Food and Humanity 1 (2023) 32–37

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Food and Humanity

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Food Fermentation Technology: Examples of application in Malaysian Foods

Genevie Eleanor Rubya,b, , Noor Azira Abdul Mutalibb,c, Nurul Hanisah Juharib,
⁎ ]]
]]]]]]
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Ungku Fatimah Ungku Zainal Abidinb

a
Sarawak Matriculation College, Taman Perindustrian Sejingkat, 93050 Kuching, Sarawak, Malaysia
b
Department of Food Service and Management, Faculty of Food Science and Technology, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
c
Laboratory of Food Safety and Food Integrity, Institute of Tropical Agriculture and Food Security, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Fermentation is a processing method commonly employed in the food industry and applied worldwide, including in
Food fermentation technology Malaysia. Various types of raw food can be processed by fermentation, such as fish, shrimp, local vegetables, and fruits.
Local Malaysian food Other than prolonging the shelf life of food and increasing its nutritional values, fermentation is the primary method of
Biogenic amines producing alcoholic beverages. Furthermore, the microorganisms in fermented food contribute to the characteristics of
Alcoholic beverages
the food and possess beneficial probiotics that are good for human digestion. Nevertheless, the amounts of by-products
Microbiology
produced during the process, especially biogenic amines, necessitate management to reduce the harmful effects of
histamine intolerance. Recent technology has allowed improvements in fermentation approaches, which enhance the
quality of the food and alcoholic beverages produced. Consequently, fermented food is not only a food source but can
also be expanded to other fields, such as medicine and agronomy.

1. Introduction delaying the perishability of the leaves due to accelerated acidification

Malaysia is a multiracial country rich in unique cultures, leading to
various indigenous foods and beverages (IFB). Almost every state in
Malaysia has its indigenous food. Most IFBs are processed traditionally
through fermentation processes to extend their shelf life. The two
techniques employed are solid-state and submerged fermentations, in­
volving aerobic or anaerobic conditions with microbial species (Erkmen
& Bozoglu, 2016).
Fermentation possesses several benefits, including extending the
shelf life of food by inhibiting the growth of microorganisms. For ex­
ample, fermented pumpkin leaves (Cucurbita sp.), an indigenous African
food fermented with 3% sodium chloride (NaCl) and 3% sucrose are
rich in folate, β-carotene, and lutein compared to unfermented leaves
(Misci et al., 2021). The starter inoculum employed in the fermentation
of an indigenous Indian food known as dosa consists of Lactobacillus
plantarum, Enterococcus faecalis, and Saccharomyces cerevisiae. The mi­
croorganisms enhance the nutrient contents of the food, especially es­
sential amino acids and phenolic acid contents, which are antioxidants
(Devi & Rajendran, 2021). Consequently, the technique might aid in
overcoming the nutrient deficiency issue among the population.
Fermentation of African nightshade leaves (Solanum scabrum) in­
oculated with Lactiplantibacillus plantarum BFE 5092 and Limosilactobacillus
fermentum BFE 6620 could assits in minimizing post-harvest losses by
(Stoll et al., 2021). In Northeast China, an analysis with metatranscriptome
sequencing technology found that Lactobacillus and Tetragenoccus cata­
lyzed metabolic enzyme secretions, such as dehydrogenases, decarbox­
ylases, and transaminases, which significantly enhanced the dajiang flavor,
an indigenous fermented soybean paste (An et al., 2021).
Bacteria and yeast are advantageous in IFB fermentation due to their
high probiotic potential to survive at lower pH, bile tolerance, and
antimicrobial attributes (Adesulu-Dahunsi et al., 2020; Das et al.,
2020). Omer et al. (2021) suggested that Gram-positive and Gram-ne­
gative bacteria that frequently contaminate food could decarboxylate
amino acids and produce biogenic amines. Nonetheless, a comprehen­
sive review of the microbiological safety of Malaysian fermented IFB is
still limited. This review focused on microbial technology and strategies
to improve the safety of Malaysian fermented IFB, which might aid in
developing advanced fermentation techniques for food manufacturers
and improve food production quality.
2. Malaysian fermented IFB
The present review discussed fermentation processes, micro­
biological contents, and the most recent fermentation technologies
based on raw materials. The IFB included in this review were budu,
belacan, tempoyak, and tuak.

⁎
Corresponding author at: Sarawak Matriculation College, Taman Perindustrian Sejingkat, 93050 Kuching, Sarawak, Malaysia.
E-mail addresses: genevieeleanor@gmail.com, genev_83@yahoo.com.my (G.E. Ruby).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foohum.2023.03.003
Received 26 February 2023; Received in revised form 27 March 2023; Accepted 27 March 2023
2949-8244/© 2023 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
G.E. Ruby, N.A. Abdul Mutalib, N.H. Juhari et al.
2.1. Fermentation processes
Budu is an indigenous food unique to Kelantan and Terengganu. The
food is produced from several types of fish, such as Stolephorus spp.
(anchovies), Sardinella spp. (silver-stripe round herring), and Decapterus
macrosoma (big-eye scad). The fish is mixed with salt, palm sugar, and
other flavorings, before being fermented in a closed container for 6–12
months (Rosma et al., 2009). The timeline is considered optimal as
protease activity increases gradually during the period.
Budu consists of 11.39% protein content as it is produced from fish
and other amino acids, including lysine, leucine, valine, and glutamic
acid (Mohd Khairi et al., 2014; Ahmad et al., 2019). Most of the pro­
teins are abundant in pyloric caeca and fish intestines and contribute to
the high protease activity that initiates fermentation (Fen et al., 2011).
Furthermore, at mean levels, budu contains biogenic amines, especially
tyramine (174.7 mg kg−1) and histamine (187.7 mg kg−1) under the
recommended amount of not exceeding 500 mg kg−1 (United States
Food and Drug Administration, 2011). Moreover, no poisoning cases
have been reported in Malaysia due to irregular consumption (Saaid
et al., 2009). Nevertheless, budu consumption requires restraint as it
contains the highest salt content at an average of 519.2 mg kg−1
(Shahar et al., 2019). High salt intake could lead to cardiovascular or
non-communicable diseases (NCD) (Shahar et al., 2019).
Belacan is another Malaysian fermented food, also known as shrimp
paste, commonly dark-colored with a salty taste and pungent odor. The
food is produced from Acetes sp. (a small shrimp) or Mysid shrimp,
locally named udang baring or udang geragok (Huda, 2012). The shrimp
are mixed with salt and mashed before it is partially dried and minced
to obtain a paste. The paste is then fermented in an airtight container,
dried, and minced to procure the desired texture. Belacan production
requires fresh shrimp stored at a sufficient temperature to avoid his­
tamine contamination. Spoilage due to microbes should also be avoided
during fermentation as it would elevate putrescine and cadaverine
(Padilah et al., 2018).
Apart from the salty taste, belacan is employed in most Malaysian
cuisines as a source of umami taste due to its considerable glutamate
and 5′-nucleotides content levels, which range from 180 to 530 mg/
100 g and 0.85–42.25 μg/g, respectively (Khairunnisak et al., 2009;
Jinap et al., 2010; Hajeb & Jinap, 2012). A 30 g belacan comprises ash
(38.09%), protein (31.83%), fat (1.01%), and carbohydrate (11.01%)
and, thus, a good nutrient source (Ilyanie et al., 2020). Nonetheless,
belacan consumption necessitates monitoring as it contains high salt
(over 20%) and arsenic (6.16 mg kg−1) contents compared to the
Malaysian Food Act 1983 recommendation of 1 mg kg− 1 (Sharif et al.,
2008).
In Malaysia, tempoyak production depends on the durian (Durio zi­
bethinus) season. Durian pulps are added with salt as seasoning before
being stored in an airtight container for approximately seven days to
obtain tempoyak (Amiza et al., 2006). According to Amin et al. (2004),
mixing tempoyak with 1% salt increases the total plate and lactic acid
bacteria counts, resulting in a pH between 3.96 and 4.08. The fer­
mentation process to manufacture tempoyak is recommended at 27 °C
for four to six days to obtain better organoleptic properties (Wasnin
et al., 2014). The food is then ready for consumption as the acidity and
sugar contents are stabilized (Wasnin et al., 2014).
Rice wine is an alcoholic beverage Sarawakians call tuak or lihing in
Sabah. Tuak is commonly served during ritual activities or festivals
during Gawai celebrations by the Dayak community in Sarawak. Ragi
(yeast ball) contains yeast and sugar and is added to glutinous rice to
initiate fermentation for procuring tuak. The fermented solution is left
for a fortnight, mixed with sugar and boiled water, and left again for
another two weeks. Finally, the mixture is poured into jars and left for a
minimum of one month before it could be consumed.
33
Food and Humanity 1 (2023) 32–37
2.2. Microbiological contents
Budu, a fish and salt mixture, is fermented for 6–12 months. The
high salt content of the food, at a mean value of 25.10 ± 0.10% (w/v),
denatures or inactivates the metabolic activity and kills most patho­
genic microbes, such as Escherichia coli, Coliform, Vibrio para­
haemolyticus, and Vibrio cholera (Rosma et al., 2009). Nevertheless,
Yuen et al. (2009) reported that Micrococcus species were found during
the initial stages of fermentation, which secreted catalase to degrade
fish protein into smaller peptides and amino acids, while Staphylococcus
arlettae microbes are dominant at the final phases of the process due to
their ability to survive high salt and low oxygen levels. The color and
taste changes of budu are due to Staphylococcus spp. hydrolysis. Other
than bacteria, yeast is another microorganism involved in budu fer­
mentation. Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Candida famata are responsible
for determining the organoleptic characteristics of budu, the only yeast
species that could survive up to the middle stages of fermentation (Sim
et al., 2015).
Contaminations are still reported even though fermentation could
reduce pathogenic bacteria growth. For instance, Huda (2012) recorded
Bacillus cereus and Staphylococcus aureus in a belacan sample, but Es­
cherichia coli, Salmonella, and coliforms were not detectable. Lactic acid
bacteria, specifically Gram-positive and catalase-negative bacteria,
were also isolated from the belacan sample. Both of the bacteria are
potential probiotics as they could survive low pH, tolerate bile salt (1%,
3%, and 5% ox bile), and possess high hydrophobicity degrees
(51.4–61.5%), enabling adherence to the intestinal mucosa of host cells
(Haitham et al., 2017).
Leisner et al. (2001) utilized sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide
gel electrophoresis (SDS–PAGE) to isolate lactic acid bacteria (LAB)
from tempoyak samples grown under aerobic conditions with Lactoba­
cillus plantarum (L. plantarum) as the predominant bacteria. The study
documented increased D- and L-lactic acid, indicating LAB metabolic
activity, while glucose, fructose, or fructan contents were diminished as
they were employed as substrates for fermentation reactions. Fructo­
bacillus durionis was the dominant species at the initial stages of fer­
mentation, while L. plantarum was predominant in the final phases
(Chuah et al., 2016). L. plantarum extracted from tempoyak possesses
good probiotic potential due to its tolerance towards acid and bile salts,
anti-oxidative, antiproliferative, and apoptosis effects on HT-29 cells
(Ahmad et al., 2018). Consequently, the microorganism could act as a
chemopreventive agent. Nevertheless, the study could not identify three
isolates with SDS–PAGE, which were then discovered as a novel species
known as Lactobacillus durianis (Leisner et al., 2002). The novel species
differs from other Lactobacillus species in producing acetic acid from
arabinose and xylose instead of cellobiose or sucrose but was unable to
produce ammonia from arginine and reduce nitrate. Overall, LAB iso­
lated from tempoyak were Gram-positive, catalase-negative, immotile,
non-sporadic, indole negative, and exhibited potential as probiotics
with the ability to inhibit pathogenic bacteria, indicating antioxidant
activities and reduced cholesterol levels (Ahmad et al., 2018; Khalil
et al., 2018; Nordin et al., 2019).
Microorganisms isolated from tuak were cultivated on YPD and
Sabaroud agar before they were analyzed with an API kit consisting
of two systems, ID 32 C and 20 C AUX. The study observed the mi­
croorganisms through a 100 × microscope and identified several
yeast species in the tuak samples assessed. The ID 32 C system iso­
lated Cryptococcus humicola, Candida sake, and Candida silvicola,
while Cryptococcus laurentii, Candida albicans 2, Candida pelliculosa,
Candida tropicalis, and Trichosporon asahii were identified with the
20 C AUX. Nonetheless, both systems recorded Candida glabrata,
Saccharomyces cerevisiae, and Rhodotorula glutinis (Kofli & Mohd
Dayaon, 2010).
G.E. Ruby, N.A. Abdul Mutalib, N.H. Juhari et al.
Recent, more rapid, and reliable approaches could be utilized to
identify the microorganisms in alcoholic beverages. For example,
Šuranská et al. (2016) identified S. cerevisiae isolates with modern
molecular techniques, such as ITS-PCR-RFLP, PCR fingerprinting, spe­
cies-specific primers, and interdelta PCR typing. Subsequently, the
isolated S. cerevisiae was cultured in 10 mL YPD (2% peptone, 1% yeast
extract, and 2% glucose) at 26 °C for three days to assess its oenological
properties, including flocculation intensity and desirable enzymatic
activities. Only strains that satisfy the set criteria were selected as
starter cultures to enhance the quality of the wine produced.
3. Health risks of chemical contaminants from fermentation
processes
Fermentation produces several biogenic amines as by-products in
safe quantities, which in excessive amounts, could pose health risks to
consumers. Various methods could be employed to determine the level
of biogenic amines in the sample of fermented food. Nonetheless, Liu
et al. (2020) proposed a simpler and more rapid approach by utilizing
modified liquid-liquid extraction and high-performance liquid chro­
matography-fluorescence detector (HPLC-FLD) compared to liquid-li­
quid extraction and dispersive liquid-liquid extraction.
Biogenic amines, such as histamine, cadaverine, putrescine, and
tyramine, have toxicological effects on consumers. For example, hista­
mine could cause artery dilation, heart palpitations, intestinal smooth
muscle contractions, and more frequent stimulation of sensory and
motor neurons, while tyramine elevates systolic blood pressure to
30 mmHg and over. Cadaverine and putrescine are histamine pre­
cursors at unknown minimum levels (Rauscher-Gabernig et al., 2012;
FAO & WHO, 2013). Nevertheless, del Rio et al. (2019) reported that 5
and 10 mM were the lowest observed adverse effect level (LOAEL) of
cadaverine and putrescine in intestinal cell cultures, respectively, and
both substances could result in necrosis induction.
Tyramine, a biogenic amine, is a primary compound detected in
fermented sausages commonly derived from Enterococci and coagulase-
negative staphylococci (Anderegg et al., 2020). Nevertheless, regarding
dry fermented sausages consumption, the risk of healthy individuals
suffering from hypertensive crisis due to tyramine or histamine intake
was negligible compared to those prescribed with antidepressant
monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOI) and patients with histamine
intolerance (Latorre-Moratalla et al., 2017).
Histamine intolerance is due to diamine oxidase (DAO) enzyme defi­
ciency. Schink et al. (2018) suggested that reduced DAO synthesis is re­
lated to intestinal bacteria compositions. The microbiota analysis from a
stool sample of a histamine-intolerant patient demonstrated that Proteo­
bacteria were abundant and stool zonulin was high and without Bifido­
bacteriaceae. Patients with the disease experience mucosal inflammation
due to the Proteobacteria, an increased gut permeability towards hista­
mine indicated by the high zonulin concentration. Moreover, the dimin­
ished Bifidobacteriaceae level resulted in an impaired gut barrier.
Histamine intolerance is also reported by individuals consuming
home-fermented food or beverages as the process does not involve
proper pasteurization or sterilization, thus encouraging bacterial
growth that undergoes decarboxylation activity and produces biogenic
amines (Esposito et al., 2019; Aponte et al., 2022). Histamine intoler­
ance could be detected by several symptoms, the most common being
bloating, including postprandial fullness, diarrhea, abdominal pain, and
constipation. Nonetheless, similar symptoms could also be linked to a
combination of non-celiac gluten sensitivity (NCG) related to gluten
consumption and functional dyspepsia (FD) and epigastric region
(Schnedl et al., 2019). The concentrations of biogenic amines in budu
and belacan are summarized in Table 1. Nevertheless, studies on the
level of biogenic amines in tempoyak and tuak are unavailable.
34
Food and Humanity 1 (2023) 32–37
4. Recent fermentation technologies
Some fermentation technologies according to the types of raw ma­
terials employed by other countries are discussed in this section. The
approaches could be applicable in Malaysia to further improve fer­
mented food quality.
4.1. Fish fermentation
One of the chemicals extracted from budu is biogenic amines, pri­
marily histamine, which are abundant in fish. Nevertheless, the hista­
mine level in fermented food is too high and undetectable by sensory
evaluation, even though it could be utilized as an indicator of fish de­
composition. Ruiz-Capillas and Herrero (2019) suggested employing
high-quality raw materials to limit biogenic amines, thus, ensuring a
better final product. The study also proposed decreasing decarboxylase
activities by controlling the microbial load to limit proteolysis and
applying freezing fish storage temperature (under 5 °C).
Ma et al. (2022) suggested that inoculating Staphylococcus nepalensis
5–5 improves Staphylococcus abundance in fermented fish sauce, ef­
fectively decreasing Tetragenococcus. An amino acid metabolism ana­
lysis also proved that S. nepalensis 5–5 utilized histidine to produce
metabolites, reducing histamine contents. Furthermore, S. nepalensis
5–5 improved fish sauce flavor due to its high broad-alcohol compound
contents. The microorganism is also safe for food fermentation as it is
sensitive to antibiotics, exhibits no haemolytic activity, and inability to
form biofilm.
Fermented food manufacturers could employ methods through
collaboration with local researchers to improve the quality of budu,
such as inoculating with Virgibacillus sp. SK37 and Tetragenococcus ha­
lophilus MS33 combination cultures during fermentation could be con­
sidered instead of the traditional approach. A report recorded that in­
oculating salted anchovy with 5% Virgibacillus sp. SK37 for a month,
followed by inoculation with 5% T. halophilus MS33, effectively in­
creased the quality of Thai fish sauce in terms of amino acid content
and volatile characteristics due to the presence of aldehydes (Udomsil
et al., 2017).
In another study, Mejrhit et al. (2018) suggested that histamine
content in fish could be reduced by heating and enzymatic digestion
treatment. Histamine was extracted by heating the fish samples for
60 min at 90 °C. During enzymatic digestion, the samples were treated
with pepsin (50 µg/mL) in an acidic condition (pH 2) for 60 min at 37 °C.
Nonetheless, the technique was more efficient when combined. Food
manufacturers must also be creative by diversifying the ingredients to
produce fermented food. For example, red pepper powder and spices
reportedly effectively reduced biogenic amines in fermented food, of­
fering consumers more options (Jia et al., 2020; Kim et al., 2022).
4.2. Shrimp fermentation
Fermenting shrimps produce biogenic amines and lactic acid as by-
products. Consequently, Saelao et al. (2018) recommended inoculating
shrimps with nisin Z- producing Lactococcus lactis KTH0–1S as starter
culture to reduce pathogenic bacteria production. Furthermore, the
tyrosine decarboxylase gene minimized tyramine contents in fermented
shrimps. The tyramine content was diminished by approximately
100 mg kg− 1, while S. aureus count decreased by 1.4 ± 0.1 log cfu/g
six days post-fermentation.
Zhu et al. (2019) suggested that the storage period should be in­
creased to two years to improve the flavor of fermented shrimp pro­
ducts. A report documented that 3- methyl butyral and 2- methyl bu­
tyral enhanced the chocolate and coffee aroma of the food if the
fermentation period was prolonged. Moreover, 2-heptanone, a ketone
compound with a musty and soapy taste, rose but less than aldehyde
G.E. Ruby, N.A. Abdul Mutalib, N.H. Juhari et al.
Table 1
Biogenic amine levels in budu and belacan.
Food The mean level of biogenic amine (mg kg−1)
TRP PUT HIS
Budu 82.7 38.1 187.7
Belacan NR 137 57.6
(Note: TRP = Tryptamine; PUT = Putrescine; HIS = Histamine; TYR = Tyramine; CAD = Cadaverine; NR = Not reported)
levels. The flavor of shrimp sauces is also affected by alcohols derived
from the degradation of polyunsaturated fatty acids. For example,
phenylethyl, a rose-scented alcohol, and the metallic smell of un­
saturated alcohols were crucial in developing fermented shrimp flavor.
Furthermore, 3-methylbutanoic acid, dimethyl sulphide, and umami
amino acids contributed to the better flavor, which was significantly
improved after two years of fermentation.
The shrimp fermentation period could be shortened to a year by
inoculating the food with Virgibacillus sp. ZV10–1, Virgibacillus sp. SK37,
and Staphylococcus nepalensis JS113. The microorganisms reportedly
improved the quality of fermented shrimp in terms of sensory and
aroma characteristics. The halophilic bacteria produced aromatic and
branched-chain aldehydes that contributed to a pleasant aroma, re­
duced bitterness due to low amino acid contents, and enhanced the
umami taste (Yu et al., 2022). Alternatively, some manufacturers em­
ployed other shrimp species to improve the quality and safety of
shrimp-fermented products. For example, an Indonesian fermented
shrimp paste, Terasi, is produced from Akiami shrimps (Acetes japo­
nicas). The food recorded low tropomyosin and IgE reactivity (Amalia
et al., 2023), thus low-allergenic seafood without adverse effects on
quality.
4.3. Durian fermentation
The food industry could expand the utilization of fermented durian
pulp or tempoyak to produce certain beverages. Lee et al. (2012) re­
ported that inoculating durian pulp with Saccharomyces cerevisiae and
Williopsis saturnus mixed cultures resulted in high amounts of alcohols,
ethyl hexanoate, and ethyl propanoate. The product obtained also
possessed a sensory profile with less unfavorable metallic and yeasty
notes. Consequently, the approach could be applied in beverage in­
dustries, especially in the production of alcohol.
Probiotics and yeast employment during durian fermentation could
be developed for non-dairy functional beverages. The technique could
be adapted via sequential inoculation of Lactobacillus casei L26 that
could survive in durian pulp fermentation with a non-pathogenic yeast,
W. saturnus (Lu et al., 2018). The survival rate of L. casei and fructose
and glucose utilizations to produce metabolic products might be im­
proved with W. saturnus. Furthermore, the microorganism increased the
production of various volatile compounds, such as alcohols, esters and
aldehydes, contributing to fermented durian pulps with better aroma.
Nevertheless, Neti et al. (2011) argued that the production of volatile
components, especially sulphur compounds, should be controlled as it
affects the fruity aroma of tempoyak. Consequently, Lu et al. (2018)
suggested converting volatile sulfur compounds into thiols in a mod­
ified buffer at pH 6 with sulfite from yeast before reducing the thiols
with mannoproteins.
4.4. Tuak fermentation
Traditionally, tuak is obtained by mixing glutinous rice with
homemade yeast known as ragi and sugar before fermenting it for
several weeks at room temperature. The alcohol content of the in­
digenous beverage is estimated at 5–20% by volume. Suta Waisnawa
and Made Sudana (2021) suggested that a distillation process that
combines suitable fermentation duration and heating temperature
35
Food and Humanity 1 (2023) 32–37
Reference
TYR CAD
174.7 NR Saaid et al. (2009)
8.64 50.1 Padilah et al. (2018)
would increase the percentage of alcohol contents in coconut nira, a
Balinese alcoholic beverage produced from coconut palms. The study
recommended fermenting the nira for 12 h at approximately 80 °C
before distillation to obtain the highest alcohol content, up to 70%.
The yeast starter culture utilized could affect the quality of the tuak
produced, necessitating proper management to manufacture tuak with
consistent taste. Consequently, introducing grape yeast, which could be
grown in yeast potato dextrose, is practicable. Odong et al. (2021)
documented that the isolated grape yeast, which mainly consists
Saccharomyces cerevisiae, improved the quality of tuak when employed
as a starter culture for the fermentation of glutinous rice. Furthermore,
the grape has been widely utilized in the wine industry.
The yeast isolated from tuak possesses the potential to be im­
plemented in other fields of study. For instance, two yeast species,
Hanseniaspora guilliermondii and Pichia anomala, were identified as po­
tential expression hosts for heterologous protein production via elec­
troporation. The integrative vectors demonstrated better stability and
transformation efficiency than S. cerevisiae and did not affect host
chromosome growth (Douglas et al., 2011).
Tuak fermentation process could contribute to renewable energy
production. Based on its morphological characteristics, Candida sp., a
yeast isolated from tuak, was identified as a microbe agent in the fer­
mentation of sugarcane bagasse, a lignocellulosic biomass convertible
into bioethanol (Hermansyah et al., 2016). Although the bioethanol
concentration is low, where a 5-g sugarcane bagasse yields 0.0008%
bioethanol, process condition optimizations could improve the results,
such as adjusting the temperature and fermentation medium type.
Hermansyah et al. (2015) discovered that Candida tropicalis could
produce 6.55% (v/v) and 4.58% ethanol at 30 and 42 °C from the
fermentation of 100 g/l glucose.
5. Food fermentation potential
Although fermentation is a traditional processing technology, it is in
line with current development and the techniques and methods are
commonly predicated. Furthermore, fermentation approaches could be
improved to produce better-quality food products. For instance, an
advanced fermentation process could reduce tyramine produced from
tyrosine, an amino acid harmful to health, if consumed in excess.
Moreover, food manufacturers must prioritize food safety and maintain
the nutritional values of food to ensure an adequate food supply.
Nutritious fermented food could also be considered a potential solution
for food sustainability.
Crop yield issues due to weather and ineffective agricultural tech­
nologies, especially in developing countries, and health issues related to
modern diets could be addressed with food fermentation technologies
(Xiang et al., 2019; Rastogi et al., 2022). Agricultural wastes and poor-
quality crops could be fermented and employed as food dyes or organic
acids, potentially generating extra income for farmers. Furthermore,
consuming fermented food instead of refined carbohydrates reportedly
prevents age and lifestyle-related disorders due to the beneficial me­
tabolites and good gut microbiota offered by the products. Moreover, β-
galactosidase produced during fermentation further increases the nu­
tritional contents of the products due to biotics.
Recently, the food crisis has been gaining attention worldwide. Food
fermentation is an alternative technique applicable to extend the life of
G.E. Ruby, N.A. Abdul Mutalib, N.H. Juhari et al.
certain foods to ensure a food supply that could meet population needs.
Furthermore, food manufacturers could expand the types of fermented
products. For example, fermenting pumpkin leaves (Cucurbita sp.) with
3% NaCl and 3% sucrose produces LAB and a food product rich in
nutrients, especially folate, β-carotene, and lutein (Misci et al., 2021).
Food industry waste products could be fermented and utilized in
particular sectors. For example, olive mill wastewater, molasses, and
rice hulls fermented with 80% LAB and 20% yeast produce bioorganic
fertilizers with a 4.07 pH (Atfaoui et al., 2021). Bioorganic fertilizers
with low pH are easy to store for long periods without requiring special
storage conditions. Consequently, the situation benefits the food in­
dustry and contributes to agronomy.
Fermented beverages have exhibited potential applications in the med­
ical field. For example, Johnson et al. (2015) isolated a T2 bacterial strain
from palm wine, a fermented alcoholic beverage consumed in North Su­
matra, based on its low molecular weight (26–28 kDa). The enzyme was a
potential source of fibrinolytic enzyme, which could degrade fibrin, po­
tentially preventing thrombosis when consumed orally.
6. Conclusion
Numerous reports proved the significant impacts of fermentation on
the food industry. Nevertheless, the process promotes the growth of
bacteria that potentially produce biogenic amines during decarboxyla­
tion. Biogenic amines could harm health if present in the body over a
specific limit. Nonetheless, fermentation technologies could be im­
proved in line with the latest research developments without neglecting
food safety factors. Applying the latest technology allows biogenic
amine content reduction to safe levels for consumption. The technology
could also aid in meeting the demand for food due to the rising human
population. Furthermore, food waste could be diminished as fermen­
tation technologies allow food to be stored longer. Food produced
through fermentation process also benefits health.
Funding sources
This study received no specific grant from public, commercial, or
not-for-profit funding agencies.
Acknowledgement
The authors thank the Department of Food Service and
Management, Faculty of Food Science and Technology, Universiti Putra
Malaysia for the support. Also special thanks to Dr. Thavamaran
Kanesan and his team for their proofreading service.
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