Professional Documents
Culture Documents
I. Infertility
Infertility is the inability to conceive after at least 1 year of sexual intercourse at least four times per
week without contraception. Because most couples have the potential to conceive but they are just
less able to do this without additional help, the term subfertility is more often used today. Subfertility
is said to exist when a pregnancy has not occurred after at least 1 year of engaging in unprotected
coitus.
Primary infertility – no previous history of either partner conceiving or impregnating.
Secondary infertility – inability to conceive after a previous successful pregnancy.
Sterility is the inability to conceive because of a known condition, such as the absence of a uterus.
Couple who feels they need fertility testing consist of the following:
a. Married couples
b. Couple who plans to marry
c. Some desire to remain single but bear a child.
d. Lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender (LGBT) and want to have a child through
an assisted fertility method.
Some couples, because they are unaware of the average length of time it takes to achieve a
pregnancy, may worry that they are subfertile when they are not. When engaging in coitus an
average of four times per week, 50% of couples will conceive within 6 months, and 85% within 12
months. These periods will be longer if sexual relations are less frequent. Couples who engage in
coitus daily, hoping to cause early impregnation, may actually have more difficulty conceiving than
those who space coitus to every other day. This is because too-frequent coitus can lower a man’s
sperm count (number of sperm in a single ejaculation) to a level below optimal fertility. Also,
couples who focus their sexual relations
on trying to increase sperm/ovum exposure may find their lives governed by temperature charts
and “good days” and “bad days” to such an extent that their relationship suffers.
The chance of subfertility increases with age. Because of this gradual decline in fertility, women
who defer pregnancy to their late 30s are apt to have more difficulty conceiving than their younger
counterparts.
Most couples can benefit from some practical information on how to increase their chances of
achieving conception on their own. The following are time-honored suggestions to help aid
conception.
Determine the time of ovulation through the use of basal body temperature or analysis of
cervical secretions and then plan sexual relations for every other day around the time of
ovulation.
Although frequent intercourse may stimulate sperm production, men need sperm recovery
time after ejaculation to maintain an adequate sperm count. This why coitus every other day,
rather than every day, during the fertile period will probably yield faster results.
The male superior position is the best position for coitus to achieve conception because it
places sperm closest to cervical opening.
The male should try for deep penetration so ejaculation places sperm as close as possible to the
cervix.
Elevating a woman’s hips on a small pillow can facilitate sperm being deposited near the
opening to the cervix. A woman should remain on her back with knees drawn up for at least
20 minutes after ejaculation to help sperm remain near the cervix.
Don’t use douching or lubricants before or after intercourse so vaginal pH is unaltered, which
can interfere with sperm mobility.
Eat a diet high in slowly digested carbohydrates, low in saturated or trans fats, and moderate in
protein.
Maintain a body weight that results in a body mass index between 18.5 and 24.9.
Exercise about 30 minutes per day to help keep blood glucose and insulin levels stabilized.
Choose a new activity the two of you can do together, such as learning how to bowl or ballroom
dance, so you can create an activity separate from planning a baby.
However, despite the practical information given to the couple, this may still yield to poor results.
Identifying the contributing factors and with appropriate interventions, increases the chances the
couple will conceive.
II. Factors that cause Male infertility
The factors that most commonly lead to male subfertility include (Table 1):
Disturbance in spermatogenesis Inadequate production of FSH and LH in the pituitary, which
stimulates the production of sperm.
1. Chronic or excessive exposure to X-rays or radioactive substances, general ill
health, poor diet, and stress, all of which may interfere with sperm production.
B. Disturbance in the movement of sperm (sperm motility) and ejaculation problems
1. Obstruction in the seminiferous tubules, ducts, or vessels, which prevent the
movement of spermatozoa.
2. Qualitative or quantitative changes in the seminal fluid, which prevent sperm
motility.
3. Develop of autoimmunity, which immobilizes the sperm.
13. Vasectomies develop an autoimmune reaction or form antibodies that immobilize their
own sperm after the procedure.
14. Anomalies of the penis can cause sperm to be deposited too far from the
sexual partner’s cervix.
a. Hypospadias (urethral opening on the ventral surface of the penis)
b. Epispadias (urethral opening on the dorsal surface)
c. Peyronie disease (a bent penis)
15. Extreme obesity may also interfere with effective penetration and deposition.
- Testing for Sperm Transport Disorders
Sperm transport disorders are suspected when FSH and LH hormones, which stimulate the
production of sperm are adequate, but the sperm count remains limited.
- Therapy for Sperm Transport Disorders
1. Surgery to relieve obstruction.
2. Intrauterine insemination (IUI) – injecting the sperm into the vagina or uterus.
3. Corticosteroid for the woman to reduce her immune response and antibody production,
thus decreasing sperm mobilization.
D. Ejaculation Problems
1. Erectile dysfunction or the inability to achieve an erection (formerly called impotence)
may occur from:
a. Psychological problems
b. Cerebrovascular accident
c. Diabetes
d. Parkinson’s disease
e. Use of antihypertensive agents
f. Discontinuation of finasteride (drug used for male pattern baldness)
Two types of erectile dysfunction
1. Primary – if the man has never been able to achieve erection and ejaculation
2. Secondary – if the man was able to achieve ejaculation in the past but now
has difficulty.
2. Premature ejaculation (ejaculation before penetration) is another factor that may
interfere with the proper deposition of sperm.
- Testing for Ejaculation Concerns
Ejaculation concerns are identified by a sexual history. It may be difficult for a man to
discuss this area of his life, especially if a nurse is female, so skillful patient interviewing
technique is required.
- Therapy for Ejaculation Concerns
a. Psychological or sexual counseling
b. Use of phosphodiesterase inhibitor: sildenafil (Vaigra) or tadalafil (Cialis)
c. Dapoxetine (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor) one hour before coitus.
Table 1. Summary of Male infertility – Causes and Management
Causes Management
A. Limited Sperm Count Infection Semen Analysis
Hot environment Ligation of varicocele
Congenital anomalies Lifestyle change
Trauma Loose clothing
Surgery Change position
Drugs
Xray
B. Obstruction or Mumps, epididymis, Corticosteroids
impaired sperm Gonorrhea Antibiotics
motility Congenital anomalies Surgery
Vasectomies Intrauterine insemination
Obesity
C. Ejaculation problems Psychological problems Psychological and sexual
counselling
Sildenafil (Viagra)
Tadafil (Cialis)
Dapoxentine (SSRI)
may actually break up tubal adhesions, and thus may be therapeutic as well as
diagnostic.
3. Transvaginal Hydro laparoscopy
a. The installation of a paracervical local anesthetic block followed by introduction of a
hysteroscope into an incision just behind the cervix through the cul-de-sac of
Douglas into the peritoneal cavity.
b. About 200 ml of normal saline is introduced to move the bowel away from the
uterus so the posterior wall of the uterus, ovaries, and the fallopian tubes can
be assessed.
c. Tubal patency is evaluated if a small amount of dye exits the fimbriae ends of
the uterus.
d. The fluid is drained from the peritoneal cavity.
e. The small incision will heal without stitches.
- Therapy for Lack of Tubal Patency
1. Administer diathermy or steroid to reduce adhesions.
2. Hysterosalpingography to break adhesions.
3. Canalization of the fallopian and plastic surgical repair (microsurgery)
4. Remove adhesions by laparoscopy or laser surgery.
5. Reopen ligated tubes if the couple wish to have children or suggest in vitro fertilization
as an alternative.
C. Uterine Concerns
1. Tumors such as fibromas (leiomyomas) if they block the entrance of the fallopian tube
or limit the space available on the uterine wall.
2. Congenitally deformed uterine cavity.
3. Endometriosis refers to the implantation of uterine endometrium, or nodules, that have
spread form the interior of the uterus to locations outside the uterus. Common sites of
endometrium spread to the fallopian tubes, the cul-de-sac of Douglas, the ovaries, the
uterine ligaments, and the outer surface of the uterus and bowel. Endometriosis occurs in
as many as 50% of women, usually from reflux through the fallopian tubes at the time of
menstruation.
Effects of the endometrial implants outside the uterus:
a. If viable particles of endometrium, which enters a tube, begin to proliferate, they can
cause tubal obstruction.
b. Growths on the ovaries can displace fallopian tubes away from the ovaries, preventing
the entrance of ova into the tubes.
c. Peritoneal macrophages, which are drawn to nodules of endometrium, can destroy
sperm.
Figure 3. Common sites of endometriosis formation
Risk factors for Endometriosis
a. White nulliparous women
b. Familial tendency - daughters of women with endometriosis may develop symptoms of
dysmenorrhea early in life.
c. Deficient immunologic response
d. Excess estrogen production or a failed luteal menstrual phase.
e. Usually discovered at a higher than usual rate among women undergoing subfertility
testing.
Signs and Symptoms
a. Dysmenorrhea causes dysmenorrhea when the abnormal tissue responds to estrogen
and progesterone stimulation by swelling and then sloughing its layers in the same
manner as the uterine lining. This causes inflammation of surrounding tissue in the
abdominal cavity and an even greater release of prostaglandins.
b. Abnormal tissue in the pelvic cul-de-sac can cause dyspareunia (painful coitus) because
it puts pressure on the posterior vagina.
c. Subfertility may result if the fallopian tubes become immobilized and blocked by tissue
implants or adhesions, preventing peristaltic motion and transport of ova
d. Pelvic examination may show that the uterus is displaced by tender, fixed, palpable
nodules.
e. Nodules in the cul-de-sac or on an ovary also may be palpable.
f. If the endometriosis is minimal, the girl will not experience related symptoms. If the
condition is moderate or extensive, she may experience extreme dysmenorrhea or
dyspareunia.
- Testing for Uterine Concerns
1. Hysteroscopy
It is a visual inspection of the uterus through the insertion of a hysteroscope (a thin
hallow tube) through the vagina, cervix, and into the uterus. This is helpful to further
evaluate uterine adhesions, malformations, or other abnormalities such as fibroid,
tumors or polyps that were discovered on sonogram imaging. Women are screened for
chlamydia before the examination to avoid introduction into the uterus.
2. Uterine Endometrial Biopsy
It may be used to reveal an endometrial problem.
a. It is done 2 or 3 days before an expected menstrual flow.
b. The patient will be screened for Chlamydia to avoid introduction to the uterus.
c. A paracervical block is performed.
d. A thin probe and biopsy forceps are introduced through the cervix.
e. There may be a moment of sharp pain as the biopsy specimen is taken from
the anterior or posterior uterine wall.
f. After the procedure, the woman may experience mild-to moderate discomfort from
maneuvering the instruments.
g. Possible complications: pain, excessive bleeding, infection, and uterine perforation.
h. The procedure is contraindicated if pregnancy is suspected, infection (PID or
cervicitis)
i. Infection and bleeding are the side effects of the procedure.
3. Laparoscopy
It is an introduction of a thin, hallow, lighted tube (a fiber optic telescope or
laparoscope) through a small incision in the abdomen, just under the umbilicus to
examine the position and state of the fallopian tubes and ovaries. This allows an
examiner to view whether the ovaries are close enough to the fallopian tubes to allow
an ovum to enter. It is rarely done unless the results of a uterosalpingography are
Figure 3. Alternative insemination. (A) Sperm are deposited next to the cervix, or (B) injected directly into the
uterine cavity.
1. The woman is given FSH to stimulate oocyte growth, the ovaries are examined daily by
sonography. When follicles appear to be mature, a woman is given an injection of hCG,
which causes ovulation in 38 to 42 hours.
2. Mature oocytes are removed from a woman’s ovary (3 to 12 can be removed)
by laparoscopy and fertilized by exposure to sperm in a laboratory.
3. After 40 hours of fertilization, the fertilized ova (now zygotes) are inserted into a woman’s
uterus, where one or more of them will implant and grow (Fig. 4)
Figure 4. Steps involved in in vitro fertilization. (A) Ovulation. (B) Capture of ova (intra-abdominally). (C)
Fertilization of ova and growth in culture medium. (D) insertion of fertilized ova not uterus.
A surrogate mother is a woman who agrees to carry a pregnancy to term for a subfertile couple
or an LGBT couple. The surrogate may provide the ova and be impregnated by the man’s
sperm. In other instances, the ova and sperm both may be donated by the subfertile couple, or
donor ova and sperm may be used. Surrogate mothers are often friends or family members
who assume the role out of friendship or compassion, or they can be referred to the couple
through an agency or attorney and receive monetary reimbursement for their expenses. The
subfertile couple can enjoy the pregnancy as they watch it progress in the surrogate.
A number of ethical and legal problems arise if the surrogate mother decides at the end of
pregnancy that she has formed an attachment to the fetus and wants to keep the baby despite
the prepregnancy agreement she signed. Court decisions have been split on whether the
surrogate or the subfertile couple has the right to the child. Another potential problem occurs if
the child is born imperfect and the subfertile couple then no longer want the child. Who should
have responsibility in this instance? For these reasons, the couple and the surrogate mother
must be certain they have given adequate thought to the process, and to what will be the
outcome should these problems occur, before they attempt surrogate mothering.
B. Adoption
Adoption is an alternative to:
- Subfertile and LGBT couples
- Individuals who have genetic-related health conditions
- Individuals who have health conditions that would make pregnancy high risk
C. Child-Free Living
Child-free living is an alternative lifestyle available to both fertile and subfertile couples. For
many subfertile couples who have been through the rigors and frustrations of subfertility
testing and unsuccessful treatment regimens, child-free living may emerge as the option they
finally wish to pursue. A couple in the midst of fertility testing may begin to reexamine their
motives for pursuing pregnancy and may decide that pregnancy and parenting are not worth
the emotional or financial cost of future treatments. They may decide that the additional stress
of going through an adoption is not for them, or they may simply decide that children are not
necessary for them to complete their family unit. For these couples, child-free living is a positive
choice.
Child-free living can be as fulfilling as having children, because it allows a couple more time to
help other people and to contribute to society through personal accomplishments. It has
advantages for a couple in that it allows time for both members to pursue careers. They can
travel more or have more time to pursue hobbies or continue their education. If a couple still
wishes to include children in their lives in some way, many opportunities are available to do this
through family connections (most parents welcome offers from siblings or other family
members to share in childrearing), through volunteer organizations or through local schools
and town recreational programs.
Many couples who believe that overpopulation is a major concern choose child-free living even
if subfertility is not present. Parents who choose child-free living typically rate their marriage as
happier than those with children, probably because of decreased expenses involved and more
free time that allows them to follow their hearts.
VII. Nursing Process
A. Assessment
Subfertility assessment used to require many months and many tests, all of which had the
potential to interfere with a couple’s self-image and self-esteem. Today, a subfertility
investigation is usually limited to three assessments: semen analysis, ovulation monitoring,
and tubal patency. Even with this more sensible approach to evaluation, nursing assessment
often reveals that one or both partners feel inadequate or angry and frustrated by what has
happened to them and the need to undergo testing. Questions such as, “How do you feel
about what has happened?” or “How do you think your partner feels about not being able
to conceive?”
may be enough to encourage partners to express these concerns.
Talking with both partners together may be advantageous, because they may feel more
comfortable speaking about their problem together. It is important to spend some time
alone with each client in case there is anything a partner wishes to discuss privately. This
might be the only opportunity one of them has to ask that one “silly” question or voice a
fear that they believe is too foolish to ask or bring up in front of their partner.
B. Nursing Diagnosis
Nursing diagnoses related to subfertility are likely to focus on psychosocial issues associated
with the inability to conceive and the potentially nerve-wracking process of fertility testing
and management. Examples of possible diagnoses include:
1. Fear related to possible outcome of subfertility studies
Situational low self-esteem related to the apparent inability to conceive
1. Hopelessness related to perception of no viable alternatives to usual conception
If required tests interfere with a couple’s relationship (including sexual patterns).
“sexual dysfunction related to command performance of subfertility therapy” might be
applicable.
C. Expected Outcomes and Planning In
establishing expected outcomes with a couple undergoing fertility testing and counseling,
be certain that the couple realizes that results may not be instantaneous. A couple may
need to change or modify their goals if tests begin to show that what they first wanted—to
have a child without medical intervention—is impossible. Participation in a support group
may allow a couple to work through the stress that fertility testing places on their lives. It is
helpful to refer patients to online resources for further information and support.
D. Implementation
Fertility testing can be costly for a couple because not all health insurance programs provide
reimbursement for these procedures. Because of this, be certain couples are informed
beforehand of specific estimates of the cost of testing or therapy so they can budget and
plan their resources and the next steps they want taken.
Suggesting that a couple combine involvement with fertility testing with ongoing
activities or that they begin a new activity together (e.g., taking a night school course,
planting a garden, learning a new sport or hobby) at the same time they begin fertility
testing is a way of helping them reduce the feeling that their entire existence revolves
around the testing procedures. It also may help provide them with time for sharing
experiences and increasing intimacy, helping to compensate for any decreased enjoyment
that comes from “scheduled” sexual relations.
Throughout testing, couples need thorough education about the various procedures.
Make sure to review any specific instructions about preprocedural and postprocedural care.
Depending on their motivations, a couple’s reaction to study results may vary from relief to
stoic acceptance, to grief for children never to be born. Each partner may wonder whether
the other will be able to continue the relationship if he or she turns out to be the
“subfertile” one. Couples need the active support of health care personnel from the first
day they braced themselves to ask, “Exactly why are we childless?” until the end, regardless
of the results.
E. Outcome Evaluation
Examples of expected outcomes in this area include:
1. The patient rearranges work plans to manage schedule of fertility testing by 1
months’ time.
2. The couple verbalizes that they understand their individual subfertility problem after
preliminary testing.
3. The couple demonstrates a high level of self-esteem after fertility studies, even in
the face of disappointing study outcomes.
For the couple with the problem of subfertility, evaluation is best if it is ongoing because, as
circumstances around them change, so may their goals and desires. Until they can accept an
alternative method of having children—adoption or an assisted reproductive technique
such as alternative insemination or in vitro fertilization—former plans have been crushed.
Future evaluation is also important, because a couple who decides at age 20 to choose
child-free living may change their minds at a later date. A couple who chooses an assisted
reproductive technique may decide after several unsuccessful attempts that they are no
longer interested in this method of conception. Keeping evaluation an ongoing process
allows such plans to be modified as necessary. Encourage couples seen for subfertility to
call or visit their subfertility setting every 6 to 12 months to inquire about new discoveries in
the field and how these might apply to their situation
4. Anxiety related to what the process of fertility testing will entail
5. Deficient knowledge related to measures to promote fertility
6. Anticipatory grieving related to failure to conceive or sustain a pregnancy
7. Powerlessness related to repeated unsuccessful attempts at achieving conception