Department Of Mechanical Engineering

NIT Warangal

ME356 - Mechanical Measurements

Laboratory Manual

Name :

Roll No.:
S.No Experiment Date
 Flow Velocity Measurement using Pitot tube and Anemometer
Aim
To determine the velocity of a flow using Pitot Tube and Hot Wire Anemometer.

Theory
Flow measurement gives the idea in understanding the flow nature in liquid and gases.
Instruments like the pitot tube and hot wire anemometers measures the local velocity at a
point in the channel or duct through which fluid is flowing.

Pitot tube
It is an instrument used to measure fluid flow velocity based upon Bernoulli’s principle.
Flow velocity constitutes important parameters like kinematics and dynamics of fluid flow.
Velocity measurement is quite essential in many engineering applications; it may be
measured with the view of
- Determining volumetric flow rate.
- Forecasting weather from wind velocity measurement
- Locating the separation points from knowledge of velocity distribution.
This fluid velocity meter measures the local velocity at a point in the flow duct, and is
used mainly for the measurement of air or gas velocities.

The unit consists of two concentrically arranged tubes bent to form a right angled bend. The
inner tube is open-ended and senses the fluid stagnation pressure, where the velocity is
decreased to zero. The outer tube is sealed and has a stream lined-shape. A number of holes
(6 to 8) are drilled through the surface of the outer tube between nose and stem at a distance
of 3d from the tip of the tube. The right angle bend is at 8d to 10d. The presence of the body
constricts the stream lines in its closed proximity, thereby causing an increase in the velocity
or a fall in the static pressure. The stem produces a damping-up effect which tends to produce
an error of opposite sign. By careful placing of the side tapping relative to the nose and the
stem, a satisfactory reading of the fluid static pressure can be obtained.

Applying the Bernoulli’s equation to points 1 and 2 in the flow stream:

P1/ρ+ V21/2 + gz1 = P2/ρ+ V22/2 + gz2
The velocity V1 at stagnation point 1 is zero. A solution for velocity then yields
V2 = [2{(P1/ρ+ gz1) – (P2/ρ+ gz2)}]1/2
But V2=V and if the tube is oriented horizontally (z1=z2 and V= free
 stream velocity)
then, V = [2(P1-P2)/ρ]1/2 = [2(P1-Ps)/ρ]1/2
Where Pt = P1 is the total or stagnation pressure and Ps=P2. The pressure
difference (Pt - Ps) can be measured by taking leads from the two tubes to a differential
manometer.
Pt - Ps = ρ g hm(ρm / ρ -1)
Where hm is the manometer deflection and ρm and ρ are the densities of manometer and
flowing fluids respectively.
V= [2 g hm[(ρm / ρ)-1)]1/2 (A)
The instrument requires frequent calibration to refine the value of Cv. Its value
lies between 0.95 and 1.0
Salient characteristics of velocity measurement by a pitot – static tube are
- Essentially no pressure loss in the flowing stream
- Economical and easy to install and remove from the pipe.
- Sensitive to upstream disturbance, to Reynolds number changes and to dimensional
errors
- Poor accuracy
- Not applicable to dirty or sticky fluid as the dirt and dust may clog the small opening of the
tubes
- Fluids must be moving with relatively high velocities (about 15m/s) in order to generate
measurable pressure difference.

Hot wire anemometer

Hot wire anemometer is an instrument used to measure the mean and fluctuating flow
components in a flow field. The sensor is a 5 microns diameter platinum-tungsten wire
welded between the two prongs of the probe and heated electrically as a part of a wheat-stone
bridge circuit. When the probe is introduced into the flow field, it tends to be cooled by the
instantaneous velocity and consequently there is a tendency for the electrical resistance to
diminish. The cooling rate depends upon the (a) dimensions and physical properties of the
wire. (b) Difference of the temperature between wire and fluid, (c) physical properties of the
fluid and (d) stream velocity under measurement.
In a standard hot wire anemometer, hot wire is heated by electrical resistance,
after a very short period of time the wire reach to equilibrium temperature, then the heat
energy is loss to flow environment depends on wind speed. There are two types of
anemometers as
a. Constant temperature anemometer
b. Constant current anemometer.
Constant temperature anemometer is the most commonly used one because, its probe
resistance will be proportional to temperature of hot wire and heat loss is proportional to the
flow velocity.
In the experiment, we us a metal film of thickness less than 100A0 units
Procedure:
1. Switch on the mains.
2. Adjust the speed of the blower there by the flow rate.
3. Note down the U-tube manometer reading and calculate the velocity using the equation A.
Also note down the velocity reading from hot wire anemometer by placing it at the center
of the flow tube in the normal direction.
4. Continue the experiment by varying the blower speed.
5. Tabulate the values.
6. Assuming the pitot tube reading as the exact value calibrate the hot wire
anemometer.

Table:

S. No Actual velocity (m/s) Measured velocity (m/s)

[ from Pitot tube reading] [anemometer reading]
Graph:

Static pitot tube velocity- m/s

Hotwire anemometer velocity- m/s

 Pressure Measurement using Strain Gauge Pressure Transducer
Aim
To understand the working principle and to measure pressure using Strain gauge pressure
transducer.
Theory
Strain gauge pressure transducer is basically an electro mechanical device, especially
manufactured and designed for wide range of applications in pressure measurement. A
common method for converting diaphragm displacement into a measurable signal is to sense
the strain induced on the diaphragm surface as it is displaced. Strain gauges, devices whose
measurable resistance is proportional to their sensed strain, can be bonded directly onto the
diaphragm, integrated within the diaphragm material or onto a deforming element (such as a
thin beam) attached to the diaphragm so as to deform with the diaphragm and to sense strain.
Metal strain gauges can be used with liquids. Strain gauge resistance is reasonably linear over
a wide range of strain and can be directly related to the sensed pressure. A diaphragm
transducer using strain gauge detection is depicted in Figure1.

Figure 1.Diaphragm pressure transducer.

By using semiconductor technology in pressure transducer construction, we now have a
variety of very fast, very small, highly sensitive strain gauge diaphragm transducers. Silicone
piezo resistive strain gauges can be diffused into a single crystal of silicone wafer, which
forms the diaphragm. Semiconductor strain gauges have a static sensitivity that is 50 times
greater than conventional metallic strain gauges. Because the piezoresistive gauges are
integral to the diaphragm, they are relatively immune to the thermoelastic strains prevalent in
conventional metallic strain gauge–diaphragm constructions. Furthermore, a silicone
diaphragm does not creep with age (as does a metallic gauge), thus minimizing calibration
drift over time. However, uncoated silicone does not tolerate liquids.
 Specifications
Range: 0 -10 kg/cm2
Sensor type: strain gauge
Sensor resistance: 350 ohms
Bridge voltage: 12 V DC Max
Excitation voltage: 10 V DC
Accuracy: <+/- 1% of full scale
Linearity: : <+/- 1% of full scale
Repeatability: <+/- 1% of full scale
Resolution: 0.1 kg/cm2
Operating temperature range: 0 to 50°C
Operating voltage: 230 V AC
Procedure
1. The pressure transducer is connected to the pressure port using ¼ BSP male connector
provided.
2. Connect the cable provided from the pressure sensor connector to the back panel of
the digital pressure indicator.
3. Connect the power 230V 50/60 Hz Ac supply to the digital indicator.
4. Turn on digital indicator using red rocker switch provided on the back panel.
5. With no pressure applied on the transducer, the digital display should indicate 00.0.If
not, press Tare button to set the digital display to read 00.0.
6. The indicator is now ready to measure the load. The digital display will display the
pressure sensed.
7. Close the valve before starting the experiment.
8. Apply pressure in steps of 1 kg up to 10 kg and note the readings of pressure applied
v/s digital pressure indicator reading.
9. The readings can be tabulated in the table given and a graph of actual applied and
digital indicator reading can be drawn.
10. Once experiment is finished, release the pressure by opening the valve given.

Caution: Do not exceed the range of the Pressure sensor. Exceeding the range
will damage the sensor.

Graphs: Pressure applied v/s digital pressure indicator reading

Table

Sl.No Pressure Digital pressure Digital pressure

applied indicator reading indicator reading
Loading Unloading
 Flow Measurement by Venturi and Orifice Meter
Aim
To compare and analyse the flow measurements by Venturi and Orifice meters
Theory
Venturi meter and orifice meter are the commonly used flow meters for measuring
mass/volumetric flow rate or velocity of the flowing fluid. These flow meters are also known
as variable head meters. They are categorised as full-bore meter as the measurement of the
fluid takes place when it flows through a conduit or channel
Venturi meter
The venturi meter has a converging conical inlet, a cylindrical throat and a diverging
recovery cone. It has no projections into the fluid, no sharp corners and no sudden changes in
contour. The following figure shows the venturi meter with uniform cylindrical section
before converging entrance, a throat and divergent outlet.
The converging inlet section decreases the area of fluid stream, causing the velocity to
increase and pressure to decrease. The low pressure is measured in the centre of the
cylindrical throat as the pressure will be at its lowest value, where neither the pressure nor the
velocity will be changing. As the fluid enters the diverging section the pressure is largely
recovered lowering the velocity of the fluid. The major disadvantage of this type of flow
detection are the high initial costs for installation and difficulty in installation and inspection.
In the venturi meter velocity is increased and the pressure decreased in the upstream cone.
The pressure drops from points F to I can be used to measure the rate of flow through meter.
Venturi meters are most commonly used for liquids, especially water.
Since friction cannot be eliminated in the venturi meter a permanent loss in pressure occurs.
Because of the small angle of divergence in the recovery cone, the permanent pressure lose is
relatively small (about 10% of the venture differential pa-pb).

Orifice meter
The orifice meter consists of an accurately machined and drilled plate concentrically mounted
between two flanges. The position of the pressure taps is somewhat arbitrary.

The orifice meter has several practical advantages when compared to venturi meters.
 Lower cost
  Smaller physical size
 Flexibility to change throat to pipe diameter ratio to measure a larger range of flow
rates
Disadvantage:
 Larger power consumption in the form of irrecoverable pressure loss.

There is large pressure drop much of which is not recoverable. This can be a severe limitation
when considering use of an orifice meter.
Procedure
1. Check all the clamps for tightness.
2. Check whether the water level in the tank is sufficient such as the suction pipe of
pump is completely immersed.
3. For a good amount of variation in discharge also close the by-pass valve of pump.
Also check & maintain zero level or zero Δp in manometer.
4. Now switch on the pump & open/close the respective valve for orifice or venturi
application.
5. Open the valve and start the flow
6. If any air bubbles or leakage exist in U-tube manometer remove them.
7. Wait for a while for stabilization of flow.
8. Note the rotameter and U-tube manometer reading reading in the table given.
9. Repeat the procedure by changing the discharge by slowly opening the by-pass valve
and
10. Repeat the same for orifice meter.
11. Calculate the respective flow rates and plot the comparison graph between,
Rotameter, Venturi meter and Orifice meter readings.
Venturimeter
Cd=0.9; pipe diameter=0.824 inch; Bore diameter=0.518 inch
Orificemeter
Cd=0.65; pipe diameter=0.824 inch; Bore diameter=0.577 inch

Table

Sl.N Rotamete Venturi Venturi

o r Reading Manomete Flow
r Reading rate

Orifice
Manomete
Sl.N Rotamete r Reading Orifice
o r Reading Flow rate
 Torque Measurement using Strain Gauges

Aim
To understand working principle and measure the torque using strain gauges.

Theory
The measurement of torque is important in a variety of applications, including sizing of load-
carrying shafts. This measurement is also a crucial aspect of the measurement of shaft power,
such as in an engine dynamometer. Strain-gauge–based torque cells are constructed in a
manner similar to load cells, in which a torsional strain in an elastic element is sensed by
strain gauges appropriately placed on the elastic element. Figure 1 show a circular shaft
instrumented with strain gauges for the purpose of measuring torque, and a commercially
available torque sensor. Consider the stresses created in a shaft of radius R0 subject to a
torque T. The maximum shearing stress in a circular shaft occurs on the surface and may be
calculated from the torsion formula
TR0
τ max = J
Where
τ max = maximum shearing stress
T = applied torque
J = polar moment of inertia (for a solid circular shaft)

For a shaft in pure torsion, there are no normal stresses, σx,σy, or σz. The principal
stresses lie along a line that makes a 45-degree angle with the axis of the shaft, as illustrated
in Figure1, and have a value equal to τ max. Strains that occur along the curve labelled A-Aʹ
are opposite in sign from those that occur along B-Bʹ. These locations allow placement of
four active strain gauges in a Wheatstone bridge arrangement, and the direct measurement of
torque in terms of bridge output voltage.
Procedure
1. Ensure the torque sensor fulcrum arm with weighing pan has no weights.
2. Connect the cable provided from the torque sensor connector to the back panel of the
digital torque indicator
3. Connect the power 230v 50/60 Hz AC supply to the digital torque indicator.
4. Turn on the digital torque indicator using red rocker switch provided on the back
panel.
5. With no load applied on the torque sensor, the weighing pan, the digital display
should indicate 00.0. If not, press the Tare button to get zero reading.
6. The indicator is now ready to measure the torque. The digital display will display the
torque sensed.
7. Apply load in steps of 1 kg upto 10 kg at the end of 1.00 m fulcrum arm and note the
readings of torque applied v/s digital load indicator reading.
8. The readings can be tabulated and a graph of actual load applied vs digital indicator
reading can be drawn.

S.No Actual load applied in Digital indicator reading Digital indicator reading
Kgm in Kgm in Kgm
Loading Unloading
1 0
2 1
3 2
4 3
5 4
6 5
7 6
8 7
9 8
10 9
11 10