Hydrogeology

UNIT 12 HYDROGEOLOGY
Structure
12.0 Introduction
12.1 Objectives
12.2 Geological control of Groundwater
12.2.1 Petrographic Control
12.2.2 Control of Porosity
12.2.3 Control of Permeability
12.2.4 Stratigraphic Control
12.3 Geomorphological Control
12.4 Lithological Control
12.5 Mode of Occurrence of Groundwater in Different Geological Terrains of India
12.5.1 The Archaen
12.5.2 Cuddapah Super Group
12.5.3 Vindhyan Super Group
12.5.4 Gondwana Super Group
12.5.5 Deccan Traps
12.6 The Tertiary Group (Age 65-1.64 Million Years)
12.7 Recent Super Group
12.8 Classification of Rocks with Reference to their Water-bearing Properties
12.8.1 Factors that Determine Water-bearing Capacity of Rocks
12.8.2 Water-bearing Capacity of Sedimentary, Metamorphic and Igneous Rocks
12.9 Darcy’s Law and Its Validity
12.9.1 Limitation of the Darcy Law
12.9.2 Determination of Hydraulic Conductivity
12.10 Groundwater Tracers
12.11 Let Us Sum Up
12.12 References and Suggested Further Readings
12.13 Answers to Check Your Progress

12.0 INTRODUCTION
The occurrence of ground water in the crust is controlled by porosity, permeability,
fractures, the location of the porous formation, and thickness of the formation. Water-
bearing capacity of the rocks depends upon their porosity and permeability. In the
consolidated impervious rocks, the secondary structures enhance their water-bearing
capacity. The water-bearing capacity of cemented sedimentary rocks also reduces.
The Archean rocks in the India are not very good aquifers as they comprise crystalline
rocks. The Cuddapah formation also has crystalline rocks, and their water yield is
low. The Vindhyan formation comprises of sedimentary rocks and these have a large
variability in their water-bearing capacity. Gondwana has high water bearing capacity.
263
Hydrology The Deccan traps store water in the fractures and in the inter-trappean beds. The local
water yield is good from these rocks. The tertiary sediments have good water-bearing
properties. The maximum water in the country is stored in the recent formation. Alluvial
sediments in the flood plains of most of the enormous rivers are a good reservoir of
water.
The Darcy law described flow of water in a pervious medium. The hydraulic gradient
and the length of medium determine the magnitude of water flow in an aquifer. This law
can only be applied to the laminar flow. Sandy aquifer has a higher hydraulic conductivity
than a clay aquifer.
Ground water tracers are techniques used in hydrology to determine movement of
water in the crust.

12.1 OBJECTIVES
After learning this unit you will be able to:
• describe the geological control on the groundwater;
• explain the water-bearing properties of Indian formations;
• discuss water-bearing properties of rocks;
• define Darcy’s Principle, it’s limitation, Reynolds number;
• explain hydraulic conductivity; and
• discuss ground water tracer.

12.2 GEOLOGICAL CONTROL OF

GROUNDWATER
The water present in the earth’s subsurface is termed as ground water. Most of the
groundwater moves into deeper sub-surfaces by percolation of atmogenic water.
Geological control regulates occurrence, movement, and storage of groundwater in
any formation. The petrography, stratigraphy, geomorphology, lithology, and thickness
of the formations are the most important parameters that exert geological control. In
the following sections we shall learn the role of each of the above geological parameters
on the occurrence of ground water in the crust:

12.2.1 Petrographic Control

Petrography refers to the studies of texture and mineralogical properties of rocks. It
deals with grain size, sorting, texture, porosity, and permeability of a formation. You
will learn the control of each of these petrographic parameters on the water bearing
capacity in the following sections:
(a) Grain Size
The grain size of the rocks refers to size distribution of grains in a rock. It determines
the porosity and permeability, and it controls the water bearing capacity of a formation.
We may describe a geological sample as fine, medium, or coarse grained. The grain
264 size alone is not a significant factor because the compacted coarser grained rocks
such as granite may have similar hydrological parameters as that of basalt that has Hydrogeology
much finer grain size. For hydrological prospecting of the sedimentary formation, grain
size plays a vital role. It may therefore be borne in mind that the control of grain size
must be studied along with several other parameters.
(b) Control of Sorting
Sorting refers to variations between grain size. A well-sorted material has a much
smaller range of grain size or has a uniform grain size. A poorly sorted material is a
mixer of many sizes. The sorting of a formation controls: (i) capability to store water
and (ii) its migration in an aquifer. Mode of transport, energy conditions, long distance
travel in turbulence, higher gradient of terrain are some factors which determine the
sorting of sediments.
(c) Control of Texture
The texture of a sample refers to size and shape and their relationship. It controls
permeability and porosity of an aquifer. A detailed description or estimation of the
sorting and texture may be found in almost every book of petrology, and therefore it is
not provided here. In hydrology, we study the texture of rock formations to estimate
storage capacity and hydraulic yield.

12.2.2 Control of Porosity

The porosity is the amount of pore in a formation. Porosity is mathematically explained
as:

——— 1

where Vh is the volume of voids and Vt represents the total volume of a sample.
In hydrology, porosity is determined from the following equation:
Porosity = (ñ particle - ñ bulk material)/( ñ particle - ñ fluid ) ——— 2
ñ = density
If the void space is filled with air, for evaluation of the hydrological potential (using the
porosity) the following formulae are used by hydrologists:

——— 3

Where the ñs is the bulk density, and ñp is the density of the particle. For an estimation
of the porosity bulk density (ñs) is determined. The density of the particle is assumed
to be 2.65 g/cm3. The porosity is then estimated from the Equation 3.
Porosity varies between 0 and 1. In the geological formations, it has a very wide range
(0.01 and 0.50). Igneous and metamorphic rocks have an exceptionally low porosity
(0.01). Unconsolidated or loose material like clays and lignite has an extremely high
porosity (~0.50).
Estimation of porosity is very important for understanding the hydrological conductivity.
If one compares two sedimentary aquifers (having the similar texture and sorting), the
aquifer that has a higher porosity will have a better hydrological conductivity. We also
265
Hydrology remember that for smaller grain size aquifer, the porosity is more but such aquifer has
a poor hydraulic conductivity. It may be kept in mind that between two aquifers, the
one with coarser grain has more hydrological conductivity, though it has less porosity.
The application of porosity in the hydrology, therefore, is always made along with
grain size, sorting, and other textural parameters.
There are two kinds of porosity in a formation. The primary porosity is acquired
during the formation while secondary porosity comes into existence after acquiring the
original porosity. The fracturing or chemical leaching after the formation of rock is an
example of secondary porosity. Cementation reduces porosity in sedimentary rocks.

Fig. 12.1: Illustration of grain size and sorting in an aquifer

Based on the size of the pores, the porosity may be classified into macro, meso and
micro subclasses. The meso porosity has pores greater than 50 nm. Meso porosity
refers to the pore size of 2-50 nm. The micro porous material has a pore size of less
than 2 nm. The size of pores determines the flow mechanism.

12.2.3 Control of Permeability

Permeability is the ability of the formation to have lateral or vertical advection of water.
A formation with a rapid movement of flow has higher permeability. The permeability
is determined in Darcy laboratory experiments. The magnitude of movement of fluid in
a medium is a proportionality constant, and it is got from viscosity, pressure gradient,
fluid flow velocity in darcy (10-12 m2; named after H. Darcy). The experiment shall be
described under the section Darcy’s law and its validity.
Permeability is more relevant for the movement of water from the surface into subsurface
or within an aquifer. The alluvial aquifers have much better permeability than a compact
aquifer. We may keep it in mind that an aquifer having 20% porosity and one darcy
permeability has much reduced hydraulic connectivity than the one which has 15%
porosity and three Darcy permeability.
266
12.2.4 Stratigraphic Control Hydrogeology

The stratigraphic setting of a geological formation refers to the chronological sequencing

of its units. It documents the depositional environment during a given era. For example,
the Archean formations in India (aged > 2500 million years) comprise mostly of granitic
rocks. These rocks have an extremely poor permeability.
The significance of stratigraphic control can also be seen in tertiary deposits. The
lignite deposition is a characteristic of Gondwana land. These are found in all the
formations of Gondwana world over. In India, these lignite deposits are found to have
a high yield of groundwater.
Similarly, the Deccan Basalt of Cretaceous age is also of significance in the Indian
context. It is having an average thickness of multi-layers of lava of about 2000 m. The
rocks of Deccan trap formation have a very poor yield because these are fine-grained
volcanic rocks that have very poor permeability. Water in this formation, like granite,
stores in the intertrappean beds, or in the fracture zones.
Stratigraphic control is also very important for the location of paleochannels and
paleolakes. Identification of these features from the environment of deposition and the
energy of the system during an era is useful to identify favorable locations of water-
bearing formations. For examples, the late Pleistocene has witnessed lowering of sea
level for several hundred meters. This has advanced the mouth of the rivers towards
the ocean. The increase in the sea level during the Holocene era has also migrated to
sea level landward. The change in the sedimentary environment due to the landward
shift of sea level has impacted the sediment supply. This has to lead to filling of channels
of several of the coastal rivers. It has also controlled extinction or shift of channels of
several of coastal rivers which were very good source of the ground water in the
coastal region.
In the mountains, many lakes have dried up or buried under sediments because of
retreat or advance of glaciers in the Pleistocene. For identification of these features,
stratigraphic control of an area needs to be studied. Understanding of stratigraphic
control is, therefore, essential for the students of hydrology.
Check Your Progress 1
Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words.
b) Check your progress with possible answers given at the end of the unit.
1. What is stratigraphic control?
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
2. Which stratigraphic formation is expected to have the least water?
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
267
Hydrology 12.2.5 Control of Structures
In geology, “structure” refers to depositional features of a formation developed because
of burial or due to the tectonic force applied on it after their formation. The structures
may be classified as primary or secondary. We will examine the control of these
structures on hydrology in the following sections:
(a) Contol of Primary Structures
These structures are embedded in a formation during its formation. The sedimentary
rocks, for example, have bedding plane which is a depositional boundary between
two layers. These boundaries are considered very favourable for the movement of
fluid. The lithogenic structures also play an important role in the water storage or its
yield. The authigenic chemical precipitation may occupy the inter-grain space in the
rock. This reduces the grain space and permeability of the sedimentary rocks.
(b) Control of Secondary Structures
Tectonic structures are bending or fracture of rocks because of stress or strain applied
to them after the formation of a litho-unit. It is quite common in tectonically active
zones. For example, on a converging zone (in which two plates are moving towards
each other), the compression is prominent. This can be seen in the Himalayas. The
Indian Plate is colliding with the Asian Plate. Because of northward compression,
there are several large-scale thrusts in the Himalayas. These thrusts are several hundred
km long and can be identified using a satellite image. A large-scale faulting and folding
is a very prominent feature of such regions in the Himalayas. The deep faulting and
folding of rocks in the Himalayas has led to migration of deep-seated water into the
upper surface. The occurrence of several hot water springs in the Himalayas is a
testimony of secondary control.
The tectonics is different over divergent plates. At a divergent boundary, transform
faults are common. These tensional features are generally found on the oceanic plate.
However, the volcanic flow at a divergent boundary may give rise to large deposition
of lava.

12.3 GEOMORPHOLOGICAL CONTROL

Understanding the Hills, lakes, rivers, sand dunes, etc., are a geomorphological feature of a region and
processes that these exert a large control over the groundwater. Geomorphological studies are therefore
have controlled required to identify the water-bearing landform. For example, identification of a buried
the origin and channel of a river or a lake is very vital to understand the recharge points of
evolution of the unconsolidated sediments.
landform is In the granitic or basaltic terrain, the geomorphological features such as depression in
termed as the landform, or gradient of the hills regulate the water supply and its storage. The
geomorphology. geomorphological features also provide clues on the source of surface water. For
example, the geomorphological studies provide a regional or local gradient of the
catchment area of a river. This process leads to migration of channel of a river, flooding
of floodplains, and accumulation of a lot of sediments in a basin.
The Himalayan region has high mountains. Some of these mountains have high
precipitation. The high gradient in the Himalayas channelizes the water in the rivers
268 along the tectonic features. Because of the high gradient in the hilly terrain, these rivers
also carry a lot of sediments in river water. During the monsoon when there is a sizeable Hydrogeology
amount of rainfall in the Himalayas, or during the melting of ice, the riverine flow is very
large. A high supply of water and sediments from the high altitude of Himalayas are
carried downhill. When this discharge reaches the plain, the river channel widens, and
it has lower gradient. This leads to a reduction in the velocity of the rivers. This reduction
leads to deposition of sediments in the plains. You will find a large deposition of sand
in almost all the river basin of India. We are all familiar that during the flood channel
width increases. When the volume of the water in the channel is more than its carrying
capacity, it overflows the channel and deposits the sediments in the flood plains. Such
deposition over the millions of years has built a large fluvial plain along most of the
Indian Rivers. The thickness of loose unconsolidated sediments in the Gangetic plain is
several km. These unconsolidated, poorly sorted sediments act as good aquifer and
have preserved an enormous quantity of water. The water yield from these reservoirs
has met the ever-increasing water demand of entire northern India.
From the above example, it is evident that the geomorphological setting of an area has
tremendous control over migration and storage of water in various landforms.

12.4 LITHOLOGICAL CONTROL

Lithology is a preliminary study of physical properties and mineralogy of the rocks in a Lithology of any
formation as seen in the hand specimen. For example, the occurrence of basalt in any rock is the study
stratigraphic sequence can be identified by its colour, texture, and broad composition. of the physical
Vertical variations in the lithology are recorded, and these are terms as litho logs. properties in a
Cores are drilled to obtain lithology of a formation. rock sample.
Following properties of the rocks contribute to interpret lithological control: These include
colour,
1. Rock Type composition, and
The first examination in lithology is to identify the rocks. There are three major types of texture.
rocks, i.e., sedimentary, igneous, and metamorphic.
The sedimentary rocks may be either silici-clastic or carbonate. These may also be
classified based on their size as a conglomerate, gravel, sand, silt or clayey, etc. This
classification is especially useful to identify a suitable water bearing formation.
The igneous rocks may be plutonic or basaltic. Plutonic rocks are coarse grain rocks
that are formed deep in the crust. The volcanic rocks are fine to very fine grained. The
flood basaltic flows are very fine grained.
Metamorphic rocks are formed by the metamorphism of sedimentary or igneous rock.
Depending upon the depth of their formation, a rock may be slate, schist, and gneiss.
The rock type is very important for hydrological studies. We have learned that the
permeability and porosity are two parameters that determine the hydraulic characteristics
of an aquifer. We also know that permeability is low in granitic, basaltic, or metamorphic
rocks of higher order (gneiss). The mapping of the rocks that are averse to the water
storage is an essential tool for hydrological prospecting of an area.
2. Grain Size
We have already studied this under petrographic control. Your kind attention is however
drawn that in lithological studies this tool is used to classify a rock formation. From the 269
Hydrology lithological studies, a sedimentary rock may be quickly named as sandstone or mudstone
based on grain size. You have already learned that grain size these parameters are very
important to determine porosity and permeability of any formation or for hydraulic
conductivity.
3. Mineralogy
Preliminary identification of mineralogy is helpful for hydrological prospecting. For
sedimentary rocks, it is possible to identify dolomite or carbonate-bearing rocks using
dilute hydrochloric acid. Similarly, one can also identify metamorphic facies such as
slate, phyllite, schist, and gneiss formation in the hand specimen. It is also possible to
identify felsic (light colour) rock rich in quartz and feldspar and mafic or ultramafic
rocks that have a low amount of quartz. Such information plays a very vital role in a
hydrological setting. For example, carbonate rocks are more prone to dissolution by
percolating water than the siliciclastic rocks. Similarly, the felsic rocks are more prone
to develop secondary permeability.
4. Colour
Colour of rock indicates the environment of deposition. In geology, we use the mussel
chart for such identification. It is a simple hand book that contains several samples of
colour. Each of the colour boxes has a specific number. The number is generally
recorded and used to decode the environment of deposition (reducing or oxidizing).
The environment of deposition also provides the intensity of weathering, specially the
chemical weathering. An intense chemical weathering regime normally is more prone
to dissolution and creation of voids.
5. Fabrics
The fabric is the plane along which the movement of fluid takes place. Understanding
fabrics of any formation is therefore useful for hydrological studies. In lithological studies,
the spatial and geometric configuration of elements is determined. For example, in any
sedimentary formation, the bedding is its fabric. In the igneous rock, the fabric
determines the flow. Planer or linear fabrics are characteristic of metamorphic rocks.
6. Texture
We have already studied this aspect under the petrography. This aspect is also covered
under lithology. Texture here provides sorting, grading, shape, and roundness of the
grains in a hand specimen. Usefulness of these parameters has already been described
in detail under section permeability and porosity.
7. Small-Scale Structures
Small scale structure such as ripple marks, cross bedding, mud-cracks; sole marks
are embedded in the sedimentary rocks during the process of their formation. These
marks are used to determine the environment in which the said rocks have deposited.
These provide a clue on the flow direction of river or presence of seashore. Such
information helps identification of geomorphic processes such as the direction of river
flow or shore processes. Small scale structures may not induce any control over the
water preservation or its yield, yet these contain information on the source and migration
of water within the formations.

270
8. Thickness Hydrogeology

The thickness of a formation is one of the important geological controls. The thickness
of the aquifer is directly related with a thickness of a formation. The thickness of a
geological formation signifies the magnitude and duration of the prevalence of
geomorphic or tectonic processes. For examples, the thickness of Deccan Basalt
determines the existence of an impervious layer over the curst in the Maharashtra and
Gujarat. Similarly, a large thickness of alluvial fan in the Indo-Gangetic plain (and the
quantity of water stored in it) is a testimony of the control of thickness on the hydrological
characteristics of a region.
Check Your Progress 2
Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 word
b) Check your progress with possible answers given at the end of the unit.
3. What is the role of tectonics on change of hydrological properties of a formation?
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
4. What will be the role of a fracture zone on ground water yield?
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
5. Why do we have hot water spring in the Himalayas?
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................

12.5 MODE OF OCCURRENCE OF GROUNDWATER

IN DIFFERENT GEOLOGICAL TERRAINS OF
INDIA
Kindly refer to the geological map of India prepared by the Geological Survey of India The Archaen are
(Fig. 12.2). A better copy of this map may be got from the website of the Geological the oldest rocks.
Survey of India (http://www.portal.gsi.gov.in/portal/page?_pageid=127,
529486&_dad=portal&_schema=PORTAL). To simplify the distribution of major
super groups in India, the geological map of India ((http://www.civilsdaily.com/blog/
the-geological-structure-of-india/) (Fig. 12.3) may also be got.
From the above maps, it is evident that there are seven major geological formations in
India. Given below is their geological

271
Hydrology

Fig. 12.2: Geological setting of India (as prepared by the Geological Survey of India).

Fig. 12.3: The spatial occurrence of seven major geological formations of India

characteristics and water bearing capacity. It may be, however, remembered here that
because these were deposited over a large geological span, each subunit of these
formations has vast variations in lithology, tectonic setting, and geomorphology. These
formations are regional and therefore have a spatial inconsistency in their water-bearing
characteristics. The evaluation of water-bearing properties of each formation presented
in this unit is therefore general. For region specific evaluation of water-bearing properties
of these seven groups, an elaborate consideration of local lithological and tectonic
parameters of each subunit is needed.

12.5.1 The Archaen

These rocks occur in South-India, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Chhattisgarh,
272 Orissa, and all along the East Coast of India (as the Eastern-Ghats; Figs 12.2-3).
These are the oldest formations (age > 2500 million years) and mostly have metamorphic Hydrogeology
rocks such as gneiss, schist and granite. Being made of metamorphic rocks, Archean
rocks have an extremely poor water-bearing characteristic. The water in these formations
is normally found in the fracture zone. However, these formations have experienced
prolonged weathering. Such processes generate secondary permeability in these rocks.
The water in these formations is therefore found in fractures or in the depressions that
are filled with weathered material. As per the hydrological map of India (sourer Central
Ground Water Board; Fig. 12.4), these formations have a yield of 1-5 litre /sec in the
hilly terrain.

12.5.2 Cuddapah Super Group Arenaceous are

sedimentary
The Proterozoic rocks (age 1600 million years) are composed of shale and quartzite rocks made of
in the alternate layers. These are found in Cuddapah district in Andhra Pradesh, sandy material.
Vidharbha, South-Maharashtra, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, and Rajasthan (Figs. 2-3).
The formation is composed of arenaceous and argillaceous sequence with igneous
intrusions. The Cuddapah Super Group has conglomerate - quartzite, carbonate, and
shale facies. The water-bearing capacity of these rocks is low. The conglomerate has
better prospect. The mode of water occurrence in the Quartzite, carbonate, and shale
facies is mostly in the fractures or dissolution pits or along the bedding plane. As per
the hydrological map of India, the water yield in this super group is 1-5 litre/sec. As the
formation has witnessed tectonic activities in the eastern Cuddapah basin, subunits of
this region may have stored more water in the fracture zone (water yield 10 litre/sec).

Secondary
permeability is
acquired by rocks
after their
deposition.

Fig. 12.4: The Hydrological map of India (Source: http://www.indiawaterportal.org/sites)

12.5.3 Vindhyan Super Group

The Vindhyan are unmetamorphosed sedimentary deposits of the shallow marine
environment of the Proterozoic time. This group has largest and thickest sedimentary
successions of the world and comprises of calcareous, arenaceous, and argillaceous
sediments. The Vindhyan are found in Son-valley, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra
Pradesh and in Telangana. These formations are intra cratonic and have thick
273
Hydrology sedimentary rocks. Sandstone, shale, and limestone are the major rocks of this super
group. The sandstone and limestone of this group have good water-bearing properties.
The mode of occurrence of water is along the bedding, dissolution pits, and fracture
zone. The shale formation, however, has poor water-bearing capacity. A large lithological
and geomorphological setting of this group makes it rather difficult to provide a
generalized estimation of water bearing properties of this group. It may, however, be
stated that in the hilly region these regions have good water storage. Please refer to
the hydrological map of CGWB for details (Fig. 12.4).

12.5.4 Gondwana Super Group

The Gondwana are developed in the peninsular region of India along the Damodar
and Son valley, in the upper Narmada, the Godavari valley and along the Mahanadi
valley. These are Pre-Cambrian rock though in some area these may fall in the Permian
and Triassic periods. These are shallow; elongated basin brought about by block
faulting. These sediments have been deposited in a trough, and they contain remains of
plants. The formation has sandstones, slates, and conglomerates. Coal or lignite bearing
sediments are common in Gondwana Super Group. The subunits of this super group
store a good amount of water in the secondary space generated because of chemical
or physical weathering. The coal-bearing strata have high porosity and store a
considerable amount of ground water. The water yield of these formations is highly
variable and is linked with the characters of lithology of a subunit.

12.5.5 Deccan Traps

The Deccan Traps are the largest volcanic features on Earth. These were deposited in
the post-Mesozoic era (~66 million years). These lava deposits are about 2,000 m
thick. The lava has multiple layers of solidified flood basalt. The water-bearing properties
of basaltic rocks are exceptionally low. However, the Deccan traps have deposited
intermittently and have several layers of sediments between the lava flows (intertrappean
beds). The intertrappean beds and fractured regions are a good reservoir of water in
the Deccan traps. The mode of occurrence of water in these rocks is storage in the
fracture zone or in the intertrappean beds. The water is also stored in the weathered
zone. Most of the Deccan trap in the Maharashtra lies in the regions that have very
high rainfall. These regions are known to store large meteoric water. The estimated
water yield is highly variable in the hilly terrain (1-25 litre/sec).

12.6 THE TERTIARY GROUP: (AGE 65-1.64

MILLION YEARS)
These formations are found in the NE of India and in the Himalayas. The marine
tertiary rocks of the NE and Shivalik group fall under this super group. One also finds
these formations in the costal belt of Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, and Gujarat (refer to
Figs 2-3). The tertiary rocks are formed after the breakup of Gondwana land and
collision of Indian Plate with Asian Plate. These deposits have marine sediments and
reworked sediments derived from the intense weathering of the Himalayas. These
deposits have high deformation. The porosity and permeability of the Shivalik formation
are extremely high. These deposits, therefore, have an exceedingly high water-bearing
properties. Water yield is found to 25-40 litre/sec as per the hydrological map prepared
by CGWB.
274
 Hydrogeology
12.7 RECENT SUPER GROUP
These formations include Sutlej-Ganga-Brahmaputra plains and Karewa formations Recent super
of the Kashmir valley. Recent deposits are also found in the NE region of India and the group comprises
Gujarat. All the major rivers of the India also have recent deposits. These deposits of detritus that are
mostly comprise unconsolidated sediments reworked by the rivers. They have extremely deposited during
high porosity and sorting. Being in the catchment area of rivers, these formations have past 1.72 million
very high-water bearing capacity. The Indus (and its tributaries) and the Ganga and years
Brahmaputra Plains have very thick deposition of detritus. These have very high storage
of ground water in the form of unconfined or perched aquifer. The thickness of these
aquifers is also substantial. These deposits were found to have very high-water yield
> 40 litres/sec.
As mentioned earlier that Gujarat has a large deposition of recent sediments. These
are reworked by the rivers. However, barring the sediments in the floodplains of major
rivers such as Tapi and Narmada, Sabarmati, Aji, etc., most of the recent sediments
has much-reduced water yield. One may wonder the reason thereof. These sediments
are composed of a layer of clays and gypsum formed because of intense evaporation
in the arid climate of Gujarat. Clays have an extremely high porosity, but very poor
water yield. The layers of clay form an impermeable layer that inhibits deeper
percolation of water. The area, therefore, has several small perched aquifers. As a
result, the water-bearing capacity is much reduced.
Check Your Progress 3
Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words.
b) Check your progress with possible answers given at the end of the unit.
6. Identify the super group that has a high-water bearing capacity
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
7. Why the recent formation of Gujarat has a low water bearing capacity?
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................

12.8 CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS WITH Magmatic rocks

are formed by the
REFERENCE TO THEIR WATER-BEARING molten material. It
PROPERTIES is of intrusive or
eruptive type
The role of geology in the water storage in the crust has been studied in the earlier section.
It is well understood that the geology plays an important role in the precipitation of water, its
storage, movement and ultimately its supply back to water reservoirs. For hydrological
prospecting, besides a basic understanding of the geological control, it is also important to
understand the basic properties of medium (rocks or soil) that stores the water. 275
Hydrology 12.8.1 Factors that Determine Water-bearing Capacity of
Rocks
We have discussed the factors that regulated the water bearing capacity. We have
learned that the water-bearing properties of the rock primarily depend on two basic
parameters. The geological factors that influence porosity and permeability are therefore
useful and are described in details to explain their role in estimation of water bearing
capacity of a formation:
1. Process of Sedimentation
Sedimentation takes place by various morphodynamic agents. Sediments are liberated
through weathering. The liberation mechanism and the transportation of the material
regulate water-bearing characteristics of a formation. Water, gravity, and air are the
most important agents. The sediments deposited by air are very well sorted and have
high porosity. Pore space in the carbonated rocks is highly variable, and these rocks
have poor water-bearing capability. The chemically precipitated sedimentary rocks
also have poor water-bearing capacity. Water in these rocks stores in the dissolution
cavities. Carbonates are prone to have dissolution cavities.
2. Expansion of Gases
The lava and mud flows have gases. The escape of these gases causes the formation
of cavities by escaping bubbles. There rocks have low water bearing capacity in pumice
though it may have several connected voids.
3. Crystallization of Igneous Rock
The inter-crystalline space in the igneous rocks changes their water-bearing capacity. This
factor needs to be considered before assigning the water-bearing status to igneous rocks.
4. Mechanical Disruption
The mechanical forces on any rock may create the secondary structures that enhance
its water-bearing characteristics. It may be kept in mind that the classification of rocks
on lithological lines may not be accurate and it may need amendments depending upon
the tectonic feature of the region.
5. Chemical Action
A cemented
Dissolution by carbonic and organic acids increases space for water storage in an
conglomerate has
impervious medium. Most of the springs in carbonate rocks are because of the chemical
less water bearing
action of water.
capacity than that
of sandstone. 7. Cementation
Higher cementation reduces the water bearing capacity of the sedimentary rocks.
8. Sediment Compaction
Compaction of rock because of burial reduces the pore space, and it reduces water
bearing capacity.
9. Metamorphism
This process also reduced porosity and permeability. High temperature and pressure
276 reduce the water bearing capacity of rocks.
10. Weathering Hydrogeology

Weathering increase porosity. Physical weathering widens cracks and joints in a rock.
This increases secondary permeability, and it enhances water yield in the impervious
media.
Chemical weathering is also increasing water bearing capacity. The dissolution of
carbonate rocks by acid water induces dissolution pit and cavities and increases water
bearing capacity of impervious sedimentary rocks.
11. Biological Processes
Biological processes in the shallow region also influence the water bearing capacity of
the rocks. The roots of the plants create fractures in the rocks. The soil water is also
enhanced by the humus. The animal burrows also increase the water bearing capacity
of a formation.

12.8.2 Water-bearing Capacity of Sedimentary, Metamorphic

and Igneous Rocks
We have learned that the water-bearing properties of the rocks are inherited by their
mode of formation. We have also learned that there are three major rock groups. The
water-bearing capacity of each of these groups is described below:
1. Sedimentary Rocks
Sedimentary deposits are mostly porous if these are loose. The compacted sedimentary Water bearing
rocks may retain its porosity to some extent. However, a compact cemented rock is capacity of the
mostly impervious. The water-bearing capacity of cemented and indurated rocks is sedimentary rocks
exceptionally low. Because most of the sedimentary rocks are impervious, and depends on its
compactness is highly variable, it is not possible to estimate their generalized water- grain size,
bearing capacity. It may be, however, borne in mind that water bearing capacity of each porosity chemical
unit of sedimentary unconsolidated deposited depends upon grain size, porosity, and precipitation
permeability. The compact rocks are mostly impervious. Permeability is the major factor
that determines the water yield of these formations. Grain size and other textural properties,
however, have minor effect. For instance, if the grain size of sandstone is coarse (and it
is well sorted), it has good storage capacity but an extremely poor yield. In fine-grained
sandstone, the water baring capacity is good, but the yield of water is very poor. Claystone
has very high porosity but is having very poor water yield (Table 12.1).
2. Igneous Rocks
It is well known that the magmatic rocks are compact. These rocks are impervious. Pyroclastic rocks
Therefore, granitic and basaltic rocks are classified as a poor source of water. However, are sedimentary
because of weathering and joints in these rocks, these rock types develop fractures deposits derived
and secondary structures. These processes enhance their water bearing capacity. from the volcanic
3. Metamorphic Rocks activities. These
rocks have high
The metamorphic rocks are derived mostly from sedimentary rocks. The characteristics water bearing
of these rocks are related to the parent rock material and metamorphism. In the early capacity.
stage of metamorphism, such as slate, the material is porous, though it may have very
little water bearing capacity. Schist and gneiss are much more complex and have poor
water-bearing capacity.
277
Hydrology A rough estimate of porosity, water bearing capacity and their estimated yield is given
in the Table 12.1
Table 12.1: Water-bearing capacity of unconsolidated sediments and rocks.
Material Porosity Water-bearing capacity Water yield
Gravel Coarse 38 High High
Gravel Medium 32 High High
Gravel Fine 34 High High
Sand (coarse) 39 Very high Very high
Sand (medium) 39 Very high Very High
Sand (fine) 43 Very high High
Silt 46 High - moderate Medium
Clay 42 high Very low
Sandstone 33 Moderate - Low Low
Fine-grained
Sand stone 37 Moderate Moderate
Medium grained
Limestone 30 Moderate Low-moderate
Dolomite 28 Moderate Moderate
Dune Sand 45 Very high Very high
Peat 95 Very high Very high
Shale 6 Low Very low
Schist 38 low low
Siltstone 35 low low
Claystone 43 Very low Very low
Basalt 17 Low Moderate
Gabbroweathered 43 low Low
Granite 45 Low Low
Check Your Progress 4
Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words.
b) Check your progress with possible answers given at the end of the unit.
8. What is the porosity of clays and claystone?
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
9. Why water yield of clays and claystone is low?
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
Viscosity is the
property of a fluid .....................................................................................................................
to resist the flow
over a surface. 12.9 DARCY’S LAW AND ITS VALIDITY
278 Originally, Darcy formulated this law to estimate the pressure loss due to viscosity.
The definition of various types of viscosity (absolute, dynamic, and kinematic) may be Hydrogeology
found in any of the mathematical books.
Darcy’s low helps hydrologists to estimate water flow in a porous medium. This law
states that for one-dimensional water flow in saturated media, flow is proportional
to head loss and inversely proportional to the length of the media. Please note here
that for this estimation, a porous sand media was used in a horizontal position.
The Darcy law states that Äp (the pressure loss) in any flow (Q) is proportional to
the length L of media by the following relation:
Äp = ë (L / A) (ñ v2 / 2) (1)
where
Äp = pressure loss (units P; please note this is a unit of pressure)
ë = Darcy-Weisbach friction coefficient
L= length of material (duct or pipe in this experiment) expressed in meters (m)
v = velocity (m/s) measured as volumetric volume flow (Q)/unit cross section
A = hydraulic diameter expressed in meters (m)
ñ = density (kg/m3).

Fig. 12.5: Schematic explanation of the terms used in Darcy’s law.

For laminar flow, the equation may be written as:

Where
µ = dynamic viscosity
Q= volumetric flow rate (m3/s) and it is equal to area (A) multiply by velocity (v)
The terminology used in the equations are shown in Fig. 12.5.

12.9.1 Limitation of the Darcy Law

As clear from the above equation, it is clear that the stipulation of the formulation of the
law of Darcy is for a specific condition. We know that the equation has been derived 279
Hydrology for the laminar flow. One must, therefore, remember that the equation of Darcy is valid
only for fully developed, steady state and incompressible flow. It may be borne in the
mind that the equation is not valid in the transient or turbulent flow.
Because the equation of Darcy applies to the laminar flow, we shall also learn to
determine the Reynolds Number, which is used to determine the nature of flow.
Reynolds number for our understanding is a proportionality coefficient, and it is derived
from the following relation:
Re = (ñ u2) / (ì u / L)
=ñuL/ì
=uL/í
where
Re = Reynolds Number (non-dimensional)
ñ = density (kg/m3)
u = velocity based on the actual cross section area of the duct or pipe (m/s)
ì = dynamic viscosity (Ns/m2)
L = characteristic length (m)
í = ì / ñ = kinematic viscosity (m2/s)
The estimated value of the Reynolds Number for the laminar flow is Re < 2300. The
flow is deemed transient - when it is 2300 < Re < 4000. The flow become turbulent if
Re is > 4000
We have stated at the beginning of this section that the law of Darcy is applicable only
for saturated medium. We have learned that the pressure gradient in an important
parameter in the above equation. For estimation of hydraulic gradient, pressure
component in a submerged stratum is derived by:
H=Hp+ Hh
where Hp is the pressure head because of submergence. It has a value of 0 at the
surface of water table, and it increases with the depth.
Hg is the gravitational head which is a vertical position of point above the reference
point
It must be borne in mind that in practice laminar flow exists only for viscous fluids like
crude oil, fuel oil, and oils. The application of Darcy law is therefore valid for small pipes
or grain diameter with a very small velocity for one-dimension flow. It must also be kept
in mind that these flows are regulated by the viscosity, even though the velocity is regulated
by kinematic viscosity (viscosity/density). The applicability of the Darcy’s law to estimate
Q in an aquifer, therefore, loses relevance in a flow that has exceptionally large velocity.

12.9.2 Determination of Hydraulic Conductivity

Hydraulic conductivity (K) of any system describes its efficiency to transmit water
through the pore spaces of a formation when it is subjected to a hydraulic gradient. In
280
a simple language, it is the ability with which the pores of a saturated media permit Hydrogeology
water movement. It is a ratio of velocity to the hydraulic gradient within a porous
medium. If you examine the formulation of Darcy, you can infer that hydraulic
conductivity (K) is a proportionality constant that defines a liner relation between J
(water flow magnitude) and slope of the line or hydraulic gradient. If the density and
viscosity is a constant, we can derive following equation:
K=J/i
where

where Q is water flow, and A is the area of cross-section

i= hydraulic gradient within an area.
We may derive hydraulic potential by the following relation:

Where net change in water potential between point a and b (See Fig. 12.5). I is
the distance between the point a-b (or L in Fig. 12.5)
K for our purpose may be expressed on a volume basis and it has units of m/s

Fig. 12.6: Schematic depiction of estimation of hydraulic conductivities in aquifers.

It may be borne in the mind that flux represents the quantity of water moving though a
porous saturated medium and it shall be proportionate to the hydraulic gradient. What
is the significance of such observation?
Let us examine two aquifers with different lithology. One aquifer has sandy material
while other has clayey material. It is presumed that the hydraulic gradient is same for
both the aquifers. However, the water yield is more in the sandy media than in the clay
media because of hydraulic conductivity because of higher discharge (Q) in the sandy
medium.
From this example, you must have understood that the hydraulic conductivity is
proportionality constant between flux and hydraulic gradient in a unidirectional flow
(Fig. 12.6). K determines the ability of soil to transmit water under a given hydraulic 281
Hydrology gradient. In hydrology, K for different media such as sand, silt, and clay has been
estimated.
We may conclude it that hydraulic conductivity is a useful tool to estimate flux of water
from an aquifer.
Check Your Progress 5
Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 word
b) Check your progress with possible answers given at the end of the unit.
10. What are the limitations of Darcy’s law?
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................

12.10 GROUNDWATER TRACERS

We have learned that ground water moves horizontally and vertically. It is very important
for the hydrologist to estimate dispersion, direction, and rate of ground water flow.
The ground water tracers are employed to understand and test the movement of water
within or inter-aquifer. It is expected that a tracer shall be readily available, be capable
of determining quantitatively the movement of water, safe, and shall not react with the
natural water. Some studies also must determine the age of water to recognize the
source and water dynamics in a basin.
In the modern era, several industrial dyes are available that are used as ground water
tracers. Sodium fluorescein is one such dye is in use for quite some time. The
improvement in the measurement of isotopes has increased use of natural isotopes as
groundwater tracers. CO60, Rb86, H3, C14 isotopes are used to determine age and
migration of groundwater in the crust. The study of isotopic concentration is used as a
fingerprint of specific water, and it provides source and migration pathways of a water
body. Such studies have also been useful to determine depletion rate of groundwater
in an aquifer. The age of water can also be determined by this tool.
Application of isotopic tools is a branch and it needs a special knowledge of advance
chemistry. For further details on the use of isotopic tracers, students are advised to
refer to a textbook of isotope chemistry. It is also advised that students shall familiarise
themselves with dedicated instruments such as mass ratio spectrometers that are used
to measure isotopic variations.

12.11 LET US SUM UP

The occurrence of ground water in the crust is controlled by several factors such as
porosity, permeability, fracture, the location of the porous formation, and thickness of
the formation.
The older Archean formations (mostly in the peninsular India) rocks are crystalline and
these are impervious. However, physical, and chemical weathering has developed a
secondary permeability in these rocks.
282
The water-bearing capacity of the rocks depends upon their porosity and permeability. Hydrogeology
In the consolidated impervious rocks, the secondary structures enhance their water-
bearing capacity. The water-bearing capacity of cemented sedimentary rocks also
reduces.
Most of the formations of India have poor water-bearing capacity. Vindhyan and
Tertiary rocks have better water bearing capacity than the Cuddapah and Archaeans.
The water-bearing capacity of tertiary rocks is good. The recent sediments have
exceptionally good water-bearing capacity.
From the low of Darcy, one can estimate the hydraulic head in an aquifer. However,
such studies are valid only for laminar flow. Sandy aquifer has a higher hydraulic
conductivity than the clayey aquifer.
Ground water tracers are used to estimate magnitude and path of water movement in
crust.
Terminal Questions:
1. What is the geological control on water in the crust?
2. What is the role of porosity on ground water yield?
3. Which formation of India has the best water-bearing capacity?
4. What are the rock Archaean rocks? What is their water-bearing capacity?
5. What are limitations of Darcy’s law?
6. What is hydraulic conductivity?

12.12 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED FURTHER

READINGS
M. Grant Gross. 1972. Oceanography, a view of the earth. Prentice-Hall, Englewood
Cliffs.
William A. Anikouchine and Richard W. Sternberg: The World Ocean, an introduction
to oceanography. McGraw-Hill, New York 1974
Joseph Weisberg and Howard Parish: Introductory Oceanography. McGraw-Hill,
New York 1974
Keith Stowe: Ocean Science. John Wiley and Sons, New York 2nd Edition 1979
J. Michael McCormick and John V. Thiruvatakal: Elements of Oceanography. Saunders
College Publishing, Philadelphia 2nd Edition 1981
John A. Black: Oceans and Coasts, an introduction to oceanography. Wm. C. Brown
Publishers, Dubuque 1986
Paul R. Pinet: Oceanography, an introduction to the planet Oceanus. West Publishing
Company St. Paul 1992
Alison B. Duxbury and Alyn C. Duxbury: Fundamentals of Oceanography. Wm. C.
Brown Publishers, Dubuque 1993
283
Hydrology Harold V. Thurman: Essentials of Oceanography. Macmillan, New York 4th Edition
1993
M. Grant Gross: Oceanography, a view of the earth. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs
6th Edition 1993
Tom Garrison: Oceanography, an Invitation to Marine Sciences. Wadsworth Publishing
Company, Belmont California 1993
Harold V. Thurman: Introductory Oceanography. Macmillan, New York 7th edition
1994
David A. Ross: Introduction to Oceanography. Harper Collins New York 1995
Matthias Tomczak and Gunther Krause: Do Marine Scientists have a Scientific View
of the Earth? Oceanography 8, 11-16 (1995).
Harold V. Thurman: Essentials of Oceanography. Macmillan, New York 5th Edition
1996
Douglas A. Segar: Introduction to Ocean Sciences. Wadsworth Publishing, Belmont
1998

12.13 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Stratigraphy determines the litho units of a formation. These are vital for identification
of water bearing formation depending on the prevailing depositional environment
in a stratigraphic era. For example, if we know that the formation is Gondwana,
one may expect lignite bearing rocks that have high porosity and permeability.
2. Igneous Archean formations (without fractures) are expected to have poor water-
bearing properties.
3. The tectonic setting of a region determines the occurrence of folds, faults, and
fractures in the formations. These structures determine its water-bearing capacity.
4. Fracture zone enhances ground water storage and its yield. Many fracture springs
are found in the fracture zone.
6. RECENT
5. Because the magmatogenic processes contribute deep water into the surface in a
tectonically active zone. The magmatogenic waters are hot.
7. In Gujarat, the alluvial sediments have an exorbitant amount of clays. Clays have
extremely high permeability but bad water yield.
8. The porosity of clays and claystone is extremely high (42 and 43 respectively).
9. These have very poor water permeability, and hence they have a poor yield.
10. It is applicable only for laminar flow.
Answers to terminal questions
1. Geological control comprehends the role of geological parameters on water-bearing
properties of the rocks.
284
2. Porosity is the amount of pore space in a rock. Though it plays a vital role in the Hydrogeology
water bearing capacity, the permeability is more relevant for water yield of an
aquifer.
3. Recent alluvial formations have the highest water bearing capacity.
4. Granitic rocks are most abundant in Archean formations. They have poor water-
bearing capacity.
5. It is applicable only in laminar flow with a small velocity of water discharge. A flow
that has Reynolds number > 2300 is not covered under this law.
5. Hydraulic conductivity of an aquifer is its efficiency to transmit water through the
pore spaces of a formation.

285