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Indigenous Education in America

Gwyn Howard

Dr. Yancey Gulley

HESA 530

23 March 2022
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American higher education from its establishment has fallen short of serving minority

groups in a just and equitable way. There are systemic factors that play into this shortcoming as

well as specific factors related to any given minority group. Practitioners in higher education

must make an effort to learn about minority experiences in higher education via their history,

their challenges and their demands to make higher education more accessible to them. One of the

minority groups in America that needs this effort the most is Indigenous or Native American

people. Indigenous students within higher education face adversity and systemic barriers that

need to be addressed. This paper explores the Indigenous population in the United States, the

history of Indigenous education in the country, challenges they face in higher education and best

practices to serve Indigenous students.

Introduction to the Indigenous Population

The Indigenous population in the United States is widespread and vastly diverse in their

identity and cultural experience. The term Indigenous means “to be of place”, that this

population’s ancestral homeland is the land commandeered to create the United States (Wright &

Shotton, 2020). There are currently 573 federally recognized tribes or tribal nations in the

country (Wright & Shotton, 2020). Federal recognition brings rights such as tribal governance

and dual citizenship, however many Indigenous groups within the country lack these privileges

due to being unrecognized- one example being Native Hawaiians (Wright & Shotton, 2020). To

better understand the lived experiences and adversity Indigenous people face, Tribal Critical

Race Theory or TribalCrit was created to “understand the historical, political, and

epistemological ‘commonalities’ among indigenous peoples” (Wright & Shotton, 2020). This

theory focuses on social justice and a decolonized perspective of the Indigenous experience.

History of Indigenous Education in America

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When discussing the history of Indigenous education in the United States it is important

to understand the distinction of Indigenous education pre and post colonization. Each Indigneous

tribe and culture has their own practices to educate and pass on knowledge from one generation

to the next, many of which include storytelling (Wright & Shotton, 2020). This paper focuses on

the education of Indigenous population during and after the colonization of America, which

primarily followed the practices chosen by colonizers and not the Indigenous population.

Indigenous scholars McClennan, Tippeconnic Fox (Comanche), and Lowe (Navajo)

break down the history of Indigenous higher education into three eras: colonial, federal and

self-determination eras (2005). The colonial era begins before the colonial revolution with the

founding of colonial era colleges and universities. Many of these colonial colleges included the

education of Indigenous students in their mission statements but failed to carry out those

promises (McClennan, Tippeconnic Fox, Lowe, 2005). During the roughly 80 years between the

founding of these schools and the onset of The Revolutionary War, only a small handful of

Indigenous students enrolled and even fewer graduated from these institutions (McClennan,

Tippeconnic Fox, Lowe, 2005). One reason this could have occurred is because the colonial-ran

institutions did not care about fulfilling this component of their mission and focussed on colonial

student’s academic success (McClennan, Tippeconnic Fox, Lowe, 2005). A reason from the

perspective of the Indigenous population is that a colonizer’s education would offer little to no

value to an Indigenous student (McClennan, Tippeconnic Fox, Lowe, 2005). There are records of

Indigenous leaders declining offers to send their community members to these institutions due to

the sentiment that these schools wanted “to transform Indian people and societies and eradicate

Indian self-government, self-determination, and self-education” (Lomawaima, 1999). The feudal

era encapsulates the 18th, 19th and early 20th centuries. A multitude of legislative documents
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were enacted during this time for Indigenous education and funding, however Indigenous

education was a low priority at this time in the scheme of higher education (McClennan,

Tippeconnic Fox, Lowe, 2005). This was a boom era for higher education with a magnitude of

institutions opening up in the nation, including institutions focused on women or

African-American education; by the early 20th century only two institutions focused on

Indigenous education existed (McClennan, Tippeconnic Fox, Lowe, 2005). Important context to

this discussion is that during this era was dominated by residential schools, a cultural genocide

practice where Indigenous children were forcibly removed from their families and communities

and sent to school where they were forbidden to practice their culture and assimilate to western

culture (Simi & Matusitz, 2016). The self-determination era began in the mid 20th century with

the progressive era bringing empowering legislation for the Indigenous population, giving them

back their rights to tribal autonomy and self governance (McClennan, Tippeconnic Fox, Lowe,

2005). Up to this point the population was limited to primarily attending trade schools; during

this era the population was encouraged to increase Indigenous higher education not only through

enrolling in existing institutions but also through establishing their own schools (McClennan,

Tippeconnic Fox, Lowe, 2005). One way Indigenous students integrated PWI institutions was

with World War II veterans utilizing GI Bill benefits to attend college (McClennan, Tippeconnic

Fox, Lowe, 2005). Tribal controlled institutions arose at this time as well, with the first

Indigenous focused community college establishment in 1968; currently there are approximately

35 of these institutions active in the country and the boast higher retention rates for Indigenous

students than non-native institutions (McClennan, Tippeconnic Fox, Lowe, 2005; Simi &

Matusitz, 2016). Ways that non-native institutions began prioritizing Indigenous students were
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by founding enrollment and scholarship initiatives and supporting the field of native studies,

which emerged in higher education in the 1960s (McClennan, Tippeconnic Fox, Lowe, 2005).

Challenges in Higher Education

The Indigenous population in the United States is underserved and faces unique

challenges in higher education. Less than 50% of the Indigenous population graduates high

school, 17% attend college and only 5% graduate and earn a degree (Simi & Matusitz, 2016).

Indigenous students comprise approximately 1% of enrollment nationally, 60% of which are

women, indicating that the prioritization of supporting these students is low (Strayhorn 2015). To

begin unpacking their challenges, historical trauma is a significant factor in student success in

higher education (Minthorn, 2014). The collective trauma the Indigenous population experienced

in the United States, partnered with the misrepresentation or lack of representation of these

experiences in academia makes Indigenous students feel alienated and unsupported in the

educational setting (Minthorn, 2014). This misrepresentation and lack of representation expands

to Indigenous cultural practices and beliefs, higher education is ruled by westernized culture and

ideas that do not account for the unique and sacred practices of Indigenous cultures (Simi &

Matusitz, 2016; Minthorn, 2014). One way this plays out in higher education is that Indigenous

practices are taught insensitively as curriculum, students have expressed that they desire their

culture to be respected without the exhibitionism of inaccurate representations taught as

curriculum (Sonn, Bishop, & Humpphries, 2000). This means that allies and practitioners do not

need to know the details of their cultural practices in order to support and respect them. It is

important to note that Indigenous students not only face trauma from the past, they are often

subjected to racism and cultural insensitivity while in higher education and in non-native society

(Fish, 2017). Indigenous cultures place high value on community and service to the community
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which Indigenous students often feel disconnected from and unable to fulfill whilst in higher

education (Minthorn, 2014). Indigenous perspectives often come from a community-oriented

mindset which differs from the individuality and self-autonomy beliefs often taught within the

context of higher education (Sonn, Bishop, & Humpphries, 2000). This community oriented

experience of many Indigenous students can lead to culture shock when they go to college and

become isolated from their community and homeland (Sonn, Bishop, & Humpphries, 2000).

Based on this understanding of student experiences, sociology based theories can more

accurately represent the internal processes of Indigenous students compared to psychology based

ones (Sonn, Bishop, & Humpphries, 2000). In regards to resources for educational experience,

indigenous students often come from underfunded schools before college and lack many

resources other populations are privileged to have to support themselves during their time in

higher education (Simi & Matusitz, 2016). With the compounding challenges Indigenous

students face, this student population has one of the highest rates of alcohol and drug use and

abuse within higher education as a means to cope (Fish, 2017).

Best Practices for Indigenous Students

Scholars who discuss how to best serve Indigenous students offer a variety of options to

improve their experience in higher education. Across the board, research supports practitioners

and institutions reframing their approach to Indigenous students to align with their cultural and

lived experiences, opposed to applying western models not grounded in Indigenous thought

(Strayhorn, 2015; Minthorn, 2014). Researchers Martin and Thunder created the 4 R’s model

(respect, relevance, reciprocity, responsibility) to inform practitioners of the needs of Indigenous

students and how to incorporate their cultural values into their education (Strayhorn 2015).

Because of the push to reframe how we serve this population, there are many encouraged
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practices that mirror tenants of Indigenous culture to fulfill students’ needs. Fostering Indigenous

student communities through living-learning communities and student organizations are two

ways that students feel grounded in their Indigenous community and identity (Strayhorn 2015;

Minthorn 2014). As explained by Minthorn, “community engagement and social responsibility

component of Native American leadership is an integral part of the Native American community

and, therefore, important to the individual Native student” (2014). Student community and on

campus support can also be achieved through Indigenous student cultural centers, a similar

concept to identity based services on campuses such as LGBTQ+ or race based student centers

(Strayhorn, 2015). There are positive practices for supporting Indigenous students that can be

done at the university level as well. Universities that recruit and employ Indigenous faculty and

staff provide inclusion and support that goes beyond the student level (Strayhorn, 2015). This

practice allows for representation of Indigenous experiences and voices at a higher level in the

university, and demonstrates to Indigenous students that there is a place for them in higher

education. Another practice at this level is professional partnerships between tribal colleges and

non-native institutions. These partnerships allow for meaningful training and support for

practitioners who aim to serve this student population in a respectful and effective way

(Strayhorn, 2015). One of the reasons these partnerships succeed is because tribal colleges are

social justice oriented, prioritizing Indigenous student needs and providing an equitable

educational experience (Simi & Matusitz, 2014).

Conclusion

The experience of the Indigenous population in the United States is complex and challenging,

which does not stop at education and higher education. This population faced systemic barriers

and lack of inclusion in higher education both in the past and present day. Their challenges are
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unique to their lived experiences and cultural perspectives which make navigating a westernized

system such as United States higher education a challenge. The best practices to begin

combatting these challenges mirror Indigenous perspectives and place value on their voices and

needs. Systemic changes both in society and in the higher education industry are needed to fully

correct some of the wrongdoings against this population, but there are small and meaningful

steps practitioners and universities can take to make a big impact in these student’s lives.
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References

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and substance use among Native American college students. Journal of College Student

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Kahunawaika’ala Wright, E. & Shotton, H.J. (2020). Engaging Indigneous students. In S.J.

Quaye, S.R. Harper & S.L. Pendakur (Eds.), Student engagement in higher education:

Theoretical perspectives and practical approaches for diverse populations. 69-88.

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Lomawaima, K.T. (2004). Educating Native Americans. In J. Banks. & C. Banks (Eds.),

Handbook of research on multicultural education (441-461). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

McClellan, G.S., Tippeconnic Fox, M.J., & Lowe, S.C. (2005). Where we have been: a history of

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Minthorn, R. (2014). Perspectives and values of leadership for Native American college students

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Simi, D. & Matusitz, J. (2016). Native American students in U.S. higher education: a look from

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Sonn, C., Bishop, B. & Humphries, R. (2000). Encounters with the dominant culture: voices of

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Strayhorn, T.L. (2015). [Review of the book Beyond the asterisk: Understanding Native students

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