RATIONAL THEORY

According to the rational choice theory, people employ logical calculations to

make rational decisions and arrive at results that are in line with their own
personal goals. These outcomes are also connected to maximizing one's own
interests. Given the restricted options available to them, using rational choice
theory is supposed to produce results that give people the most benefit and
satisfaction.

According to the rational choice theory, people make decisions that are in their
best interests when they use logic to weigh their options. The ideas of self-
interest, the invisible hand, and rational agents are frequently linked to rational
choice theory. Many economists think that the aspects of rational choice theory
are advantageous to the economy overall. One of the earliest economists to
create the guiding ideas of the rational choice theory was Adam Smith.

The validity of the rational choice theory and the invisible hand idea is contested
by many economist. Rational choice theory serves as the foundation for many
common economic assumptions and theories. Self-interest, the invisible hand,
and rational agents are all terms related to rational choice theory. The foundation
of the rational choice theory is the presumption that rational actors are involved.
The people in an economy who make logical decisions based on calculations and
the information at their disposal are known as rational actors. The rational choice
theory is built on rational agents.

The rational choice theory makes the assumption that people, or rational agents,
continually attempt to minimize their losses while actively attempting to maximize
their advantage in any circumstance. This rationality presumption may be used
by economists in larger research that aim to comprehend particular social
behaviors. One advantage of rational choice theory, like all theories, is that it can
be useful in describing both individual and societal behaviour. All theories make
an effort to explain the world as we see it. Based on specific costs and rewards,
the rational choice theory can explain why individuals, groups, and society as a
whole choose certain actions.

ROUTINE ACTIVITY THEORY

Routine Activity Theory Developed by Lawrence Cohen and Marcus Felson,

routine activity theory is a criminological theory that analyses crime as an event
and emphasizes the ecological process of crime (Cohen & Felson, 1979). It differs
from many other criminological theories in that it focuses primarily on crime
scenes rather than perpetrators.

Routine activities theory has been widely used to examine cybercrimes,

robberies, and residential burglaries. It is frequently examined in the context of
human ecology and rational choice theory. Moreover, routine activities theory has
been used in conjunction with social disorganization theory in multilevel
frameworks to investigate neighborhood crimes. It has been recognized as being
comparable in many ways to lifestyle theory of criminology (Hindelang,
Gottfredson & Garofalo, 1978).The routine activities theory's macro-level analytic
focus draws attention to the broad changes in the victim and offender behavior
patterns (Cohen, Kluegel & Land, 1981). Notably, the idea presupposes that
everyone who has the means to commit a crime can.

According to the principle of routine activities, potential victims can decide for
themselves whether to become victims or not by making certain decisions. For
instance, individuals might stay out of risky circumstances, lowering their risk of
becoming victims.Ronald Clarke and Derek Cornish were developing a modern
rational choice theory of offending at the same time as the theories of routine
activities, lifestyle-exposure, offender search, and environmental design were
being established.

Like the ideas listed above, this thought emphasized the significance of criminal
opportunity. Particularly important in developing their viewpoint was a crucial
book chapter by Clarke and Cornish from Modeling Offenders' Decisions: A
Foundation for Research and Policy, published in 1985. In this article, they
offered a framework in opposition to positivist theories of crime, which asserted
that specific biological, psychological, or social traits produced or influenced
criminal behavior. Instead, Clarke and Cornish proposed that criminals use a
mechanism known as "bounded rationality" to actively choose between several
courses of action, including committing crimes.
I. LIFESTYLE THEORY

Glenn Walters developed the lifestyle hypothesis in criminology in 1990. Interestingly, the
premise of this idea is that becoming a criminal is a lifetime choice. This idea places a lot of
emphasis on the biological aspects that affect a person's capacity for crime. Conditions,
choice, and cognition are the three concepts that Walters wrote into his theory. I'll start by
talking about conditions. The biological and environmental factors involved in adopting a
criminal lifestyle are covered in Walters' theory.

As the name implies, the environmental condition is depending on your surroundings.They

decide to rob a bank as their last act of criminality but call off the attempt when another pair
tries to rob the bank beforehand. Despite the fact that this film is a comedy, the circumstances
that drive Dick and Jane to a life of crime are pretty serious and help to reinforce this theory.
While the circumstances of bankruptcy and impending foreclosure pushed Jim Carrey's
character to turn to crime in order to maintain his family, he also made the decision to pursue
crime.

The second lifestyle theory concept, choice, is concerned with the offender's decision to
commit a crime.The third idea, cognition, can have a direct impact on the decisions criminals
make. The offender's cognition is their state of mind and the factors that may persuade them
to do crimes.According to the lifestyle idea, some people may end up as criminal victims as a
result of their choices and way of life. For instance, a con artist might use a person who has a
gambling or drug addiction as a "easy victim".Lifestyles are crucial because they expose
more people to potential criminals who lack effective controls that could stop them from
committing a crime. As a result, opportunities for victimization are created by risk exposure
rather than by particular lifestyle choices.

VICTIM PRECIPITATION THEORY

According to the victim precipitation theory, the victim's traits contributed to the crime. In
other words, a criminal might choose a victim specifically because of that victim's ethnicity,
race, sexual orientation, gender, or gender identity.
II. This argument extends beyond hate crimes targeted at certain racial or ethnic groups. It
could also include jobs or activities. An individual who disagrees with him or her might, for
instance, target a political activist. If an employee feels that a recently promoted employee
deserved the promotion, they may decide to target them. The foundational elements of the
victim precipitation theory are these. Think about the following scenario: Cain and Abel are
grabbing a drink at the neighborhood pub. Abel owes Cain money, and as the night goes on,
Cain grows more and more irate at Abel for not repaying his obligation.Victim precipitation
refers to how and why crime occurs, like all criminology theories do. Victim precipitation aims
to comprehend how the victim and the offender interact, in contrast to other theories, which
concentrate on the actions and motives of the offender.

According to this argument, the victim was a willing party to the crime. There are two ways for this to
happen: first, the victim takes the initiative to start the crime, and second, the victim incites or
stimulates the offender to start the crime. The foundational elements of the victim precipitation theory
are these.Marvin Wolfgang even thought that in some cases, victim precipitation may be used as a
defense against criminal homicide. Wolfgang is a lengthy list of actual killings that were reported by
the Philadelphia Police and in which the victim was the main aggressor and frequently the first
aggressor but perished during the altercation with the opposite side.The term "victim precipitation"
describes the part or degree to which a victim is accountable for their own victimization. The concept
of victim precipitation was researched and considered to be a component of the overall picture of a
crime committed in the first generation of victimization theories and victimologists.

DEVELOPMENT THEORY

Development theory is a body of ideas regarding how to best bring about desired
change in society. Such ideas draw from a range of social scientific fields and
methodologies. This page discusses several theories as well as current
advancements pertaining to these theories. There are various reasons for how
development works and why there are inequalities, depending on the theory
being examined.The term "development" was first used to describe national
economic progress in the United States in the 1940s, coinciding with a major
foreign policy issue for the country: how to ensure that the newly independent
states do not become part of the communist Soviet bloc in the future. This worry
led the United States to employ social scientists to research and develop
strategies for fostering capitalism-based economic growth and political stability
in what was referred to as the emerging countries. Development theory describes
the study and writing that came out of this endeavor.As ideology and the global
environment have changed over time, so too have ideas of development,
governance, and their relationships in the theory of development. The major
perspectives on development that have emerged since World War II, such as
theories of modernization and growth, dependency and world systems theories,
the resurgence of neoclassical theory, and a variety of newer critical
perspectives, can be used to trace changes in conceptions of governance and its
relationship to development.Typically, institutions of governance are viewed as
being a key factor in determining development, and the purpose of development
shapes and interprets governance. Since the state is considered to be the
principal agent of development and is typically equated with national economic
progress, one of the main goals of development theory is to comprehend and
clarify the function of the state in development as well as the nature of
government-market relations.

LATENT TRAIT THEORY

Theorists of latent traits contend that some individuals have a trait that regulates
their propensity to commit crimes. This trait, sometimes known as a latent trait,
could be present at birth or emerge early in life, and it might stay constant over
time.

Latent features include, for example: faulty intelligence impulsive or damaged

personality anomalies in the genome. The brain's physical-chemical processes
and Environmental factors, including medications, toxins, and injuries, have an
impact on the brain.Those who possess a latent trait may be more likely to
commit crimes and develop into career criminals.

The tendency is thought to persist across time, but a person's engagement in

crime may change as they grow because there are more chances as they
mature.A hidden characteristic may make someone more prone to commit crimes
and become a career criminal. Whilst the propensity is thought to endure over
time, a person's involvement in crime may shift as they mature since there are
more opportunities.According to this view, a person's behavior is influenced by
their inherited characteristics.

Crime has been linked to genetic variables, according to research. A crime is

more likely to be committed by the other identical twin, for instance, if the first
twin commits a crime.The Trait Theory is a criminology theory that, as its name
implies, holds that certain personality qualities can make a person more likely to
commit a crime. Its foundations can be found in Michael Lombroso's theory that
criminals are relics of a more primitive time, both physically and
mentally.According to theories on latent traits, behavior is controlled by an
underlying condition that exists at birth or soon after. Low IQ, impulsivity, and
personality structure are suspect characteristics. This fundamental characteristic
explains the persistence of offenses since, once present, it sticks with a person
for the rest of their lives.

THE BEHAVIORAL THEORY

The behavioral theory emphasizes the importance of a person's immediate

environment and interactions with it. According to this idea, people who engage
in criminal behavior do so either because a close relative or friend rewards them
in some manner for doing so or because they see the behavior glamorized in a
film or television show they enjoy.

The Behavioral Theory of Crime offers a lot of supporting evidence, according to

the Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment: "Since these
principles can be applied to behaviors of all kinds, the learning perspective
provides useful tools for understanding crime and delinquency.People are more
likely to engage in criminal and deviant behavior and less likely to do so if they
differentially associate with those who do so and support definitions of it, are
exposed to salient criminal/deviant models more frequently in person or
symbolically, define the behavior as desirable or justified in a situation
discriminative for the behavior, and have previously been given a reward for
it.According to Cesare Lombroso, the behavioral theory of criminology holds that
offenders possess certain physical characteristics that are inherited from their
parents (Theories of the Causes of Crime, 2009).

Theoretically, according to William Sheldon, another researcher, physical type

may play a role in motivating criminal behavior. She claimed that because they
have better posture, higher muscle mass, and thicker skin, muscular and athletic
persons are more inclined to commit crimes (Crossman, 2015).Before the 1960s,
biological explanation of crime focused on its causes while investigating the
traits of the physical body, genitalia, evolutionary factors, mental architecture, or
hormones (Theories of the Causes of Crime, 2009). Researchers suggest that
physiology and genetic transmission should be examined in the twenty-first
century since they can influence criminal conduct.According to the study,
criminals' brains are structured differently from non-criminals'.

SOCIAL BOND THEORY

According to the social bond theory, crime is simply uncontrolled; it is not

caused. Social bond theories, like other control theories, presuppose that the
desire to commit crime is innate and natural. According to Travis Hirschi in 1969,
control theory is a theory in which deviance is not an issue; rather, it is a theory
in which researchers try to explain why people don't engage in deviant behavior.
One of the most often used and researched ideas in criminology is the social
bond theory. The contribution of social bond theory to understanding abnormal
behavior cannot be understated, notwithstanding the idea's detractors.
Throughout the 1960s, The goal of the social bond theory is to explain why some
people choose to abstain from crime rather than commit it. This control theory is
based on the premise that people are innately self-interested.

As a control theory based on the premise that humans are essentially self-
interested, social bonding theory aims to explain why some people choose to
abstain from crime rather than commit it. According to the notion, social ties to
institutions and people who uphold the law are weakened or disrupted, which
leads to criminal behavior. Attachment, commitment, engagement, and belief are
the four components of social relationships, and each one is necessary for law-
abiding behavior.

The social bonding theory attracted the interest of both theorists and
researchers, leading to a wide range of empirical tests, contentious discussions,
and theoretical development. One of the more well-known control theories in
criminological literature is this one.According to the social bond hypothesis,
attachment is the first and most crucial component. Together with the social and
cultural norms people acquire and adopt throughout their lives, attachment is a
term used to describe the interpersonal connections people develop.Those with
weaker ties to society are more likely to act erratically because they run less risk
of losing everything.

INCAPACITATION THEORY

Incapacitation theory, which is based on criminology, the best strategy to reduce

crime is to physically remove offenders from society in order to stop them from
committing crimes. It is possible to achieve this by incarceration,
institutionalization, or even death.The fact that the incapacitation theory offers a
simple and direct method for lowering crime is one of its advantages. Offenders
are prevented from committing crimes and hurting others by removing them from
society.

Incapacitation theory provides a plain and transparent plan for lowering crime,
but it should be applied in conjunction with other theories to address the
underlying reasons why criminal behavior occurs. While creating interventions
and policies targeted at reducing crime, policymakers and practitioners should
also take into account the costs and restrictions of the incapacitation theory. We
can make our communities safer for everyone if we take a comprehensive
approach to reducing crime. In many nations, including the United States, this
notion has been invoked to defend severe sentencing guidelines and mandatory
minimum penalties. The incapacitation theory's proponents contend that it is a
vital tactic for public safety and deterring potential perpetrators.

The incapacitation theory does not address the underlying causes of criminal
behavior, which is one of its limitations. According to the incapacitation
argument, all offenders, regardless of their unique situations or backgrounds,
have an equal likelihood of committing crimes. This hypothesis does not take into
account elements that may influence criminal behavior, such as poverty,
unemployment, or mental health problems.

The cost-effectiveness of incapacitation theory may not be long-term and is one

of its main drawbacks. The cost of incarcerating many criminals can build up fast,
as can institutionalization and incarceration, all of which are expensive. Budgets
may be strained, and resources may be constrained for other crucial services and
activities.

COGNITIVE THEORY

The cognitive theory investigates how people perceive reality and the cognitive
processes involved in comprehending the environment in which they live. It
focuses on how people perceive and conceptualize their environment in their
minds.The notion that mental processes mediate behavior is one of the major
principles of cognitive theory.

This implies that our thoughts have an impact on how we behave. For instance, if
we feel threatened by a circumstance, we could get fearful or anxious. We may
react with happiness or pleasure if we think something about the circumstance is
enjoyable. The cognitive theory of psychology is based on this mediating
function of cognition.

Schemas are yet another crucial idea in cognitive science. Mental models called
schemas organize our information and direct our conduct. They serve as our
internal road maps as we explore the globe. For instance, when we see
something that matches our mental image of what a dog should look like, we
immediately identify it as one. Moreover, schemas can affect how we interpret
new information. We may interpret new information in a way that matches an
existing schema, even if that interpretation is inaccurate, if we already have one
for that case.

The evolution of language, solving problems, and learning are only a few of the
numerous psychological topics to which cognitive theory has been applied. In
addition, a variety of psychological conditions, including schizophrenia, anxiety,
and depression, have been explained using this theory. Psychologists can create
more efficient treatments by comprehending how cognitive processes are
engaged in certain diseases.

An explanation of how the human mind functions and how people gather and
process information is offered by cognitive theory, a psychological viewpoint.
According to this theory, cognitive functions including perception, attention,
memory, and reasoning are crucial for understanding human behavior and can be
studied in order to gain important knowledge.

ABDUCTIVE THEORY

Abductive theory involves reaching the optimal conclusion based on the

evidence at hand. Due to its ability to help researchers create educated
assumptions or hypotheses based on illegible or ambiguous data, this method is
frequently utilized in social sciences and scientific research. The ability to
produce original theories and hypotheses is another benefit of abductive theory.

Researchers can create fresh hypotheses and theories that can be tested through
additional study by basing their educated estimates on the evidence that is
currently available. This method of inquiry makes it feasible to examine a greater
variety of potential answers, leading to a more thorough knowledge of
complicated occurrences.

In conclusion, abductive theory is a useful method of inference that enables a

more adaptable and flexible approach to study. Researchers can create fresh
hypotheses and theories that can be tested through additional study by basing
their educated estimates on the evidence that is currently available. To achieve a
more thorough and precise understanding of complicated events, abductive
theory should be applied in concert with other research and reasoning methods.
The subjectivity and bias that might be present in abductive theory is one of its
drawbacks. Unintentionally choosing data that confirms previous notions or
hypotheses might result in researchers drawing conclusions that are biased or
inaccurate. A stronger deductive or inductive method may be necessary for some
research problems, therefore abductive theory may not be suited for all of them.

Abductive theory has the advantage of enabling researchers to formulate

educated estimates or hypotheses in cases when the facts may be ambiguous or
lacking. Researchers can make educated assumptions based on the facts at hand
and then test those hypotheses through more research thanks to this kind of
reasoning, which enables a more adaptable and flexible approach to research.

DEDUCTIVE THEORY

Deductive theory has the advantage of allowing for exact and correct
conclusions. Researchers can get specific conclusions that are unavoidably true
if the premises are true by starting with broad concepts or premises and then
applying logical rules. A great level of clarity and accuracy in reasoning is
possible with this method. Drawing inferences from overarching hypotheses or
premises is the deductive theory, a logical method of thinking. In some scientific
studies as well as in the fields of logic, philosophy, and mathematics, this
strategy is frequently employed.

Deductive theory does, however, have a drawback in that it significantly depends

on the veracity of the premises. Deductive reasoning leads to conclusions that
are inaccurate or incomplete if the premises are false or unreliable. However, not
all research problems can be answered using deductive reasoning; some may
call for a more inductive or abductive strategy.

The ability to test theories and hypotheses is another benefit of deductive

reasoning. On the basis of broad principles, researchers might construct
hypotheses and theories, and then employ deductive reasoning to forecast
particular results or observations. This method enables both the creation of fresh
theories and models as well as the thorough testing of hypotheses and theories.
Deductive theory has the advantage of allowing for exact and correct
conclusions. Researchers can get specific conclusions that are unavoidably true
if the premises are true by starting with broad concepts or premises and then
applying logical rules. A great level of clarity and accuracy in reasoning is
possible with this method.

Deductive theory is a strong method of reasoning that enables precise and

accurate conclusions based on broad premises or principles. This method is
especially helpful for testing theories and hypotheses as well as for creating new
models and theories. To ensure a more thorough and precise comprehension of
complicated events, deductive reasoning should be applied in conjunction with
other modes of thought and inquiry.

INDUCTIVE THEORY

Inductive theory involves deriving generalizations from specific observations or

examples. Because it enables researchers to make observations and come to
conclusions based on empirical facts, this method of reasoning is frequently
utilized in social science and scientific research.

Inductive theory does have certain drawbacks, too, including the potential for
subjectivity and bias. Unintentionally choosing data that confirms previous
notions or hypotheses might result in researchers drawing conclusions that are
biased or erroneous. Also, because some research issues could call for a more
deductive approach, inductive theory might not be suited for all of them.

The ability to conduct research in a more adaptable and flexible manner is one of
the benefits of inductive theory. Researchers can gather information from a
variety of sources and utilize this information to create new ideas or improve
ones that already exist. Because it enables researchers to spot patterns and links
that might not be immediately obvious, this method of inquiry enables a more
nuanced understanding of complicated events.

Another benefit of inductive theory is that it can be utilized to develop original

ideas and hypotheses. Researchers can create new hypotheses and ideas that
can be tested through additional study by observing patterns and linkages in
data. A more thorough understanding of complicated phenomena may result from
this iterative process of observation, hypothesis creation, and testing.

Inductive theory, then, is a useful way of thinking that enables a more adaptable
and flexible approach to study. Researchers can create fresh theories and
hypotheses that can be tested in subsequent studies by gathering data and
making observations. In order to achieve a more complete and accurate
understanding of complicated phenomena, inductive theory should be applied in
conjunction with other methods of reasoning and study.

Inductive theory does have certain drawbacks, too, including the potential for
subjectivity and bias. Unintentionally choosing data that confirms previous
notions or hypotheses might result in researchers drawing conclusions that are
biased or erroneous. Also, because some research issues could call for a more
deductive approach, inductive theory might not be suited for all of them.

BIOSOCIAL THEORY

Biosocial Theory is an approach to comprehending behavior that takes into

account the combination of biological and social elements is called biosocial
theory. According to this view, social and biological elements are intricately
interwoven and both have a role in the formation of human behavior.

A helpful tool for examining how people behave is the biosocial theory, which
considers the interaction between biological and social factors. By recognizing
the importance of both factors in shaping behavior, this theory promotes a
deeper comprehension of complex events and provides the framework for
targeted interventions and preventative measures. But additional study is needed
to fully understand the complex interrelationships between biological and social
factors and to design effective interventions that simultaneously address both.

The fact that the biosocial theory offers a more thorough knowledge of human
behavior is one of its advantages. This theory enables a more nuanced
explanation of complicated processes, such as the emergence of criminal
conduct, by taking into account both biological and social components. This
strategy recognizes the influence of social and environmental influences as well
as the significance of genetic and biological elements in determining behavior.

It can be challenging to separate the intricate interplay between biological and

social elements, which is one shortcoming of the biosocial theory. It can be
difficult to assess the relative contributions of biological and social factors to the
formation of behavior, and it can be much harder to create successful
interventions that target both factors at once.

The base it offers for intervention and prevention measures is another advantage
of the biosocial theory. It is possible to target interventions and preventative
efforts at the individual, family, and community levels by understanding how
biological and social variables contribute to the development of behavior. This
strategy enables a more comprehensive approach to intervention and prevention,
which may be more successful in addressing complex societal issues.

EVOLUTIONARY THEORY

Evolutionary theory, commonly referred to as evolutionary psychology, is a

scientific approach to understanding human behavior that aims to explain how
our evolutionary history has impacted the way we think, feel, and act. This
hypothesis is predicated on the notion that, like all other living things, humans
have developed over time through a process of natural selection.

The fact that evolutionary theory offers a convincing justification for why people
act in particular ways is one of its advantages. The idea contends, for instance,
that certain behaviors, such as aggression and mate choice, originated because
they were advantageous in the setting of our evolutionary past. With the aid of
this method, we may be able to comprehend human behavior better and gain new
perspectives on how to deal with social issues that have evolutionary roots.

Another advantage of evolutionary theory is that it enables a more

comprehensive method of studying human behavior. This theory enables a more
nuanced understanding of complicated processes, such as the emergence of
altruistic conduct, by taking into account both biological and social components.
This method also recognizes the role of genetic and environmental influences on
behavior, as well as the influence of cultural and societal influences.

This theory offers a compelling explanation for why people participate in

particular behaviors and can offer insights into how we can address social issues
that have their roots in our evolutionary history by understanding the influence of
our evolutionary history on behavior. To avoid oversimplifying complicated
behaviors, more research is nonetheless required to properly grasp the intricate
interplay between biological and social elements.

Evolutionary theory can, however, be reductionist and oversimplify complicated

behaviour, which is one of its limitations. This approach may neglect the
significant social and cultural aspects that also have a significant impact on
behavior by focusing on how evolution shapes conduct. Furthermore, some
detractors contend that the idea of evolution can be used to support particular
prejudices and societal inequities.

CHEATER THEORY

The cheater theory, a theory in evolutionary psychology, explains why people

have evolved cognitive abilities to recognize cheating in others. According to this
argument, those who could spot cheaters in their social surroundings had a
reproductive advantage, which is why they developed to be extremely sensitive to
indications of dishonesty and infidelity.

The cheater theory has significant ramifications for comprehending human

cooperation and social conduct. It implies that social conventions and moral laws
have been particularly sensitive to human evolution, which has led to the
emergence of complex communities and cultures. Furthermore, the theory
contends that social cooperation is not always a given and can be subject to
abuse by those who try to game the system. Hence, upholding social order and
ensuring the success of cooperative projects requires an understanding of the
cognitive mechanisms for spotting cheaters.

Suspicion, envy, and gossip are only a few examples of these mechanisms. They
enable people to identify possible cheaters and take action to safeguard
themselves and their social group from harm. For instance, gossip can aid in the
dissemination of information about those who have been found to be cheats,
harming their reputation and lowering their social influence.

Humans are fundamentally cooperative, and social collaboration is essential for

survival and reproductive success, according to one of the main tenets of cheater
theory. Cooperation, however, is susceptible to being abused by people who
game the system, such as free riders who profit from group efforts without
participating. The cognitive mechanisms for spotting cheaters come into play
here.

Hence, the cheater theory is an important idea in evolutionary psychology that

contributes to the understanding of why people have developed cognitive
strategies for spotting cheats in their social environment. Understanding these
systems will help us better understand what motivates social collaboration and
how social order is upheld. The idea also emphasizes the significance of
identifying and punishing cheating conduct to guarantee the success of
cooperative initiatives.

R/K SELECTION THEORY

In criminology, the R/K selection theory has been used to explain criminal
behavior and the persistence of criminal activity in particular communities.
According to the notion, people who use distinct reproductive tactics may also
have varied propensities for committing crimes.

Criminal behavior patterns in various populations have been explained through

the use of the r/K selection hypothesis in criminology. Studies have shown, for
instance, that people in high-risk contexts, such as impoverished places, may be
more inclined to use "r-selected" reproductive techniques and act criminally as a
result.

The hypothesis contends that criminal behavior is more likely to occur among
people who have a "r-selected" reproductive strategy, indicated by a high
reproductive rate and inadequate parental care. This is because they frequently
have a lower level of engagement in their children, which might result in a lack of
empathy and a greater propensity to take risks.

A "K-selected" reproductive strategy, on the other hand, is characterized by a low

reproduction rate and a high level of parental care, and these people are less
prone to commit crimes. This is due to the fact that they frequently have a bigger
stake in their offspring, which can foster greater empathy and a sense of
obligation to others.

In general, the r/K selection theory offers a helpful framework for comprehending
the connection between reproductive tactics and criminal behavior. The theory
can assist in identifying potential risk factors for criminal conduct and provide
guidance for treatments and prevention measures by emphasizing the
significance of environmental influences and investment in offspring.

The hypothesis has also been applied to explain why specific criminal habits
have persisted over time in particular groups. For instance, given that drug use
might result in a lack of empathy and a greater propensity for risk-taking
behaviors, some researchers have hypothesized that drug use and addiction may
be related to a "r-selected" reproductive strategy.

AROUSAL THEORY

Arousal theory is a psychological theory that aims to clarify how arousal and
performance are related. The idea postulates that people have an optimal degree
of arousal that is required for them to function at their best. Due to a lack of
involvement or drive, performance may deteriorate when arousal levels are too
low. Due to excessive stress or worry, performance may also deteriorate when
arousal levels are too high.

The theory has also been applied to explain how environmental conditions affect
criminal behavior. For instance, studies have shown that people may engage in
more criminal activity as a means of raising their arousal levels in high-stress
circumstances, such as those present in inner-city regions or during periods of
political turmoil.
Arousal theory has been used to explain criminal behavior and the causes of
criminal action in the field of criminology. The hypothesis postulates that people
who are persistently under-aroused may seek out high-risk and hazardous
activities to raise their arousal levels. People may seek out risky or dangerous
activities that provide them a thrill or an adrenaline rush as a result, which can
enhance the possibility that they would engage in criminal behavior.

The idea has, however, also come under fire for being overly basic in its
explanation of criminal behavior. Some detractors claim that the arousal theory
oversimplifies the connection between arousal and criminal behavior and ignores
the nuanced social and cultural aspects that influence criminal behavior.

Arousal theory, in general, offers a helpful framework for comprehending the

connection between arousal and criminal behavior. The theory can aid in
identifying potential risk factors for criminal conduct and help to improve
interventions and prevention initiatives by underlining the significance of
contextual and situational elements in influencing behavior. To fully comprehend
criminal behavior, it's crucial to be aware of the theory's limitations and to adopt
a comprehensive perspective.

SOMATOTYPING THEORY

Somatotyping theory is still being researched and used in a variety of domains,

such as criminology, sports psychology, and personal development, in spite of
these concerns. According to some academics, the idea can be used to identify
people who may be more likely to engage in criminal activity and to develop
focused interventions and preventative plans that address underlying
physiological and psychological issues.

A criminological theory called somatotyping suggests a connection between a

person's physical traits and their predisposition for criminal activity. According to
the hypothesis, people can be divided into one of three somatotypes
endomorphs, mesomorphs, and ectomorphs based on the proportions of their
skeletal, muscular, and adipose tissue.
In accordance with this notion, people with mesomorphic body types-
characterized by a strong and athletic build-are more prone to commit crimes
than people with other somatotypes. Due to their increased levels of physical
aggression, rivalry, and risk-taking behavior-all of which are assumed to be
impacted by their physical characteristics-this is the case.

Others have questioned the hypothesis for oversimplifying the many components
that contribute to criminal behavior, including social and environmental factors,
even if some research have supported the association between mesomorphic
body type and criminal behavior. Additionally, detractors claim that the theory
upholds a form of biological determinism that minimizes the importance of
personal agency and free will.

Somatotyping theory is a valuable area of research and investigation in

criminology and related subjects, despite its drawbacks and detractors. The idea
can help us comprehend the many complicated aspects that contribute to
criminal behavior and encourage the creation of more effective interventions and
prevention efforts by drawing attention to the potential connections between
physical traits and behavior.

MORAL DEVELOPMENT THEORY

The moral development theory has significant effects on parenting and

schooling. Parents and educators can establish circumstances that support the
development of moral thinking and decision-making abilities by knowing the
stages of moral development. For instance, they can urge kids to consider other
people's needs and feelings as well as the effects of their actions.

A psychology theory called moral growth theory focuses on how people

gradually improve their capacity for moral reasoning and judgment. In the 1930s,
Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget first put forth this hypothesis, which was later
developed by Lawrence Kohlberg in the 1960s.

Kohlberg developed Piaget's theory by putting out six phases of moral

development that last from childhood until maturity. Preconventional,
conventional, and postconventional stages make up these three tiers. People are
essentially driven by self-interest and the desire to escape punishment at the
preconventional level. In the conventional level, people are driven by societal
expectations and a desire to be respected as an upright citizen. In the
postconventional level, people form their own particular moral code and are
driven by values like justice and human rights.

According to Piaget's theory of moral development, moral reasoning develops in

children at various stages as they grow and mature. Children in the first stage are
mostly worried on avoiding punishment and deferring to authority adults. At the
second stage, they start to understand that other people have their own needs
and wants, and they could start basing their decisions on what is best for other
people. Children reach the last stage when they have a more abstract concept of
morality and can base their choices on the underlying ideals of justice and
fairness.

The moral development hypothesis is a crucial psychological viewpoint that

clarifies how people gradually acquire moral thinking and judgment skills. We can
assist people in becoming more moral and accountable members of society by
understanding the stages of moral development and developing conditions that
foster moral growth.

GENERAL DETERRENCE AND SPECIFIC DETERRENCE THEORY

According to the general deterrence hypothesis, criminals are discouraged from

committing crimes because they dread punishment. According to this
hypothesis, those who may otherwise be inclined to commit a crime can be
deterred by the possibility of punishment. The theory holds that potential
offenders will be less inclined to participate in criminal activity if they perceive
that the costs of committing a crime outweigh the rewards.

Two interrelated criminological theories that make an effort to explain why people
are discouraged from committing crimes are general deterrence and specific
deterrence theories. While there are some similarities between the two theories,
there are also some definite distinctions.
The fact that these theories offer a precise framework for comprehending how
punishment might be employed as a deterrence for criminal activity is one of its
advantages. Policymakers and practitioners can create more effective ways for
lowering criminal behavior by understanding how these theories function.

On the other hand, the idea of specific deterrence contends that the punishment
itself can act as a deterrent for people who have already committed crimes.
According to this notion, punishing offenders may help prevent them from
committing similar crimes in the future. The goal behind punishment is to deter
offenders from committing crimes again in the future after they have experienced
it.

These theories do not take into account the influence of other variables, such as
socioeconomic determinants of health or mental health, on criminal conduct,
which is one of its limitations. These theories presuppose that people act
rationally and assess the advantages and disadvantages of their choices,
although this is not always the case.

These theories also do not take into account the likelihood of erroneous
convictions or punishments. Punishing an innocent individual will not act as a
deterrent to future criminal activity. Theoretical explanations for how punishment
can be used to prevent criminal behavior include general deterrence and targeted
deterrence.

INTERGENERATIONAL TRANSMISSION THEORY

Intergenerational transmission theory is a crucial psychological viewpoint that

aids in our understanding of how behaviors and ideas are passed down from one
generation to the next. We may create tactics for shattering bad habits and
fostering transformation by becoming aware of how these transmissions take
place.

A psychological theory called intergenerational transmission theory looks at how

ideas and behavior patterns are passed down from one generation to the next.
According to this hypothesis, people pick up behaviors and beliefs from their
parents and other family members, and as adults, those learnt behaviors and
beliefs have an impact on how they act and think.

Numerous behaviors and attitudes, such as drug abuse, mental illness, and
family violence, have been studied using the intergenerational transmission
paradigm. For instance, studies have shown that children who have parents who
use drugs or alcohol are more likely to engage in those activities themselves.
Similar to this, those who experienced violence in their family of origin are more
prone to use violence as an adult.

Therapy, education, and public policy are a few areas where having a working
knowledge of intergenerational transmission theory can be helpful. This idea, for
instance, can be used by therapists to assist patients in discovering the causes
behind their actions and beliefs as well as in creating plans for severing harmful
patterns. This notion can be used by educators to create initiatives that support
admirable principles and conduct, and by decision-makers to create programs
that focus on particular attitudes or behaviors.

This theory contends that parenting methods, cultural standards, societal values,
religious beliefs, and other beliefs are all passed down to children by their
parents. Both direct and indirect methods of transmission are possible, such as
explicit instruction and modeling or observation. For instance, kids might pick up
good communication, conflict resolution, and interpersonal skills from their
parents.

INTEGRATED THEORY

Integrated theory is a variety of theoretical stances, such as cognitive, behavioral,

psychodynamic, and humanistic approaches, are incorporated into integrated
theory. Integrated theory aims to provide a more thorough knowledge of human
behavior and the forces that affect it by fusing these many viewpoints. A
psychological approach known as integrated theory makes an effort to bring
together various ideas and viewpoints in order to provide a thorough explanation
of human behavior. This method acknowledges the need for a more
comprehensive approach because no one theory can adequately account for the
complexity of human behavior.
The ability of integrated theory to provide a more nuanced explanation of
complicated behaviors and mental health disorders is one of its main advantages.
For instance, a therapist utilizing an integrated approach may use
psychodynamic techniques to analyze underlying causes and motivations while
also using cognitive-behavioral strategies to address certain symptoms of a
mental health disorder.

Research can also benefit from integrated theory because it enables researchers
to take into account a variety of variables that might affect behavior. For instance,
a study of substance abuse might take into account both social and
environmental factors, such as peer influence and cultural norms, in addition to
individual elements like genetics and personality traits.

Integrated theory offers advantages, but it also has drawbacks. Combining

several theories and viewpoints can be difficult and time-consuming, and it can
be challenging to decide which techniques are most suitable for a particular
circumstance. Additionally, rather than striving to incorporate several viewpoints,
some academics and practitioners could decide to concentrate on a single theory
or technique.

An important viewpoint in psychology that aims to offer a more thorough

understanding of human behavior is known as integrated theory. Integrated
theory can offer a more nuanced and comprehensive approach to analyzing
complex behaviors and mental health difficulties by drawing on a variety of
theoretical viewpoints and taking into account a number of variables.

ANOMIE THEORY
Anomie theory is a sociological theory that aims to explain how social structure
and abnormal conduct are related. According to this idea, when societal norms
are undermined or disturbed, people may feel anomie or a sense of
normlessness, which can result in a rise in deviant conduct.

American sociologist Robert Merton expanded on the anomie theory by arguing

that social structures might cause a disconnect between socially acceptable
goals and the tools to accomplish them. According to Merton, people may turn to
deviant behavior as a means of accomplishing socially acceptable aims when
they are unable to do so through legal means.

Emile Durkheim, a French sociologist, created the anomie theory and believed
that social norms and values are extremely important in guiding conduct.
According to Durkheim, people may feel confused and disoriented when social
standards are undermined or disrupted, and this might result in more deviant
conduct.

Anomie theory has been challenged for its neglect of individual characteristics
and its emphasis on the function of social structure, though. According to critics,
this perspective fails to appropriately take into account how human motivation
and choice play a part in aberrant conduct.

Focusing on how social structure affects aberrant conduct is one of the main
contributions of anomie theory. According to this viewpoint, societal norms and
values are crucial in regulating human conduct and that their disruption might
have negative effects.

Anomie theory is nevertheless a crucial viewpoint in sociology despite its

drawbacks. This theory can shed light on the underlying causes of social issues
and guide prevention and intervention measures by emphasizing the connection
between social structure and aberrant behavior.

CONCENTRIC ZONE THEORY

According to the hypothesis of concentrated zones, if there is a high degree of

economic and social disarray, crime tends to be concentrated in the innermost
zones. These regions frequently exhibit poverty, unemployment, and restricted
access to resources, which can exacerbate social disarray and the deterioration
of social standards.

The concentric zone hypothesis states that cities can be split into a number of
concentric zones, each with unique social and economic characteristics. The
central business district, which is the innermost zone, is distinguished by a high
level of commercial activity, whereas the outer zones are typically residential
districts with different socioeconomic status.

Concentric zone theory is still a vital viewpoint in criminology despite its

drawbacks. This theory can shed light on the social and economic elements that
influence criminal behavior by concentrating on how crime is distributed
throughout metropolitan areas. It can also help to inform preventative and
intervention measures.
 Concentric zone theory has drawn criticism for oversimplifying complicated
social and economic issues, though. Opponents claim that this approach
perpetuates prejudices about particular communities and inadequately takes into
consideration the influence of individual circumstances on criminal conduct.

Concentric zone theory's understanding of the influence of social and economic

factors on criminal conduct is one of its major achievements. It may be feasible to
identify places with a higher risk of crime and to design strategies for prevention
and intervention by studying the characteristics of various zones within a city.A
criminological hypothesis called "concentric zone theory" aims to explain how
crime is distributed in urban areas. According to this notion, crime tends to be
concentrated in specific locations rather than being evenly spread throughout a
city.

CULTURAL DEVIANCE THEORY

According to the cultural deviance theory, people who are socialized into
subcultures that go against accepted values and conventions are more prone to
act in a deviant manner. This is so that deviant behavior can be encouraged and
reinforced, a culture of deviance can be created through subcultures.

A criminological viewpoint known as "cultural deviance theory" focuses on how

subcultures contribute to the emergence of deviant conduct. This idea contends
that subcultures form their own sets of standards, norms, and values that may be
distinct from those of the greater society. These subcultures can give people a
sense of identity and belonging, but they can also encourage wrongdoing.

Yet, the stigmatization and stereotyping of subcultures that the cultural deviance
theory has a propensity for has also been questioned. Opponents claim that this
viewpoint might be overly straightforward and ignores the complexity and
diversity of subcultural groupings.

The focus on how culture shapes people's conduct is one of the main
contributions of the cultural deviance theory. This viewpoint acknowledges that
people are not just products of their social environments, but also have an impact
on the cultural milieu in which they live.

Cultural deviance theory is still a crucial viewpoint in criminology despite its

drawbacks. This theory can shed light on the underlying causes of social
problems and help to shape prevention and intervention measures by
emphasizing on the role of subcultures in influencing individual behavior. It also
emphasizes the significance of cultural competence in the criminal justice system
since better interventions may be made when people's cultural contexts are
understood.

SOCIAL DISORGANIZATION THEORY

According to the social disorganization theory, a community's social and

economic circumstances, rather than specific individual factors, are what
ultimately drive crime and deviance. This viewpoint contends that social disorder,
which can increase crime and deviance, is more likely to occur in communities
with high levels of unemployment and poverty.

A criminological viewpoint called social disorganization theory looks at how

social structure and crime are related. According to this idea, communities that
are more likely to have high levels of crime and deviance are those that have poor
social networks, high rates of poverty, and restricted access to resources.

The emphasis on the function of community in influencing behavior is one of the

main contributions of social disorganization theory. This viewpoint acknowledges
that people are impacted by the social and economic circumstances of their
surroundings rather than existing in a vacuum. It may be possible to lower levels
of crime and deviance by addressing the underlying reasons of social disorder,
such as poverty and restricted access to resources.

Social disorganization theory has, however, also come under fire for its emphasis
on structural causes and its scant attention to human factors. Opponents claim
that this viewpoint fails to appropriately take into account how individual
motivation and choice play a part in criminal behavior.
Social disorganization theory is still a crucial viewpoint in criminology despite its
drawbacks. This theory can shed light on the fundamental reasons behind
criminal conduct and influence efforts for prevention and intervention by
concentrating on the social and economic factors that fuel crime and
deviance.They define social disorganization as the absence of the social norms'
influence and effectiveness on society's participants, which results in the
separation of individuals, separatist attitudes among the participants, and the
collapse of the social fabric.

SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

The social learning theory has been applied to criminology to explain how media,
friends, and family influences criminal conduct. This theory contends that people
pick up illegal activity via observing others who do so and from reinforcement of
that behavior through rewards or absence of consequences.

According to the hypothesis, people are more inclined to commit crimes if they
have been exposed to them in their social surroundings and if they think they are
desirable or acceptable. Additionally, it implies that people are more prone to
commit crimes if they have previously received praise or punishment for their
illicit activity.

According to social learning theory, commonly referred to as observational

learning theory, people pick up new skills by observing, copying, and modeling
the behavior of others in their social environment. This theory places a strong
emphasis on how interactions with others and socialization play a part in the
formation of behavior, especially criminal behavior.

Criminal justice interventions and preventative plans, such as initiatives aimed at

modifying the social context of people who are at risk for criminal activity, have
been developed using the social learning theory. For instance, by offering
positive role models, rewarding positive behaviors, and addressing underlying
social and psychological difficulties, mentoring programs, family therapy, and
community-based initiatives have proved successful in lowering the probability
of criminal conduct among at-risk persons.
Social learning theory is still a crucial field for criminology research and
application, despite these criticisms. The theory can aid in the creation of
successful treatments and prevention methods that address the underlying
reasons of criminal conduct and encourage positive change by stressing the
importance of social variables in molding behavior.The complex elements that
contribute to criminal behavior are oversimplified by the social learning theory,
according to its detractors, who also claim that it ignores the importance of
individual agency and free will.

PSYCHODYNAMIC THEORY

The Psychodynamic Theory, which is still regarded as one of the leading

psychological theories, contends that unconscious mental processes formed in
infancy govern how people behave. It contends that the ego and superego are
two of the three main components of human personality. The psychodynamic
approach views criminal behavior more broadly as a struggle between the id, ego,
and superego. People may develop problematic behavior and delinquency as a
result of this struggle. This notion presents a hurdle because it is challenging to
test..

Those who work in the criminal justice system immediately grasp the importance
of comprehending criminology ideas in order to lower crime rates and make
society safer. The psychodynamic theory, the behavioral theory, and the
cognitive theory are the three main psychological theories of time that have
evolved after three decades of research.

Psychologist Sigmund Freud. Everyone, he claimed, has inherent drives known

as the "id" that call for fulfillment. These instincts are controlled by moral and
ethical principles (referred to as the "superego"), and as people age, they acquire
a logical personality that serves as a mediator between the id and superego.
According to this theory, criminal behavior is primarily viewed as the superego
failing.

According to Freud, the majority of our routine behaviors and acts are the result
of our unconscious. The unconscious is a storehouse of emotions, motivations,
desires, and memories that are not conscious to us. Overall, traumatic events can
present themselves in a variety of ways. The unconscious, including how past
memories and traumas continue to affect you in the present even if you are not
completely aware of them, is the emphasis of the psychodynamic theory.
Throughout childhood, the kid experiences stages of psychosexual development
as their personality develops. Anything that makes you uncomfortable is
mediated by internal, unconscious psychological conflicts (such as your sexual
impulses and violent feelings) or unconscious defense mechanisms.

EYSENCK’S CONDITIONING THEORY

According to Eysenck's Conditioning Theory, all human personalities can be

classified into three categories: neuroticism, extroversion, and psychoticism.
Those with high extroversion scores tend to be sensation-seeking, dominant and
forceful.Eysenck (1964) claimed that those who perform well on these three
qualities have a criminal personality, which would define them.

According to Eysenck's theory of criminal personality, extraversion and

neuroticism are two personality qualities that may be assessed via a personality
test and are biologically founded. Extraversion is a phrase used to describe a
biological requirement for high or low degrees of external stimulation, which is
based on how arousal-prone one's central and autonomic nervous systems are.

As a result, those who exhibit high degrees of extraversion have low levels of
arousal and need more stimulus from their surroundings to feel excited. This
environmental stimulation in the context of forensic psychology may include
criminal activity. According to Hans Eysenck's theory of criminal personality,
personality qualities such as extraversion and neuroticism can be evaluated
using a personality test. These traits are said to have a biological basis.

When it comes to psychological stability, neuroticism is concerned. A person

with a high neuroticism score is likely to be more reactive, volatile, and possibly
more inclined to participate in offensive behavior. Later, Eysenck added
psychoticism as a third personality trait that describes how antisocial, violent,
and heartless a person is.Influential psychologist Hans Eysenck developed the
PEN model, a biological theory of personality (1916-1997). The three major
personality traits that the model emphasizes are neuroticism, extraversion, and
psychoticism (PEN).  

 
 ROMEO S. BALAGA JR.

BSCRIM1-A4

30 DIFFERENT THEORIES IN CRIME

CAUSATION