
PROCEDURE
2. One partner should be responsible for reading the temperature and the other for recording and
timing.
59
Part 1. Cooling Curve
(Steps 3 – 5 may be done by your instructor.}
3. Place water in a beaker. Begin heating the water on a hot plate.
Use one thermometer for taking temperature readings of the water bath ONLY (Do NOT use for
measuring temperature of lauric acid).
4. Clamp the test tube to a ring stand, and remove the stopper from the test tube.
5. Place test tube into the water bath:
a. Make sure that water does not get into test tube (it will contaminate the lauric acid and give
you unreliable results).
b. Make sure that the water level is above the lauric acid level in the test tube.
c. Keep the test tube bottom from touching the beaker bottom.
6. When water bath reaches about 55C, remove the test tube with melted lauric acid, and place it in
the test tube rack.
7. Insert a dry thermometer into test tube and swirl gently to get an even temperature reading.
RECORD your first temperature reading. LEAVE THE THERMOMETER IN THE ACID AT ALL TIMES.
8. RECORD the temperatures every 30 seconds, leaving the thermometer in the test tube, until the
temperature has fallen to 400C. You may gently stir with the thermometer.
9. Take test tube and place in cool water bath (beaker with cool water). Add one or two ice cubes to
the water until the thermometer reads at least 300C. The thermometer in now stuck in the acid!
Do not remove.
10. Go to part 2 (or step 15: CLEAN UP).
Part 2. Heating Curve (optional)

11. Place the cool water bath with the solid lauric acid test tube on the hot plate, and turn on hot plate
(not TOO high!).
12. RECORD your first temperature reading when the lauric acid has reached a temperature around
30C.
13. RECORD the temperature every 30 seconds while gradually warming until the lauric acid has
liquefied. Do NOT heat lauric acid beyond 60C.
14. Once done, remove the thermometer while the lauric acid is still a liquid.
15. CLEAN UP: Replace the stopper on the lauric acid test tube and return to instructor. Clean off the
thermometer with paper towel, and return to instructor. Rinse off/ clean beakers, and return to lab
table. Arrange items neatly. Put away hot plate (when cool!) if last group performing lab. WASH
YOUR HANDS.
CONCLUSION
1. Make a graph of temperature (y) vs. time (s) for your cooling and heating curve (on the same graph).
2. Does the temperature of the substance change drastically or stay relatively the same while it is
freezing or melting?
3. Using your cooling and heating curves (respectively), what is the a. freezing point of lauric acid?
b. melting point of lauric acid?
4. How do the freezing point and melting point compare?
5. What changes in kinetic and potential energy are occurring when the heating/ cooling curve is:
a. diagonal? b. horizontal?
6. How would an increase in the amount of lauric acid used affect the overall shape of the cooling or
heating curves? Explain.
7. Explain in your own words: What is going on at the molecular level as the liquid lauric acid cools and
freezes?
60
30. BOYLE’S LAW
INTRODUCTION
When temperature is held constant in a closed system, the relationship between the volume of a gas
and its pressure can be readily observed. In this lab activity, the gas studied will be air. A
plunger/cylinder apparatus will provide the closed system. To increase or decrease pressure in the
column, weights will be added or removed from the plunger platform. Weight is a force measured in
newtons (N). Careful calculations will be done to convert to pressure, which is measured most
commonly in units of atm, or kPa.
OBJECTIVE
1. Observe, graph, and describe the effect of pressure on the volume of a confined gas.
2. Determine the Boyle’s Law constant.
PRE-LAB QUESTIONS
2. Give the formula representing Boyle’s law (define variables).
3. What is meant by the term “constant”?
4. What is the conversion from grams to kilograms?
5. What does the Newton (N) measurement measure?
MATERIAL
Plunger/cylinder apparatus 4 weights totaling 2000 grams
PROCEDURE
1. Obtain a plunger and cylinder apparatus. Work in assigned groups. Push the plunger all the way
down and then pull it up to the 30.0 mL mark. Cap the tip of the syringe to confine the gas.
2. Push the plunger down gently a few times. If the cylinder is capped correctly, it should bounce back
a bit. When the plunger comes to rest, record the volume to 0.1 mL. This is the initial volume for
zero weight (volume down).
3. Place 500 grams of weight on the platform above the plunger so that the center of the weight is
over the center of the platform. Record volume to the nearest 0.1 mL (volume down).
4. Continue to add weights in 500 gram increments to a maximum of 2000 grams and record the
volume (to the nearest 0.1 mL) each time (volume down).
5. All the volume measurements you made are slightly too large because of friction. You will now
make a second series of the measurements while the weights are being removed from the platform.
With 2000 grams on the platform, gently nudge the plunger down a few mL. Gradually release your
hand and when the plunger comes to rest, record the volume to the nearest 0.1 mL (volume up).
6. Remove each weight one at a time and record each new volume (volume up).
7. CLEAN UP: Neatly arrange weights, and place plunger/ cylinder and platform in box – making sure
cap is in box too.
CALCULATIONS
1. Calculate the weight (in N): mass (kg) x 9.8 m/s2 = WEIGHT
*9.8 m/s2 is the gravitational acceleration
61
2. Calculate the pressure: weight/ 4.5 x 10-4 m2 = PRESSURE
*4.5 x 10-4 m2 is the area of the platform connected to the plunger
3. Calculate the average volume: Vavg
4. The pressure that acts on the plunger with no added weights is the atmospheric pressure, P atmosphere.
Convert the barometric pressure (in mm Hg or torr) and converting to Pa.
(760 torr = 101,325 Pa)
5. Calculate the total pressure: Pt = P + Patmosphere
6. Calculate the Boyle’s Law constant: Vavg x Pt (Round to 2 sig fig.)
CONCLUSION
1. Plot a graph of Pt (y) vs. Vavg (x).
2. Make a general statement about the effect of pressure on the volume of gases at constant
temperature.
3. What kind of a relationship is shown by the graph?
4. When no weights are on the plunger, there is still pressure being exerted on the gas in the cylinder.
This is the Patm. What causes that pressure?
5. Does this experiment verify Boyle’s Law, within experimental error? Explain.
62
31. DETERMINATION OF ABSOLUTE ZERO
INTRODUCTION
Charles’s Law describes the quantitative relationship between volume and temperature.
Temperature is measured in the laboratory in Celsius. However, in gas laws, this unit must be
changed to the Kelvin scale.
In this laboratory activity, you will use air as the gas. Theoretically, according to Charles’s Law, the
volume of a gas sample should be negligible at absolute zero. You will measure temperature and
volume and two different temperatures and extrapolate to determine the experimental value of
absolute zero.
OBJECTIVE
1. Determine an experimental value of absolute zero by graphical analysis.
2. Compare volume changes at different temperatures with those predicted by Charles’s Law.
PRE-LAB QUESTIONS
2. Give the formula representing Charles’ Law (define variables).
3. What is meant by the term “extrapolation” with respect to graphing?
4. What is the formula for percent error?
MATERIALS
hot-plate with 1000 mL beaker (HOT BATH) thermometer
250 mL Erlenmeyer flask mitten and tongs
styrofoam container with water and ice (ICE BATH) 1 or 2 hole stopper
tap water 100 mL graduated cylinder
PROCEDURE
2. SETUP HOT WATER AND ICE BATH: Share the hot water bath and ice bath.
a. HOT WATER BATH: Fill the 1000 mL beaker ¾ full with water, and place on a hot plate. Turn the
hot plate to high so the water boils as soon as possible.
b. COLD WATER BATH: Fill a Styrofoam container with ice and cold water. The temperature should
be less than 10C or as close to zero as possible.
3. PLACE IN HOT WATER BATH: Make certain no water gets into the flask.
a. Tightly stopper a DRY 250-mL flask with a one-hole rubber stopper and put it in the hot water
bath (neck up) so that the entire flask EXCEPT THE OPENING AND RUBBER STOPPER is
completely submerged in the water. Use tongs to keep the flask down.
b. As soon as the water appears to boil, measure the temperature of the water. It should be
approximately 100C. RECORD the temperature you read on your thermometer as T1.
c. Leave the flask in the boiling water for 1 minute.
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4. QUICKLY PLACE IN ICE WATER BATH:
a. After the 1 minute wait time, remove the flask and quickly invert it in the ice bath (neck
down). A mitten may help in this tricky maneuver since the flask is HOT!
b. Push the flask down so it is completely submerged under the ice water. Allow it to remain there
until the flask has reached the temperature of the ice bath water (~5-10 minutes). Water will
enter the flask.
c. RECORD the temperature of the ice water at this time as T2.
5. TRAP WATER INSIDE WHILE REMOVING: Remove the flask while placing your finger over
the hole(s) so no more water can enter or leave the flask (it will be cold!).
6. MEASURE VOLUMES:
a. Measure the volume of water drawn into the flask by pouring into a 100 mL graduated cylinder.
RECORD the volume of the water drawn in, Vd.
b. Now, completely fill the flask with water then insert the rubber stopper. Measure the volume of
water that filled the flask by pouring into a 100 mL graduated cylinder—it will be more than 100
mL, so you may have to split up your measurement. RECORD this measurement as V1, the
volume the air occupies at the higher temperature.
7. CLEAN UP: Uncork the flask, and try to tap out any excess moisture onto a paper towel. Leave
the flask (neck up) and cork on a paper towel at your lab table so that the moisture can evaporate
out. Arrange items neatly. Put away hot plate (when cool!) if last group performing lab. WASH
YOUR HANDS.
CALCULATIONS & CONCLUSION

1. Make a graph of volume (y) vs. temperature in Kelvin (x). Label the points.
2. Extrapolate the line to the point where it crosses the x-axis (the x intercept). Record this point – it
is the experimental value of absolute zero.
3. Complete calculations in lab table.
4. Does this lab illustrate Charles’ Law? Explain.
5. You calculated the theoretical value for V2 (calculation 5) and the experimental value for V2
(calculation 4). How do the two values compare?
6. Using your graph, determine what would be the volume of the sample of gas in the flask when the
temperature is 50C?
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32. MOLAR VOLUME OF A GAS
INTRODUCTION
You will experimentally determine the molar volume of a gas by reacting a known mass of magnesium
metal with an excess of hydrochloric acid to produce hydrogen gas, which will be collected by water
displacement in a gas collection tube. Whenever a gas is collected over water, the result is a mixture
of the collected gas and water vapor. According to Dalton’s law of Partial Pressures the vapor
pressure of the water can be subtracted from the total pressure to give the pressure of just hydrogen
gas present in the mixture. We will assume that the total pressure is equal to atmospheric pressure
and the vapor pressure of water can be obtained from a reference table. Having determined the
volume and pressure of the hydrogen at the temperature of the lab, you can use the combined gas
laws to find the volume this sample of gas would occupy at STP. The number of moles of hydrogen
can be determined from the balanced chemical equation and the mass of magnesium used.
OBJECTIVE
1. Collect a sample of hydrogen gas over water, and apply Dalton’s law of partial pressure to find the
partial pressure of hydrogen gas.
2. Determine the sample’s volume at STP, and its experimental molar volume at STP.
PRE-LAB QUESTIONS
2. Write the balanced chemical equation for the reaction of magnesium and hydrochloric acid.
3. What is the ratio of moles of magnesium used to moles of hydrogen produced in the reaction?
4. What is meant by STP (be thorough in your answer)?
5. What is a eudiometer?
6. What two gases will be collected in the eudiometer?
7. What piece of information (looked up from a reference table or online) will you need in order to
complete the calculations in this experiment?
8. Find the volume of the following masses of as at STP (SHOW ALL WORK): a. 80 g O 2 b. 66 g CO2
9. How many liters would the following moles of any gas occupy at STP (SHOW ALL WORK):
a. 0.25 mole b. 3.50 mole
MATERIALS
SAFETY: HCl in this experiment is highly concentrated and VERY corrosive!
Handle with caution, and wash with soap and water it spills on your skin.
beaker (either 400 mL or 600 mL) ring stand ring clamp
eudiometer (gas collection tube) thermometer magnesium ribbon
stopper with copper wire ruler 6M HCI
water at room temperature barometer
PROCEDURE
2. Observe the demonstration set-up.
3. Obtain a piece of magnesium ribbon, carefully MASS it. RECORD.
4. Fill a 400 mL or 600 mL beaker about 2/3 full with room temperature (approximately 22 0C) water.
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5. Obtain a eudiometer (gas collection tube) and stopper fitted with copper wire hook. Bend the
magnesium ribbon around the wire so that it is stuck on the wire (don’t bend it too much or it will
break).
6. Using the markings on the gas collection tube to measure the acid, pour about 8 mL of HCI in the
tube.
7. Then fill the collection tube to the top with the room temperature water.
8. Place the rubber stopper with the Mg in the tube. There should be no air bubbles in the tube. If
there are remove the stopper and add more water.
9. Place your finger over the stopper hole and quickly invert the tube into the large beaker of water.
Clamp the tube to the ring stand.
10. OBSERVE the reaction. All the Mg will react in time. When the reaction stops, allow about 5
minutes for the solution to cool to room temperature.
11. While you are waiting, record the atmospheric pressure (in mm Hg) in the room from the barometer
(or write it down, if it is written on the board).
12. Measure and record the temperature of the water in the beaker. Assume that the collected gas is at
the same temperature.
13. Gently tap the tube on the bottom of the beaker to release any bubbles of hydrogen on the bottom.
Read the volume of the gas to the nearest 0.05 mL. Be sure to read the bottom of the meniscus.
14. Empty the collection tube in the WASTE CONTAINER, and repeat the experiment if there is time. It
is not necessary to dry the collection tube or change the water in the beaker.
15. CLEAN UP: When you are finished, empty contents of eudiometer and the beakers into tge waste
container. Neatly arrange eudiometer and STOPPER WITH COPPER WIRE (make sure you don’t
throw this out!!!) at your table. Return beaker, ring stand, and clamp to your table. Dry your bench
and WASH YOUR HANDS.
CONCLUSION
1. Show all work for calculations in data table.
2. List one source of error in this experiment and describe its impact on your calculation of molar
volume.
3. If twice as much Mg had been used, how would the volume of H2 change?
4. What is the other product? What happens to it?
5. A volume of 35.0 mL of nitrogen gas was collected over water at 23°C and 753 mm Hg. The vapor
pressure of water is 21.1 mm Hg.
a. Calculate the pressure of nitrogen gas alone.
b. Calculate the volume of this gas sample at STP.
c. Calculate the experimental volume of one mole of this gas at STP.
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33. PAPER CHROMATOGRAPHY
INTRODUCTION
Chromatography is a technique for separating and identifying mixtures of compounds. The name
stems from the Greek word chromos, meaning color, and this technique was first applied to separate
small quantities of colored compounds. All types of chromatography employ two different immiscible
phases in contact with each other: the mobile phase and the stationary phase.
In paper chromatography, a small amount of the mixture to be separated (in this case, dye or ink) is
placed near the edge of the paper (the stationary phase). The bottom of the paper is then placed in a
solvent (the mobile phase). The substances in the mixture have differing degrees of adsorbtion (or
attraction) to the paper’s surface, and as the solvent travels up the paper by capillary action,
 the substances strongly attracted to the solvent will travel with it,
 the substances only weakly attracted to the paper will move more slowly with the solvent, and
 the substances strongly attracted and bound to the paper will not move much at all.
As the different components of the mixture travel different distance (based on their attraction for the
stationary or mobile phase), separation occurs. When the solvent has moved the entire length of the
paper, the paper is removed from the solvent and dried.
Once developed, the paper, called a chromatogram, will contain different chemicals located at
different positions on the paper. The color and location of unknown components separated under
specific chromatographic conditions can be matched with the color and location of known
compounds subjected to the same conditions. This can be done by calculating and comparing R f
values: Rf = Ds
Df
where, Ds = distance traveled by a spot, and Df = farthest distance traveled by the solvent front.
OBJECTIVE
1. Use paper chromatography to separate and compare components of ink mixtures.
PRE-LAB QUESTIONS
2. What is a solvent?
3. What is/ are the solvent(s) used in this activity?
4. Where is the mixture placed on the chromatography paper before placement in the solvent?
5. Why does the mixture travel up the paper once placed in the solvent?
6. Why do different components of the mixture separate from each other during chromatography?
7. What is a chromatogram?
MATERIALS
chromatography paper pencil ruler bottle markers, ink, food coloring
PROCEDURE
2. Draw a line with pencil about 2.5 cm from the edge of the strip of paper. This will mark the point of
origin. Place a spot from the marker on the line. Let the ink dry.
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3. Pour water in the bottle to about 1-1.5 cm (below the pencil line). Place the paper (spot down) in
the bottle, allowing the bottom of the paper, but not the spot, to touch the solution. DO NOT LET
THE SPOT TOUCH THE SOLUTION.
4. Observe, and when the solution has nearly reached 2 cm from the top, remove the paper and
immediately MARK the distance the solvent has traveled with your pencil (If you wait until your
chromatogram, the line may not be visible).
5. MARK the distance each spot has traveled by placing a dot in the center of each spot.
6. Measure the distance traveled by solvent for each chromatogram (Df) from the original pencil line
to the solvent pencil line. RECORD.
7. Measure the distances traveled by each spot on each chromatogram (Ds) from the original pencil
line to the dot in the center of each spot. You may have several Ds values. RECORD the values and
the color.
8. Calculate the Rf for each spot using the equation in the introduction.
CALCULATIONS
Calculate the Rf value for each spot. Where one substance has separated into two or more colors,
calculate Rf for each colored spot. Place all measurement and calculations (show set-up) on the data
table.
CONCLUSION
1. What is the purpose of the process of chromatography?
2. Which of the four substances tested appear to contain only one compound? Explain.
4. Which of the four substances tested appear to be mixtures? Explain.
5. Were there any colors or components which seemed to be the same in different markers?
6. Why is it important to mark the chromatography paper with pencil, not pen?
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34. ICE CREAM LAB:
A Practical Application of Colligative Properties
INTRODUCTION
Colligative properties are properties of solutions that are determined only by the number of
dissolved particles and the nature of the solvent used. Some examples of colligative properties are
osmotic pressure, boiling point elevation, and freezing point depression (the property applied in this
activity).
Sodium chloride (NaCl) dissociates into one mole of sodium ions and one mole of chloride ions when
dissolved. Calcium chloride (CaCl2) dissociates into one mole of calcium ions and two moles of
chloride ions when dissolved. By using either NaCl or CaCl2, it is possible to lower the temperature
below 00C. Because the ice cream mix in the separate compartment will not have as many dissolved
particles,
one solution freezes while the other melts!
Ta da—ICE CREAM PRODUCTION!
OBJECTIVE
1. Explore and apply colligative properties to make ice cream.
PRE-LAB QUESTIONS
2. When should you record the temperature of the pure ice and the ice with salt?
3. Why does the container holding the ice cream mixture have to be scraped down regularly?
MATERIALS
plastic sphere paper cups spoons
1 cup rock salt (NaCl) or ½ cup CaCl2 ice towels
measuring cups/spoons plastic spoons
Recipe: Ingredients for 1 sphere (½ pint of ice cream):

2-4 Tbspn. sugar ½ cup half and half or cream ¼ - ½ tspn. vanilla extract
½ cups milk 1 Tbspn flavored syrup (optional)
PROCEDURE
1. Clean lab bench and cover with paper. Work in groups of three or four.
2. Take the temperature of some pure ice. RECORD.
3. Rinse out/ clean a 1-pint sphere, especially the metal cup (where your ice cream will go).
4. Open (use special tool) and fill 1-pint sphere with salt and ice (not the metal cup, the part outside
the cup surrounded by plastic!). Seal closed (but not too tight!).
5. Open other end that goes into the metal cylinder. Add milk, cream, sugar, and vanilla. Seal closed
(but not too tight!).
6. Now begin to shake, roll and pass sphere around to your other lab partners.
7. After 10 minutes, open the ice cream end and use the plastic tool, plastic spoon, or plastic knife to
scrape the frozen ice cream away from the walls. The walls are silver- if they look white, it is
because frozen ice cream is stuck to them! Reseal.
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8. Open the ice end and RECORD the temperature. Add more ice if most is melted.
9. Continue to shake for an additional 5 minutes
10. OK. You’ve worked hard enough.
11. Open the ice cream end, and use the plastic spoons to remove the ice cream and place in small
paper cups. Get a spoons, and be nice and share.
12. Add extra flavoring or toppings if you like and enjoy!
13. CLEAN UP:
 Dump the salt/ ice mixture and any uneaten ice cream down sink drains with running water.
 RINSE all compartments of sphere clean with tap water and soap.
 Dry out all parts.
 RETURN BOTH CAPS WITH SPHERE TO BOX, BUT DO NOT LEAVE CAPS ON SPHERE!
If the water cannot evaporate, the sphere will not dry, and it will get smelly and disgusting!
Submit answers at the end of class.
1. What were the temperatures of the pure ice and the ice with salt mixture?
2. Why was salt added to the ice?
3. What phase change occurred in the milk?
4. Is the change in the milk exothermic or endothermic?
5. Describe what happened to the heat from the change in the milk.
6. If you did NOT add sugar, would the ice cream have frozen faster? Explain.
7. Why did the outside of the sphere begin to sweat? No, it’s not a leak!
8. Why is salt spread on the roads during a winter storm?
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35. RATE OF REACTION:
INTRODUCTION
The rate of a chemical reaction is the time required for a given quantity of reactant(s) to be changed
to product(s). The rate is affected by several factors including the type of reactants, concentration,
temperature, pressure (in gases), and catalysts. Some reactions are fast and some reactions are slow.
The rate of a specific reaction can be found only by experiment.
In this laboratory activity, you will studying the reaction that occurs when aqueous solutions of iodate
(IO3--) and sulfite ion (SO32-) are mixed. The sulfite solution also contains starch as an indicator. The
reaction is known as the Iodine Clock reaction, because a measurable amount of time elapses before
the reaction reaches completion. The end of the reaction is recognized when a dark blue-black color
appears. This color results from a complex which forms between starch and I 2, which is one of the
products.
You will study the effect of varying reactant concentrations and temperature on the rate by running
several experiments in which the concentration of the iodate ion is varied and accurately timing the
reactions. You will then measure the reaction time when the reaction occurs at another temperature.
OBJECTIVE
You must read the introduction and procedures to determine the objective of this experiment.
Write it in your own words.
PRE-LAB QUESTIONS
2. What factor is varied in Part 1? What factor is constant?
3. What factor is varied in Part 2? What factor is constant?
4. What is the purpose of the starch in the experiment?
5. Why is it necessary to have two 10 mL graduated cylinders for this activity?
MATERIALS
Two 10 mLgraduated cylinder (labeled A and B) 2 large test tubes
thermometer watch with second hand
beaker for ice water bath de-ionized water.
Solution A (with IO3-) Solution B (with SO32- and starch)
PROCEDURE
2. You will be working in pairs, one partner will time and the other will mix the reactants and note the
color change. Be sure to have a watch that can time seconds.
PART I
1. Obtain solutions A (iodate ion) and B (sulfite- starch). Clean two 10 mL graduates and mark them
"A" and "B ". Clean two large test tubes.
2. Measure the temperature of the room and RECORD.
3. Pour 6 mL of solution A into the graduated cylinder and add 1 mL of water.
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4. Pour 3 mL of solution B into the other graduated cylinder.
5. DO NOT REACT THE SOLUTIONS IN THE GRADUATED CYLINDER!!!! Pour A into test tube A, and
pour B into test tube B.
6. Prepare to time the reaction. While one lab partner pours solution A into solution B, the other
partner should immediately start timing the reaction. Pour the solutions back and forth several
times from one test tube to the other to ensure thorough mixing. Then allow the mixture to stand.
At the instant a color change occurs, the partner timing the reaction should note the elapsed time.
RECORD this in your data table. Rinse the test tubes and shake out the water.
7. Prepare different concentrations of solution A as shown in the data table using different amounts of
A and water (to keep the volume constant). Repeat the experiment with each concentration
8. Calculate the rate for each trial.
PART II
1. Place ice and water in the beaker so the temperature is between 0°C and 10°C. Place 4 mL of
solution A and 3 mL of water in one test tube and 3 mL of solution B in the other (this is a repeat of
experiment 3 but at a different temperature). Put the test tubes in the water baths making sure the
solutions are submerged (but not the test tube mouth). Place a thermometer in solution A, and wait
until the solution reaches the temperature of the water baths (within a few degrees). RECORD the
actual temperature of the solution.
2. Follow the same procedure as in PART I to run the reaction.
CONCLUSION
1. Prepare two graphs: a. time vs. volume of A b. rate vs. volume of A.
2. Based on your experimental data, make a general statement about the effect of concentration of
reactants on time and reaction rate.
3. Based on your experimental data, make a general statement about the effect of temperature on time
and reaction rate.
4. List three other factors that affect the rate of a reaction and describe their effect on rate.
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36. INVESTIGATION OF CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM
INTRODUCTION
Le Chatelier’s Principle states that when a system at equilibrium is disturbed by an external factor, the
system will change to re-establish a new equilibrium. These changes can easily be observed in
systems with colored reactants and products. In this lab activity, you will predict and observe the
change that four systems undergo when their equilibriums are disturbed.
OBJECTIVE
1. Predict and observe how equilibrium systems respond to stresses.
PRE-LAB QUESTIONS
2. State three ways a system at equilibrium can be disturbed.
3. What type of systems will be affected by pressure?
4. What is a spectator ion?
MATERIALS
Demo materials for Part 1 5 small test tubes 2 beakers test tube holder
test tube rack ice Copper (II) chloride solution (CuCl2)
hot plate spot plate pipets containing NaCl and AgNO3
PROCEDURE
PART 1. (Teacher Demo)
1. RECORD your prediction of the system response when the stress is applied to it (either  or ).
2. Observe and RECORD the actual response and the resulting changes in concentration.
PART 2. (Lab Activity)

4. Prepare a hot water bath by heating water in one beaker on the hot plate. Prepare a cold water
bath in the other beaker using cold water and ice.
5. Place about 3 mL of the CuCl2 solution into 5 small test tubes (use one as the control).
6. RECORD your predictions on the data table.
7. Place one test tube in the hot water bath and the other in the ice bath. After the systems have
changed, RECORD the results. Do not change the prediction if it does not agree with observations.
8. To one test tube, add 10 drops NaCl solution, and to another, add 10 drops AgNO 3 solution. RECORD
the results. Do not change the prediction if it does not agree with the observations.
CONCLUSION
1. Write the equilibrium constant expressions for each system (Part 1 and 2).
2. Which type of stress/ change on system was not done?
3. What must be done to remove a reactant or product?
4. List the spectator ions from each stress/ system.
5. What kind of reaction, endothermic or exothermic, was System 4?
6. If the temperature is increased in the following reactions, which increases: products or reactants?
a. An endothermic reaction: b. An exothermic reaction:
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37. CHANGE IN ENTHALPY OF A REACTION
INTRODUCTION
When a chemical reaction takes place, chemical bonds in the reactants are broken and new chemical
bonds in the products are formed. Energy is always absorbed in the breaking of bonds and always
released when bonds are formed. If the energy required to break old bonds is less than the energy
released in forming new bonds, the difference in energy is given off and the reaction is said to be
exothermic. The enthalpy change for an exothermic reaction is given a negative sign to indicate that
energy flows from the system to the surroundings.
In this experiment, you will measure the amount of energy released by the decomposition of
hydrogen peroxide, H2O2, into water and oxygen and compare the experimentally determined result
with a calculated value.
The common disinfectant, 3% hydrogen peroxide (H 2O2) solution, will be used with manganese
dioxide as a catalyst for the decomposition. The amount of energy released in the reaction can be
calculated from the mass of the water in the solution, the change in temperature, and the specific
heat of water. The formula is
Energy released = (mass) x (specific heat) x (change in temperature) or

ΔH = MCΔT , where ΔT = Tf - Ti (final temperature – initial temperature)
OBJECTIVE
You must read the introduction and procedures to determine the objective of this experiment.
Write it in your own words.
PRE-LAB QUESTIONS
2. Define enthalpy.
3. Write the balanced chemical equation for the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide into water and
oxygen gas.
4. The reaction may occur in two steps. The energy for each step is given. Use this information to
calculate the net energy released (SHOW WORK). This will be the theoretical or calculated value in
kJ/mol.
H2 + ½ O2 ® H2O ΔH = -286 kJ/mol
H2O2 ® H2 + O2 ΔH = +191 kJ/mol
5. Calculate the heat released when 31 mL of hydrogen peroxide solution are decomposed and the
temperature changes from 21.3°C to 37.6°C. Assume the density of the solution is the same as
water (1.00 g/mL) and use the specific heat of water 4.18 J/g .°C. (SHOW ALL WORK).
MATERIALS:
manganese dioxide, MnO2 3% Hydrogen Peroxide, H2O2 thermometer
50 mL graduated cylinder coffee-cup calorimeter (Styrofoam) balance
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PROCEDURE:
2. Place two small scoops of manganese dioxide into the calorimeter.
3. Measure about 45 mL of 3% hydrogen peroxide and record the exact volume on the data table.
4. Measure the temperature of the hydrogen peroxide in the graduated cylinder and RECORD it.
5. Pour the hydrogen peroxide into the calorimeter, put the lid on and push the thermometer through
the lid. Swirl gently and note the temperature change. RECORD the highest temperature.
6. Open the calorimeter once temperature starts to drop, and look inside. RECORD your observation.
7. CLEAN UP: Empty the calorimeter into the WASTE BEAKER.
Rinse out graduated cylinder, calorimeter, and thermometer. Neatly arrange on lab table.
WASH YOUR HANDS.
CALCULATIONS
Show work and final answers in data table.
1. Calculate the change in enthalpy for the amount of H2O2 in your data using MCΔT. Assume the
density of the H2O2 is the same as water.
2. Convert the joules to kilojoules.
3. Calculate the mass of H2O2 in the solution of 3% hydrogen peroxide. Assume the density of the H 2O2
is the same as water.
4. Calculate the moles of H2O2.
5. Calculate the ΔH in kJ/mol.
6. Calculate the % error between the experimental molar enthalpy and the theoretical molar enthalpy.
(Refer to question 4 in the Prelab for theoretical value).
CONCLUSION
1. How will the mass of the calorimeter and contents change throughout the experiment? Explain.
2. How do your results compare to the theoretical value? Refer to your data in your answer.
3. Suggest two reasons for the difference between your results and the theoretical value.
4. The decomposition of hydrogen peroxide is slow. If poured on the table there is no evidence of
decomposition. On the other hand when 3% hydrogen peroxide is applied to a cut, the
decomposition begins immediately (bubbles appear). Use your knowledge of biology to suggest a
reason why this occurs.
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38. pH AND INDICATORS
INTRODUCTION
An acid-base (or pH) indicator is usually a weak acid with a characteristic, vivid color. Upon addition
of base, this acid is converted into its conjugate base, which is a different color. When the acid and its
conjugate base exist in solution in approximately equal concentrations, an intermediated color is
evident. For example, the common acid-base indicator used in the equilibrium lab, bromothymol
blue (BTB,) is yellow in the acid form and blue in the form of its conjugate base. It changes color
around pH 7. When equal amounts of the acid and base are in solution, the resulting color is green.
OBJECTIVE
1. Observe the colors of different indicators over a pH range from 1 to 12.
2. Determine the pH of an unknown substance.
PRE-LAB QUESTIONS
2. Describe the pH scale (i.e. what is pH? What pH ranges do acids or bases have?).
3. What is a pH indicator?
MATERIALS
Droppers containing solutions of pH from 1 – 12. Droppers containing indicators
Dropper containing solution of unknown pH Plastic small-scale reaction surface
PROCEDURE
2. Obtain a set of 12 solutions of known pH’s.
3. Obtain a set of indicator solutions.
4. WITHOUT TOUCHING THE TIP TO THE REACTION SURFACE (and risking contamination),
drop 2 drops of each pH solution in each of the boxes in the appropriate row (i.e. Do pH 1 for row 1;
Do pH 2 for row 2, etc., until all the pH solutions have been put on the surface)..
5. WITHOUT TOUCHING THE THE TIP TO THE REACTION SURFACE (and risking contamination),
add 1 drop of indicator solution in each of the boxes down the appropriate column.
6. Repeat for each indicator.
7. Observe and RECORD the color using colored pencils in your COPY of the reaction surface,
8. Observe and RECORD the pH (or narrow pH range) when the color changes in the Conclusion Chart.
(Take a picture with your phone if you want to go back to your data later).
9. Record the number of your unknown and test the unknown solution with each indicator.
10. CLEAN UP: Wash off the reaction surface with tap water. Wipe down with alcohol to get rid of any
indicator residues. Replace all pipets neatly (tip side up) at your table, separating any indicators
from the pH solutions. RETURN YOUR UNKNOWN.
CONCLUSION
1. Complete your observations in the COPY of the reaction surface and the Conclusion Chart.
2. Which would be the best indicator only to distinguish all acids from all bases?
3. Write the number and pH of your unknown.. Justify your answer by referring to your data. Answer
in complete sentences.
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39. ACID – BASE TITRATION
INTRODUCTION
Titration is a technique for determining the UNKNOWN concentration (molarity) of a substance by
reacting it with another substance of KNOWN concentration (the titrant). The titrant is placed in the
buret, and the solution of unknown concentration is placed in an Erlenmeyer flask. An indicator that
changes color in the appropriate range must be added to the Erlenmeyer flask to show when the
titration is complete.
Since acids and bases neutralize each other according to specific molar ratios, this reaction can be
used to determine the concentration of an unknown acid or base. In this activity, you will determine
the concentration of a hydrochloric acid (HCl) solution by reacting it with a 0.10 M NaOH titrant. You
will use phenolphthalein to indicate the endpoint of the titration because it turns from clear to pink at
a pH of 8-9. You will try to get a very pale pink color – if your solution turns dark pink or magenta,
you have over-titrated and added too much base.
OBJECTIVE
1. Perform and acid-base titration to determine the concentration of an unknown acid.
PRE-LAB QUESTIONS
2. Describe the appearance and function of a buret.
3. Describe the appearance and function of an Erlenmeyer flask.
4. What glassware does your titrant base go into?
What glassware does your acid of unknown concentration go into?
5. What indicator will you add to signal the endpoint of your titration?
What color will indicate the endpoint of your titration?
6. Write the neutralization reaction used in this titration (between HCl and NaOH):
7. What formula will you use to calculate the molarity of your unknown?
MATERIALS
buret ring stand buret clamp 10 mL graduated cylinder
Erlenmeyer flask waste beaker 0.10 M HCl 0.10 M NaOH
phenolphthalein UNKNOWN ACID with a number
PROCEDURE
1. Put on your laboratory apron and safety goggles. Solutions, except the unknown,
will be shared at a table. All calculations should be done in class and the write-up should be handed
in at the end of the period. You will be graded on your lab technique, neatness of the report, and on
the accuracy of your results.
2. 1st RINSE: Rinse out a buret with ~5 mL of distilled water and make sure the liquid flows through
easily. Dump into sink.
3. 2nd RINSE: Rinse the buret with ~5 mL of the 0.10 M NaOH, and make sure the liquid flows through.
Dump the NaOH into the WASTE BEAKER.
4. Fill the buret with the base. Let a little run out into a WASTE BEAKER. Tap the buret tip lightly
(don’t break it) to get rid of any air bubbles.
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5. RECORD the initial volume (the bottom of the meniscus).
6. Add between 5 – 10 mL of 0.10 M HCl to a graduated cylinder and RECORD the exact volume to the
nearest 0.1 mL.
7. Pour the HCl into an Erlenmeyer flask and add 1 drop of phenolphthalein.
8. Use the buret to add base SLOWLY to the flask until the indicator just turns A LIGHT PINK COLOR
AND THE COLOR REMAINS. This is the end-point or the neutralization point. RECORD the final
volume of the buret.
9. Dump the contents of the Erlenmeyer into the WASTE BEAKER. Rinse out Erlenmeyer with distilled
water, and dump water in sink. It is not necessary to dry the flask.
10. Repeat steps 5-9 two more times, for a total of three trials. It is not necessary to fill the buret each
time, but BEFORE BEGINNING ANY TRIAL, make sure you have enough to complete the titration
without running out.
11. Calculate the molarity of the acid for each trial. If the molarities are close to 0.10 M, you have
mastered the technique. Go on to the unknown. If all three of trials give values that are very
different from 0.10 M, but consistent with each other, inform the teacher before continuing.
12. Obtain a bottle containing an unknown concentration of HCl. Record the number of your sample.
Repeat the procedure in steps 5-10. Record volumes and calculate the molarity of your unknown.
You will be graded upon the accuracy of your determination, so be careful!
CONCLUSION
Complete all data tables and calculations on your lab report sheet.
Be neat and don’t forget units AND labels!
78

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Chemistry Lab: Lab Manual®

Tenafly High School

Station #1: Effect of Acid on CLOTHING

Station #3: Lighting a BUNSEN BURNER

The diagram to the right shows

Station #4: NOT ready

Station #5: Safety equipment

Station #6: Equipment & Use

DO NOT OPEN VIALS

Instructor demonstration if time permits.

CLEAN-UP: DUMP WATER, DRY PENNIES & RETURN.

REPEAT WITH OTHER SET.

CALCULATE NET VOLUME.

WASH YOUR HANDS WHEN DONE!

1. Calculate the percent of copper in the penny. Show set up.

1. Calculate the diameter using the equation: D = Hxd

The energy of each transition is given by Max Planck’s equation:

1. Put on your laboratory apron and safety goggles.

2. Record your unknown number.

PROCEDURES & CALCULATIONS

YOUR TARGET LOOKS LIKE THIS, but larger….:

3. Label three test tubes A, B, C.

M (s) + H2O (l)  H2 (g) + MOH (aq) + Heat

2. Obtain eight solid sample vials.

(procedures cont’d on next pag

i. Na and Cl ii. C and H iii. S and O iv. N and N

hydrate  anhydrous salt + water

c. MASS EVAPORATING DISH & HYDRATE:

Here is some information that may be helpful:

There are three rules that must be observed:

D. REACTION D (See figure to right)

Zn + 2 HCl → ZnCl2 + H2.

Cl2 + 2 KBr → 2 KCl + Br2.

1. Put on your laboratory apron and safety goggles.

(conclusion on next page)

1. Complete calculations in data table.

Part 2. Heating Curve (optional)

3. Calculate the average volume: Vavg

5. Calculate the total pressure: Pt = P + Patmosphere

6. Calculate the Boyle’s Law constant: Vavg x Pt (Round to 2 sig fig.)

CALCULATIONS & CONCLUSION

Recipe: Ingredients for 1 sphere (½ pint of ice cream):

PART 2. (Lab Activity)

Energy released = (mass) x (specific heat) x (change in temperature) or

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