Lesson 1 LIMIT OF A FUNCTION The limit is the most essential concept of calculus. Without it, other core concepts like continuity, derivative, and integral would not make sense at all. Example 1: A car accelerates such that its distance, d{(Q), from its starting point ¢ seconds after starting after starting to travel is given by d(1) = + ¢(in kilometers). What is the speed of the car exactly 1 second after it started travelling? At any given time t other than | second, the speed of the car between 1 second and t seconds can be described by the formula sq = fO=4) CH O- GAD 842-2 This function is not defined when ¢ = 1, but this does not mean that there is no definite answer. Eel We can see from the table that, as ¢ gets closer to 1, (2) gets closer to 3. In the language of limits, we say “The limit of s(¢) as f approaches | is 3”, and written as: e+e=2 meOrin ar 3 Informal Definition of Limit ‘The limit of a function f(x) as x approaches to ¢ is L, written as lim, s f(x) = L, if the values of fx) get closer to Las the values of x get closer to ¢ from both from left and right ‘The number c in the definition above may or may not be in the domain of the function jx), while the number Z. is understood to be a finite real number. Funetional Evaluation vs. Limit Evaluation ¥ F(c) finds the value of the function when x = ¢ Y lim, f(x) evaluates f(x) when x is near but x is not equal to ¢. Graphically Y Observe the behavior of the graph when » is near e. ¥ If lim, cx) = L, then the graph of the function must be moving towards the point (c, L). Common Cases of Nonexistent Limit ‘The value being approached by fx) asx approaches to c trom the right is different from what is being approached as x approaches c from the left Y The funetion increase or decrease bound as x approaches to ¢ Y- The function alternates between two distinet values as x approaches to ¢. out Example Refer tothe graph given and ind he value 25 requited Lp@seor.s@ amr 3) unre Example 4 Solutions: Lf =0 yer {0)0"6 2ugrer=0 Samson =2 4g) DNB because lap (2) = Dandi fs) = —2Lesson 2 PROPERTIES OF LIMITS Let a and ¢ be a real number. Suppose f(x) and g(x) are two functions that lim,-s fox) and limo g(x) both exist maa ioe g(t) 9e)= [omy Inf) linge gions = fama] ale] BS we gate 0 ig" V7G = ha (T ost enn andi) 2 Onn icren «| Limit of Polynomial Functions |W /() a polynomial function f(x) = ayx* + a,x + bax + ay then Unga) = f()= age" + 5-41 44 + Whenever (x) is a polynomial function, the evaluation of limit as x approaches c is the same value as the evaluation of the function at the x = c. ¥ The technique indicates that when flx) as x —> ¢ is a polynomial, then flx) =/(c). Y Caution should be observed, however, as the two processes are different. Limit of Rational Functions Yielding "/o example: gt zee ‘Example 3 Solutions Sala ees ee 2 m= ts im Bg gee Lesson 3 LIMITS OF NON-ALGEBRAIC FUNCTION Exponential Functions — Defined as fx) = b* or {x)= e* where b > 0 and b # 1 and x is a real number. — Natural exponential function (x) = e, where e is called the Euler number, and has value of 2.718281828. Example 1: lim,—oe* -0.0001 | -0.001 0 0.001 [0.0001 0.9999 [0.999 1 1oor [1.0001 Logarithmic Functions = Defined as fix) = logio x= logx. Example 2: limy..1 log x 0.999 0.99. 1 1001 [1.0001 -0.0004 | -0.004 0 0.0004 | 0.00004 Trigonometric Functions Example 3: lim,o log sinx ~0,0001 | -0.001 0 0.001 [0.0001 -0.00009 | -0.0009 0 0.0009 _| 0.00009 Some Transcendental Functions — Special limits of the following functions: Example 3: lim, eI/t oor [001 0 001 0.001 0.9995 | 0.9950 T 0.005 [0.0005Lesson 4 CONTINUITY OF A FUNCTION, Continuity of Function at a Point Example | Note that one is able to trace the graph from the left side of the number x= 1 going to the right side of x=1, without lifting one’s pen. Therefore, the function is continuous at x= 1. Example 2: | The function values will g0 downward \ indefinitely, while at the right of x=4, the function values will go I upward indefinitely. Thus, the function is discontinuous at x=4 A function fx) is said to be continuous at xe if the following three conditions are satisfied: 1 fle) exist; TH limy+e f(x) exist; and IL fc) = lim fx) If at least one of the conditions is not met, fis said to be discontinuous at x=. Example 3: fx) = x° +x? 2 Continuous or not at x=1 A. {D=P+P-2 ee B. lime f(x)= limeai 8 +x2-2 2152 920 C. fle}= limy + fx) 0=0 Therefore, f is continuous at x= Continuity of a Function on an Interval nasty (Sean A ar A function is said = > + * | to be continuous oa ">> | onan interval ane + | when the function ee is defined at every = “ST | point on that = >>> | interval and a : . | undergoes no =a interruptions, ‘jumps, or breaks. One- Sided Continuity A. A function f is said to be continuous from the left at x= c if fe) = lime fx) B. A function fis said to be continuous from the right at x = if f(¢) = lim se: f(x) Continuity of Polynomial, Absolute Value, Rational and Square Root Functions A. Polynomial functions are continuous everywhere. B. The absolute value function f{x) = |x| is continuous everywhere. C. Rational functions are continuous on their respective domains. D. The square root function ffx) = Vx is continuous on (0, ~). Example 4 1. [-3,2] CONTINUOUS 2. (0,4) CONTINUOUS: 3. [0,5] NOT CONTINUOUS 4. (5,0) CONTINUOUS 5. (2,7) NOT CONTINUOUSLesson 5 INTRO TO DERIVATIVES Derivative — Interpreted as a rate of change in any of the natural or social sciences or engineering. — Special type of limit involved in finding the tangent line to a curve and the velocity of an object. ~ Differentiation — process of computing the derivative of a function. Y Used to find the “slope” of a function at a point ¥ Used to find the “slope of the tangent line” to the graph ofa function at a point, Y Computed by finding the limit of the difference quotient as Ax approaches 0. Derivative is all about Slope y = rise _ by SLOPE= ma ie forth) = 100 a... rar Notations for Derivative © £(x)—“fprime of x” * y'~“y prime” # dy/dx ~ “the derivative of y with respect to x” Point-Slope Form ts 25 variables Slope’ot the ine norm point Lesson 6 RULES OF DIFFERECIATION Rule 1: Constant Rule fix)=cory=c P(x)=Oory'=¢ Rule 2: Power Rule Rule 3: Constant Multiple Rule fi cc (cx") Rule 4: Sum and Difference Rule y =u+vand y=u—v y=wv‘Lesson 7 TRANSCENDENTAL FUNCTIONS AND CHAIN RULE Differentiation of Exponential and Logarithmic Functions Expressions written in exponential form can be converted to logarithmic function and vice versa e a Exponential Form to Logarithmic Form = 125 = logs 125=3 Logarithmic Form to Exponential Form logis 7= 0.5 =9 49° =7 © y=logx=by=x © y=logex> =x Derivative of a Natural Logarithmic Function logex=Inx => I/x Y Ifuisa differentiable function of x, then according to the Chain Rule: 4 tinu=inu a ae a 1 du Inu=—- Derivative of Logarithmic Functions other than the natural logarithms £ og) x= 45-2 Ifu is a differentiable function of x, then 1 dw inb dx a gy (loge) u= Differentiation of Trigonometric Functions du a . a _ a, du ge Ginu) = cosu FF (cotu) = ~csc*u d _ du d = secutanu 2 geese) = -sinu FF (secw) = secutanu 7 a du d du ltanw) = sectu = (eseu) = —esewcotu Differentiation of Inverse Trigonometric Functions a a __ taresinx) = Ztarccosx) = -3 Starceotx) = - (arctan Etarcesex) = - Ataresecx) = Chain Rule * Chain Rule ~ process of differentiating a composite function. * Composite Function — two functions combined to make a single one. (Fo g)0x) = fg09) ‘Take the derivative of its outside function and then multiply it to the derivative of its inside function. Derivative | Derivative outside | inside function. || function. ‘* Outside Function ~ expression inside the parenthesis represented into single variable resulting into a simpler expression raised to an exponent. ‘© Inside Function — actual expression inside the parenthesis.Lesson 8 OPTIMIZATION PROBLEMS STEPS 1. Draw/label picture . Create objective and constraint equations Sub constraint(s) into objective equation Set derivative = 0 Solve for variables when Example 1: A farmer has 2400 of fencing and wants to fence off'a rectangular field that borders a straight river. He needs no fence along the river. ‘What are the dimensions of the field that has the largest area? STEP 1: Example 3: You are tasked with making a glass ‘aquarium with a square bottom and open top. It needs to hold 4m? of water, but you want to minimize how much glass you use. What are the aquarium’s dimensions to achieve this? STEP I: Objective: Minimize Surface Area = xx + xy + xy +xy txy STEP 2 SA= x? +4xy Constraint: Volume = 4 = (x)(x)(¥) 4a Objective: Maximize Area aie = y SA = x? + 4x(4/x?) STEES SA=x? + 16/x STEP 4 STEP 5 STEP2 | Constraint: Length = 2400 2400 —2x=y STEP 3 A= x(2400 — 2x) A= 2400x ~ 2x" STEP4 ‘A’= 2400 —4x=0 STE! 2400=4x | 2400 — 2(600) = STEP 5 x= 600 y= 1200 y ‘A= (600)(1200) = 720,000 A? Example 2: Find the two numbers whose sum is 60 and whose product is a maximum Example 4: Find the (wo numbers whose difference is 40 and whose product is a minimum. What is the value of the minimum product? Objective: Minimize P = xy ‘Objective: Maximize P = xy SIRES Constraint: 40 = y — 40+x=y STEP 3 P=x(40 +x) P= 40x +x? STEP 4 P’= 40 +2: =x 40=20= STEPS | jo zi STEP Constraint: 60= x+y y STEP 3 P=x(60—x) P=60x—x? STEP 4 P' => 60 —2x=0 60 =3x 60-30=y STEPS | 5=30 y=30Lesson 9 IMPLICIT DIFFERENCIATION * Explicit —y in terms of x © Implicit —x and y together Implicit Differentiation — Consists of differenciating both sides of the equation with respect to x and y and then solving the resulting equation for y’ ¥ Denominator agrees: Use properties ¥ Denominator disagrees: Use chain rule & properties RELATED RATES — Problems involve finding a rate at which a quantity changes by relating that quantity to other quantities whose rates of change are known. Solving Problems Involving Related Rates: 1. Provide an illustration for the problem that is valid for any time t Identify those quantities that change with respect to time and represent them with variables. 3. Write down any numerical facts known about the variables, Interpret each rate of change as the derivative ofa variable with respect to time. 4, Identify which rate of change is being asked, and under what conditions this rate is being computed Write an equation showing the relationship of all the variables by an equation that is valid for any time t. 6. Differentiate the equation in (5) implicitly with respect to t, 7. Substitute into the equation, obtained in (6), all values that are valid at the particular time of interest. 8. Write a conclusion that answers the question of the problem. Do not forget to include the correct units of measurement vn Example 1: Differentiation with respect to time xy=15 Given: dx/dt = 2, ios s@)+30)0 s&ee20—sHs6 —2 Example 2: A water droplet falls onto a still pond and creates ripples. Assuming that the area of a ripple is increasing at the rate of 2x cm’/s, find the rate at which the radius is increasing at the instant when the radius is 10 em. {@) Let r anc’A be the radius ond ore ofa circular ripple at any time t (@) The glven rate of change Is #2 (6) We are asked to find atthe instant when r 0 (The relationship between A and rls given by~=S the formula for the area ofa circle A= nr? (6) We now differentiate implicitly with respect to ume. (7) Substituting #=2» andr =10 gives ~ (8) Conclusion: The radius ofa circte ripple is Inereasing at rate of 0 ern/s. Example 3: A ladder 10 meters long is leaning against a wall. Ifthe bottom of the ladder is being pushed horizontally towards the wall at 2 m/s, how fast is the top of the ladder moving when the bottom is 6 meters from the wall? {i Mlustrte the proler —— () Late the dstoncs beieer ( Diterertiating both adesuath respect (7 susating the en = Gite the 12-2) +162 =0 24+ 162'=0 ve 6% =24 Sncceese po elas