materials
Article
Texture Evolution during Recrystallization and Grain Growth
in Non-Oriented Electrical Steel Produced by Compact Strip
Production Process
Jun-Qiang Cong 1,2 , Fei-Hu Guo 2,3 , Jia-Long Qiao 2, * , Sheng-Tao Qiu 1,2 and Hai-Jun Wang 1






Citation: Cong, J.-Q.; Guo, F.-H.;
Qiao, J.-L.; Qiu, S.-T.; Wang, H.-J.
Texture Evolution during
Recrystallization and Grain Growth
in Non-Oriented Electrical Steel
Produced by Compact Strip
Production Process. Materials 2022,
15, 197. https://doi.org/10.3390/
ma15010197
Academic Editor: Sumantra Mandal
Received: 20 November 2021
Accepted: 22 December 2021
Published: 28 December 2021
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
published maps and institutional affil-
iations.
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Materials 2022, 15, 197. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15010197
1 School of Metallurgy and Resources, Anhui University of Technology, Maanshan 243002, China;
mingh_cong@163.com (J.-Q.C.); qiustchina@126.com (S.-T.Q.); whjchina@ahut.edu.cn (H.-J.W.)
2 National Engineering Research Center of Continuous Casting Technology, China Iron & Steel Research
Institute Group, Beijing 100081, China; guofeihu2020@163.com
3 School of Metallurgy, Northeastern University, Shenyang 110819, China
* Correspondence: qiaojialong2015@126.com; Tel.: +86-188-0102-8675
Abstract: Evolution of texture and α*-fiber texture formation mechanism of Fe-0.65%Si non-oriented
electrical steel produced by Compact Strip Production (CSP) process during all the thermo-mechanical
processing steps were investigated using electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) and X-ray diffraction
(XRD) techniques. Columnar crystal structure of cast slab is fine and well-developed. Textures of the
hot-rolled band are quite different in the thickness direction. During annealing of cold-rolled sheet,
γ-fiber texture grains would nucleate and grow preferentially, and α*-fiber texture grains mainly
nucleate and grow in the shear zone of α-fiber texture of cold-rolled sheet. During the recrystallization
process, γ-fiber texture gradually concentrated to {111}<112>, and γ and α*-fiber texture increased
significantly. {111}<112> texture priority nucleation at the initial stage of recrystallization. Due to
the advantages of nucleation position and quantity, the content of α*-fiber texture is greater than
{111}<112> texture in the mid-recrystallization. During grain growth process, {111}<112> oriented
grains would grow selectively by virtue of higher mobility, sizes and quantity advantages than that
of {411}<148 > and {100}<120>, resulting in the gradual increase of γ-fiber texture and the decline of
α *-fiber texture.
Keywords: Compact Strip Production; non-oriented electrical steel; texture; recrystallization; grain
growth; α*-fiber texture
1. Introduction
Magnetic properties of non-oriented electrical steel are mainly influenced by chemical
composition, microstructure and crystallographic texture [1]. Microstructure and crystal-
lographic texture would determine domain wall pinning and motion, and these would
fundamentally change several times during the thermo-mechanical processes. Due to
domains being spontaneously magnetized to saturation in <100>, λ-fiber (<100>//ND)
texture, which has two [001] directions, is the advantageous texture for magnetization.
Inversely, γ-fiber (<111>//ND) texture, which has no [001] direction, becomes the adverse
texture for magnetization. Thus, a proper control of microstructure and crystallographic
texture is essential for improving magnetic properties in non-oriented electrical steels [2,3].
Numerous investigations [4–12] have already been conducted trying to optimize the
processing parameters to eliminate the magnetically unfavorable texture while promoting
the desired texture in non-oriented electrical steels. Increasing the shear band structure of
the cold-rolled sheet is an effective way to promote <001>//ND texture of non-oriented
electrical steel in the recrystallization process [13–17]. The Taylor model is also used
to theoretically simulate the initial grain deformation process [18,19]. Meanwhile, lots
of research has been done into the nucleation and growth of Cube, Goss and γ-fiber
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/materials
Materials 2022, 15, 197 2 of 14

textures [20–25] and the formation of α*-fiber texture ({h 1 1}<1/h 1 2>) is mainly related to
the deformation of {100}-oriented grains [26–28]. However, since the relationship between
grain boundary energy, grain boundary migration speed and texture orientation have not
been qualitatively concluded, the texture change law of the grain growth process needs to
be further studied [2,3,29–34].
Simultaneously, the magnetic induction of the CSP process non-oriented electrical
steel is about 0.02T higher than that of the conventional process [35], which provides a
new technical approach for developing high-quality non-oriented electrical steel [35–40].
Consequently, evolution of microstructure and texture in recrystallization and grain growth
process, and the formation mechanism of α*-fiber texture of the CSP process non-oriented
electrical steel, have been studied in detail, with a view to provide a theoretical basis for
further improving magnetic properties of CSP process non-oriented electrical steel.

2. Materials and Methods

The main chemical composition of CSP process Fe-0.65%Si non-oriented electrical
steel is given in Table 1. The continuous casting billets with 70 mm in thickness were
homogenized at 1100~1120 ◦ C for 50 min, and were then hot rolled to 2.5 mm and coiled at
700~720 ◦ C. Afterwards, hot-rolled bands were plastically deformed to 0.5 mm by tandem
cold rolling. Finally, the cold-rolled sheets were annealed in 30%H2 + 70%N2 atmosphere
with different temperatures in 3 min.

Table 1. The composition of Fe-0.65%Si non-oriented electrical steel in CSP process (wt %).

Element C Si Mn P S Al N Cu Ti
Content 0.0028 0.65 0.25 0.075 0.0038 0.30 0.0035 0.031 0.0029
Composition deviation ±0.0002 ±0.01 ±0.01 ±0.005 ±0.0002 ±0.01 ±0.0002 ±0.005 ±0.0002

The microstructure was optically observed on the longitudinal section as defined by

the RD and the ND using ZEISS-Axio Scope A1 optical microscope. Deformation and
recrystallization macro-textures were measured at surface, quarter and center thickness
layers using PANalytical EMPYREAN SERIES 2 X-ray diffraction with a radiation source of
Co Ka. Micro-textures of the samples were analyzed by ZEISS SUPRA 55VP field emission
scanning electron microscope equipped with EDAX OIM electron backscatter diffraction
(EBSD) system. To define a particular texture component, a deviation angle of 15◦ was
applied and the area fraction of various textures were calculated using OIM Analysis 6.1
software. In order to obtain more reliable data, a single sample randomly selected 2~4 areas
for measurement, and the scanning step was selected to be less than 1/10 of the average
grain size.

3. Results and Discussions

3.1. Evolution of Microstructure and Texture
Microstructure morphology of cast billet cross-section solidification, hot-rolled band,
cold-rolled sheet and annealed sheet of CSP process Fe-0.65%Si non-oriented electrical steel
are shown in Figure 1.
There is a certain degree of center segregation in the slab, and the inner and outer arc
columnar crystals of the slab are fine and well developed, reaching the center. Microstruc-
ture of the hot-rolled band after coiling at 700~720 ◦ C is ferrite, with an average grain size
of 35.9 µm. Cold-rolled sheet is a fibrous microstructure with a width of 10~55 µm, and
there is a large number of shear band structures with an angle of 20~30◦ to the rolling
direction. After annealing at 820 ◦ C for 2 min, grain boundaries of the annealed sheet are
clear and regular, and the average grain size is 27.9 µm.
 (a) (b) (c) (d)

Materials 2021, 2022,

Materials 14, x 15,
FOR 197PEER REVIEW 3 of 143 of 14

RD RD RD
(a) (b) (c) (d)
ND ND ND

Figure 1. Microstructure morphology of CSP process Fe-0.65%Si non-oriented electrical steel billet
(a), hot rolled band (b), cold rolled sheet (c) and annealed sheet (d).

There is a certain degree of center segregation in the slab, and the inner and outer arc
columnar crystals of RDthe slab are fine and well developed, RD reaching the RDcenter. Microstruc-
ture of the hot-rolled band after coiling at 700~720 °C is ferrite, with an average grain size
of 35.9μm. Cold-rolled sheet ND is a fibrous microstructure with ND a width ofND 10~55μm, and
there is a large number of shear band structures with an angle of 20~30° to the rolling
Figure
Figure1. 1.
Microstructure
direction. After annealing
Microstructure morphology
at 820 °Cof
morphology offor
CSP
CSP process
2 process
min, grainFe-0.65%Si
boundaries
Fe-0.65%Si non-oriented electrical
of the annealed
non-oriented electrical steel
are billet
sheetbillet
steel
(a),(a),
hot
clear rolled
hotand band
regular,
rolled (b), cold
andcold
band (b), rolled
therolled
averagesheet
sheetgrain(c) and
size
(c) and annealed
is 27.9μm.
annealed sheet
sheet (d). (d).
Figure 2 shows the EBSD inverse pole figure (IPF) maps, micro-texture and macro-
There
Figure
texture is a2 certain
ODF shows degree
the EBSDof
cross-sectional center
inverse
view segregation
pole in the
figurenon-oriented
of Fe-0.65%Si (IPF) maps,slab,micro-texture
and the inner
electrical and
steel. and outer
macro-
Figure 3 arc
texture
columnar ODF
shows distributioncross-sectional
crystals ofof
the slabview
α and γare of
fineFe-0.65%Si
orientation wellnon-oriented
andlines developed,
and content of electrical
specificsteel.
reaching the Figure
center.
texture 3Microstruc-
shows
components
turedistribution
of of
a hot-rolled of αband,
the hot-rolled and band orientation
γcold-rolled linesand
sheet
after coiling and content of
atfinished
700~720 specific
sheet
°C texture
isinferrite,
Fe-0.65%Si components
with non-oriented
an average of agrain
hot- size
elec-
rolled band, cold-rolled sheet and finished sheet in Fe-0.65%Si non-oriented electrical steel.
of trical
35.9μm. steel.Cold-rolled sheet is a fibrous microstructure with a width of 10~55μm, and
there is a large number of shear band structures with an angle of 20~30° to the rolling
0 0 0
(a)Centre levels:1,2,4 17
17

direction. After annealing at 820 °C for 2 min, grain boundaries of the annealed sheet are
15 1.9 1.9
2.3
1.9
φ2=45°
15
9.7
12

φ2=45°
15 20
φ2=45°

clear and regular, and the average grain size is 27.9μm.

30 30 30

Φ
45 1.9 1.9 1.9 45 45
Φ

Figure 2 shows the EBSD inverse pole figure (IPF) maps, micro-texture and macro-
Φ

60 60 60

texture ODF cross-sectional view of Fe-0.65%Si non-oriented electrical steel. Figure 3

75 75 75
1.9 2.3

Surface
shows distribution of α and γ orientation lines and content of specific texture components
90
Surface
0 15 30 45 60
1.9
75
2.3
90
90
0
1/4 Surface
15 30 45 60 75 90
90
0
Center
15 30 45 60 75 90
φ
of a hot-rolled band, φcold-rolled sheet and
φ
finished sheet in Fe-0.65%Si non-oriented elec-
1 1 1

trical steel. levels:1,2,4,8 0 0

(b) 7.4

15 8.3 φ2=45° 15 8.9 φ2=45°

0 0 0
(a)Centre levels:1,2,4 30
9.7
30 17
17

15 1.9 15 20
1.9 2.3
1.9 12 15 φ2=45°
45 45 8.9 7.4
Φ

10
φ2=45° φ2=45°
30 8.3 30 8.3 7.4 30 7.4
60 60
Φ

45 1.9 1.9 1.9 45 45

Φ

75 75
Surface Center
60 60 60
90 90
0 15 30 45 60 75 90 0 15 30 45 60 75 90
75 φ1 75 φ1
1.9
75
2.3
Surface 1.9 1/4 Surface Center
90 2.3
90 90
Surface 0 15 30 45 60 75 0 90 0 15 30 45 60 0
75 90 0 15 30 45 60 75 90

(c) levels:1,2,4,8
φ 1
φ1 φ1
φ2=45°
15 φ2=45° 15

(b) levels:1,2,4,8 0
30 30 0
7.4

15
45 8.3 φ2=45° 45 15 8.9
Φ

φ2=45°
Φ

15.8
13.1 15.8 9.5 11 11
15.8
30
60 60 30

75
45 75
45
Φ

10 8.9 7.4
Surface Center
8.3 8.3 7.4 7.4
90 90
60 0 15 30 45 60 75 90 0 60 15 30 45 60 75 90
φ1 φ1
75 75
Surface Center
90 90
0 15 30 45 60 75 90 0 15 30 45 60 75 90
φ1 φ1

0 0

(c) levels:1,2,4,8 φ2=45°

15 φ2=45° 15

30 30

Figure 2. EBSD inverse pole figure (IPF) maps, micro-texture and macro-texture at different thickness
45 45
Φ
Φ

layers in the ϕ2 = 45◦ of Fe-0.65%Si hot-rolled band (a), cold-rolled sheet (b) and annealed sheet (c). 15.8
15.8 13.1 15.8 9.5 11 11
60 60

75 75
Surface Center
90 90
0 15 30 45 60 75 90 0 15 30 45 60 75 90
φ1 φ1
 Materials 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4

Materials 2022, 15, 197 Figure 2. EBSD inverse pole figure (IPF) maps, micro-texture and macro-texture 4 ofat14different t
ness layers in the φ2 = 45° of Fe-0.65%Si hot-rolled band (a), cold-rolled sheet (b) and annealed
(c).

25 20
φ1=0° Hot-rolled band Surface
Φ=55°
Hot-rolled band 1/4 Surface
20 φ2=45° Hot-rolled band Center 16 φ2=45°
α-fiber Cold-rolled sheet Surface γ-fiber

f(g) intensity
f(g) intensity
15 Cold-rolled sheet Center
12
Annealed-sheet Surface
Annealed-sheet Center
10
8

5
4

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 0
60 70 80 90
Φ, (°) φ1, (°)
(a) (b)
45 30
<100>/η-fiber {110}<010> {111}<112>
<111> 25 {001}<010> {411}<148>
36

Volume Fraction , %
{001}<120>
Volume Fraction, %

20 {001}<110>
{100}/λ-fiber
27 {112}<110>
{110}
15 {111}<110>
{111}/γ-fiber
18 α-fiber
10

9 5

0 0

Hot-rolled band Cold-rolled sheet Annealed sheet Hot-rolled band Cold-rolled sheet Annealed sheet
(c) (d)
Figure line
Figure 3. Orientation 3. Orientation line
distribution ofdistribution
α, γ texturesofand
α, γvolume
textures and volume
fraction fraction
distribution of distribution
textures of tex
of Fe-0.65%Sielectrical
of Fe-0.65%Si non-oriented non-oriented
steel.electrical steel. (b)
(a) α textures, (a) α
γ textures,
textures, (b) γ textures,
(c) and (c) and
(d) volume (d) volume fra
fraction
distribution of distribution
textures. of textures.

As shown
As shown in Figures 2 and in 3,
Figures 2 and
textures 3, textures
in thickness of in thickness
hot-rolled of hot-rolled
band band are quite d
are quite different,
and a strong ent,
Gossand a strong
texture Goss texture
is dispersed in theissurface.
dispersed in theinsurface.
Textures 1/4-order Textures
surfaceinlayer
1/4-order su
are mainly α, γ-fiber texture and rotating-cube texture, and textures in the center layer in the ce
layer are mainly α, γ-fiber texture and rotating-cube texture, and textures
mainly have alayer mainly have
rotating-cube a rotating-cube
texture. texture.inColumnar
Columnar crystals continuouscrystals
castingin continuous
billet are well casting b
developed (asare well developed
shown in Figure 1a), (as and
shown in Figure
columnar 1a), and
crystals columnar
would crystals would
be compressed during be compre
the hot rollingduring
process.the Columnar
hot rollingcrystals
process.withColumnar crystals
the original with the of
orientation original
<100> orientation
would of <
rotate aroundwould
the ND rotate around
direction and the ND direction
deviate and deviate
to the rotating cubeto the rotatingTherefore,
orientation. cube orientation.
a Th
fore,
certain intensity ofarotating-cube
certain intensity of rotating-cube
texture would form textureduring would
the hotform during
rolling process.the hot rolling pro
Finite
element simulation study onsimulation
Finite element crystal plastic
studydeformation showsdeformation
on crystal plastic that the rotation
shows behavior
that the rotatio
of columnar crystals with <100> orientation mainly depend on the accuracy
havior of columnar crystals with <100> orientation mainly depend on the accuracy o of orientation.
{100} orientation ◦ ≤ ∆ϕ1 ≤ 20◦ and 0◦ ≤ ∆Φ ≤ 5◦ would be more inclined to rotate
with 10{100}
entation. orientation with 10° ≤ Δφ1 ≤ 20° and 0° ≤ ΔΦ ≤ 5° would be more incl
toward {001}<120>,
to rotate and those with
toward 10◦ ≤ ∆ϕ1
{001}<120>, ≤ 20◦ with
and those and 10 ◦ ≤ ∆Φ ≤ 15◦ would be more
10° ≤ Δφ1 ≤ 20° and 10° ≤ ΔΦ ≤ 15° woul
inclined to rotate
moretoward
inclined{411}<148> during{411}<148>
to rotate toward the rollingduring
process the[41]. Meanwhile,
rolling process [41].dueMeanwhile
to
dynamic recrystallization during the hot rolling
to dynamic recrystallization during process,
the hotGoss (surface
rolling layer),
process, Gossγ and α-fiber
(surface layer), γ an
textures would form
fiber [1–3], thus
textures would forming a texture
form [1–3], thusdistribution in the thickness
forming a texture distribution direction of
in the thickness d
the hot-rolledtion
band. of the hot-rolled band.
As the hot-rolled
As the band was cold-rolled
hot-rolled band waswith a reduction
cold-rolled withrate of 80%, the
a reduction ratecold-rolled
of 80%, the cold-ro
sheet is mainly composed
sheet is mainly of composed
{001}<110>,ofα{001}<110>,
and γ-fiberαtexture.
and γ-fiberStudies have Studies
texture. shown thathave shown
due to the presence
due to of the{110}<001>
presence of and a small amount
{110}<001> of {001}<100>,
and a small amount oforiented grains
{001}<100>, in the grains i
oriented
hot-rolled band would rotate
hot-rolled during rotate
band would cold rolling;
duringthus, and γ-fiber
cold αrolling; thus, αtexture wouldtexture
and γ-fiber appearwould ap
in a cold-rolled sheet [2,3,42]. In addition, during the cold rolling process,
in a cold-rolled sheet [2,3,42]. In addition, during the cold rolling process, the initial grains
the initial g
tend to become {111}-oriented substructures with a high density of dislocations
tend to become {111}-oriented substructures with a high density of dislocations under the unde
effect of a local slipof
effect near the grain
a local boundaries
slip near the grain[43]. As deformation
boundaries [43]. As increases,
deformation {111}<112>
increases, {111}<
gradually turned to a more stable {111}<110> orientation, combining with the original
inheritance of rotating-cube texture, forming a texture distribution of the cold-rolled sheet.
 gradually turned to a more stable {111}<110> orientation, combining with the original in-
Materials 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 14
heritance of rotating-cube texture, forming a texture distribution of the cold-rolled sheet.
During the annealing process, recovery, recrystallization and grain growth occur and
Materials 2022, 15, 197 weaken the original deformation texture. {001}<120>, {411}<148> and γ-fiber texture 5 of 14 are
gradually turned to a more stable {111}<110> orientation, combining
mainly composed textures of the annealed sheet. As energy storage of {111} and {112} with the original in-
heritance of rotating-cube texture, forming a texture distribution of the cold-rolled sheet.
grains are higher than that of {100}, {111} and {112} grains would nucleate and grown ear-
During the annealing process, recovery, recrystallization and grain growth occur and
lier andDuring the annealing
phagocytize process,
{100}<011> recovery, recrystallization
component, and grainof
resulting in a decrease growth occur and
{100}<011>, forming
weaken the original deformation texture. {001}<120>, {411}<148> and γ-fiber texture are
weakenintensity
a certain the originalof deformation
γ-fiber texture.
texture in {001}<120>,
the annealed {411}<148>
sheet [2,3].and
The texture aregrains
recrystallized
γ-fiber
mainly composed textures of the annealed sheet. As energy storage of {111} and {112}
of mainly
*-fibercomposed
αgrains texture
are higher({h
textures
1 1}<1/h
than
of the
2>)annealed
that of1{100}, were sheet. Asthe
{111} formed
energy
and {112}ingrains
storagetissue
deformed
would nucleate
of {111} and {112}
of α-fiber
and grown ear- texture
grains are higher than that of {100}, {111} and {112} grains would nucleate and grown
({100}<011>~{112}<011>)
lier and phagocytize in cold-rolled
{100}<011> sheetsresulting
component, during annealing
in a decrease [2,3]. Therefore,
of {100}<011>, the grains
forming
earlier and phagocytize {100}<011> component, resulting in a decrease of {100}<011>,
of forming
γ-fiber
a certaintexture preferentially
intensity of γ-fiber grow
texture inand
the the recrystallized,
annealed sheet [2,3]. α*-fiber texture component
The recrystallized
a certain intensity of γ-fiber texture in the annealed sheet [2,3]. The recrystal- grains
would
lized grains from
of α arise {100}<011> to 1{112}<011> after
werethe recrystallization
*-fiber texture ({h 1 1}<1/h 1 2>) were formed in the deformed tissue of α-fiber texture
of α* -fiber texture ({h 1}<1/h 1 2>) formed in the deformed of tissue
{111}<112>
of α-fiber texture ({100}<011>~{112}<011>) in cold-rolled sheets during annealing grains
({100}<011>~{112}<011>)
[2,3,41,44], and finally in
formed cold-rolled
a typical sheets during
annealed annealing
sheet [2,3].
texture. Therefore, the [2,3].
of γ-fiberthe
Therefore, texture
grainspreferentially growpreferentially
of γ-fiber texture and the recrystallized,
grow and α
*-fiber texture component
the recrystallized, α* -fiber
would
3.2.texture arise
Microstructure from
componentand {100}<011>
Texture
would to {112}<011>
ariseEvolution after the recrystallization
duringtoRecrystallization
from {100}<011> of {111}<112>
{112}<011> after the recrystallization of
[2,3,41,44],
{111}<112> and finally
[2,3,41,44], formed
and a
finally typical
formed annealed
a typical sheet texture.
annealed sheet texture.
Figures 4 and 5 show the microstructure of the recrystallization process, variation of
recrystallization
3.2. percentage
3.2.Microstructure
Microstructure andTexture
and with
Texture annealing
Evolution
Evolution during
during temperature,
Recrystallization
Recrystallization and the distribution of α and γ
orientation lines,
Figures
respectively.
Figures4 4and
and5 5show
showthe Cold-rolled
themicrostructure sheet
microstructureofofthe of Fe-0.65%Si
therecrystallization
recrystallizationnon-oriented electrical
process,variation
process, variation ofof
steel
would recrystallize
recrystallization
recrystallization at 620 °Cwith
percentage
percentage andannealing
with would be
annealing complete at
temperature,
temperature, 700
and
and °C.
the
the As the recrystallization
distribution
distribution ofofααand
andγγ
progresses, new
orientationlines,
orientation grains nucleate
lines,respectively. along
respectively.Cold-rolled the shear
Cold-rolledsheet band and
sheetofofFe-0.65%Si gradually
Fe-0.65%Sinon-oriented
non-orientedgrow up. After
electrical
electrical steelcom-
steel
plete
wouldrecrystallization,
would recrystallizeatatthe
recrystallize 620 ◦
620distribution
°Cand
C andwould
wouldofbebe
new grainsatat
complete
complete at700
700 ◦
a specific
°C.As
C. angle
Asthe to the rolling di-
therecrystallization
recrystallization
progresses,
rection new
newgrains
at the initial
progresses, stage nucleate
grains along the
theshear
of recrystallization
along shear bandand
gradually
band and gradually
disappears,
gradually and
growgrowup.up.
the AfterAfter
microstructure
com-
complete
plete recrystallization,
recrystallization, the
is a regular ferrite microstructure.the distribution
distribution of of
new new grains
grains at at
a a specific
specific angle
angle to to
thethe rolling
rolling di-
direction
rection atatthe
theinitial
initial stage
stage of recrystallization
recrystallization gradually
graduallydisappears,
disappears,and
andthe
themicrostructure
microstructure
isisa aregular
regularferrite
ferritemicrostructure.
microstructure.
TD

TD
ND
ND

620 °C
620 °C 640640
°C °C 660 °C°C
660 680
680 °C
°C
700°C°C
700
Figure 4. Microstructure
Figure ofofFe-0.65%Si
4. Microstructure Fe-0.65%Sinon-oriented electricalsteel
non-oriented electrical steel during
during recrystallization.
recrystallization.
Figure 4. Microstructure of Fe-0.65%Si non-oriented electrical steel during recrystallization.
100 100 30 30 16 16
620
620 ℃℃3min-Surface
3min-Surface
φ
φ1=0°
=0° Φ=55° Φ=55°
1 620
620 ℃℃3min-Center
3min-Center
φ2=45° φ =45°
Percentage of recrystallization,%

Percentage of recrystallization,%

φ2=45°
φ =45°
80 80 25 25 2 640
640℃℃3min-Surface
3min-Surface 2

640 ℃℃3min-Center γ-fiberγ-fiber

α-fiber
α-fiber 640 3min-Center 12 12
660 ℃ 3min-Surface
660℃ 3min-Surface
60
20 20 660℃ 3min-Center
660℃ 3min-Center
f(g) intensity
f(g) intensity

60
f(g) intensity
f(g) intensity

680℃ 3min-Surface
680℃ 3min-Surface
15 680℃ 3min-Center 8
15 680℃ 3min-Center
700℃ 3min-Surface
8
40
40 700
700 ℃℃3min-Center
3min-Surface
10 700℃ 3min-Center
10 4
20
20 5 4
5
0
600 620 640 660 680 700 720 0 0
0 Annealing Temperature,℃ 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 60 70 80 90
600 620 640 660 680 700 720 0 0
Annealing Temperature,℃ 0 10 20 30 40 Φ, 50
(°) 60 70 80 90 60 φ1, 70
(°) 80 90
Φ, (°) φ1, (°)

Figure 5. Relationship between recrystallization percentage and annealing temperature, orientation

Figureline5.distribution
Figure Relationshipof αbetween
5. Relationship between
and recrystallization
γ fiberrecrystallization percentage
percentage
textures in Fe-0.65%Si andannealing
and annealing
non-oriented temperature,
temperature,
electrical steel during orientation
orienta-
recrys-
tallization.
linetion
distribution of α and
line distribution of αγand
fiberγ textures in Fe-0.65%Si
fiber textures non-oriented
in Fe-0.65%Si electrical
non-oriented steel
electrical during
steel duringrecrys-
tallization.
recrystallization.

Cold-rolled sheet annealing at 620 ◦ C has a lower proportion of recrystallization, and

textures strength and type are basically the same as those of the cold-rolled sheet. With the
Materials 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 14

Materials 2022, 15, 197 6 of 14

Materials 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW Cold-rolled sheet annealing at 620 °C has a lower proportion of recrystallization, 6 of 14 and
textures strength and type are basically the same as those of the cold-rolled sheet. With
theprogress
progress of recrystallization, the strength of each texture shows a downward trend,
of recrystallization, the strength of each texture shows a downward trend, and the
and the
texture texture type
sheetchanges
type changes
Cold-rolled regularly.
annealing regularly.
atFigure Figure
620 °C6hasshows 6 shows
the
a lower EBSD the EBSD
inverse
proportion inverse
pole figurepole
(IPF)figure
of recrystallization, maps (IPF)
and
maps and the
and thestrength
textures thickness
thickness and direction
direction
type areofbasicallyof the
the ODFthe ODF cross-sectional
cross-sectional
same as thoseview view of
of cold-rolled
of the Fe-0.65%Si
Fe-0.65%Si sheet. Withnon-ori-
non-oriented
ented
the electrical
electrical
progress steel steel
in theinrecrystallization
the recrystallization
of recrystallization, the strength ofprocess.
process. Micro-texture
Micro-texture
each texture in the
shows in the thickness
thickness
a downward trend, direc-
direction
tion
of
and of
thethe
texture type changes regularly. Figure 6 shows the EBSD inverse pole figure (IPF) thick-
recrystallization
recrystallization process
process corresponds
corresponds to the to the macro-texture
macro-texture of of
different different
thicknesses
(Figure
maps and
nesses 5).
theFigure
(Figure 5). 7Figure
thicknessshows 7statistics
direction
shows of
of the specific texture
ODF cross-sectional
statistics contents
of specific in the
view
texture thickness in
of contents
Fe-0.65%Si direction
non-ori- of
the thickness
Fe-0.65%Si
ented
direction non-oriented
electrical steel in the
of Fe-0.65%Si electrical steelelectrical
recrystallization
non-oriented during the
process. recrystallization
Micro-texture
steel process.
during theinrecrystallization
the thickness direc-process.
tion of the recrystallization process corresponds to the macro-texture of different thick-
nesses (Figure 5). φFigure
2=0° 7 shows statistics of specific texture contents in the thickness
φ2=0°
640℃ 660℃
direction of Fe-0.65%Si non-oriented electrical steel during the recrystallization process.

φ2=0° φ2=0°
640℃ 660℃

φ2=45° φ2=45°

φ2=45° φ2=45°
680℃ φ2=0° 700℃ φ2=0°
680℃ φ2=0° 700℃ φ2=0°

φ2=45° φ2=45°
φ2=45° φ2=45°

Figure
Figure
Figure6. 6.
EBSD
EBSD
EBSD inverse
inverse
inverse pole
pole figure
polefigure (IPF)
(IPF)
figure (IPF) maps,
maps,
maps,φϕ2 2=φ
=20=
0° ◦ 0°
andandand
φ φ
=245°
2ϕ =ODF
= 245 ◦45°
ODFODF
of of Fe-0.65%Si
Fe-0.65%Si non-oriented
non-oriented
of Fe-0.65%Si non-oriented
electrical
electrical steel
steel in
in the
therecrystallization
recrystallization process (levels:
process (levels:
1,2,4,8; deviation
1,2,4,8; angle
deviation
electrical steel in the recrystallization process (levels: 1,2,4,8; deviation angle 15 ). 15°).
angle
◦ 15°).

45 25
45 25 {110}<010> {111}<112>
<100>/η-fiber {100}/λ-fiber {110}<010>{001}<110> {111}<112>
<100>/η-fiber {100}/λ-fiber {001}<010>
{001}<110>
{411}<148>
<111> {110} {001}<010>
{112}<110>
{411}<148>
36 <111> {110} 20 {001}<120> {112}<110>
{111}<110>
Volume Fraction, %

{111}/γ-fiber
%%

36 20 {001}<120> {111}<110>
Volume Fraction, %

{111}/γ-fiber
Fraction,

α-fiber
Fraction,

27 α-fiber 15
27 15
Volume

18 10
Volume

18 10

9 5

9 5
0 0
620 640 660 680 700 720 620 640 660 680 700 720
Temperature, ℃ 0 Temperature, ℃
0 620 640 660 680 700 720
620 640 660 680 700 720
Temperature, ℃
the annealed℃sheet of Fe-0.65%Si non-oriented electrical steel during recrystal-
Figure 7. Texture inTemperature,
Figure 7. Texture in the annealed sheet of Fe-0.65%Si non-oriented electrical steel during recrystal-
lization
lization process
process (deviation
(deviation angle
angle 15◦ ).
15°).
Figure 7. Texture in the annealed sheet of Fe-0.65%Si non-oriented electrical steel during recrystal-
lization process (deviation angle 15°).
Materials 2021, 15,
Materials 2022, 14, 197
x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 7of
of 14
14

As therecrystallization
As the recrystallization progresses,
progresses, γ-fiber
γ-fiber texturetexture is gradually
is gradually concentratedconcentrated
to {111}<112>, to
{111}<112>, and γ-fiber texture content gradually increases; α-fiber texture
and γ-fiber texture content gradually increases; α-fiber texture content decrease signifi- content de-
crease
cantly, significantly,
mainly reflectmainly reflect
in content in content and
of {112}<110> of {112}<110>
{111 }<112>. andThe{111 }<112>.
content of The content
the rotating-
of thetexture
cube rotating-cube texture
is reduced is reduced
greatly, whilegreatly,
that ofwhile
Gossthat of Goss
texture andtexture and cubic
cubic texture texture
increases,
increases, reaching
reaching 2.68% and2.68%
3.17% andafter3.17% afterrecrystallization,
complete complete recrystallization,
respectively. respectively.
The contentThe of
content
α*-fiber of α*-fiber
shows shows an increasing
an increasing trend, and {411}<148>
trend, and {411}<148> and {100}<120>and {100}<120>
reach 14.6% reach
and 14.6%
6.88%
and 6.88% as recrystallization
as recrystallization was completed at 700◦ , respectively.
was completed at 700 °, respectively. The average
The average grain
grain size of size
the
of the annealed
annealed sheet
sheet at ◦
700 atC700 was°C10.6
wasµm 10.6
andμm andofthat
that of {411}<148>
{411}<148> and {111}<112>
and {111}<112> orien-
orientation
tation
grains grains were
were 13.1 µm13.1μm
and 12.3andµm,12.3μm, respectively.
respectively.
Figure 8 shows the texture composition and grain boundary distribution of the CSP
process non-oriented electrical steel during recrystallization. At At the
the initial
initial stage
stage of
of recrys-
recrys-
tallization (640 ◦ C), the recrystallized grains of α and
(640 °C),
tallization the recrystallized grains of α and γ-fiber texture first nucleate in the
shear zone. As As the
the energy
energy storage of deformed grains in the the {111}<112>
{111}<112> orientation is
higher than that in {111}<110>
{111}<110> and and {112}<110>,
{112}<110>,γ-fiber texture would
γ-fibertexture would nucleate
nucleate in the shear
α-fiber texture. Cubic-oriented and Goss-oriented grains also nucleate in the
band before α-fiber
shear zone first, but the nucleation is not uniform and is is relatively
relatively scattered.
scattered. The main
nucleation is inin {001}<110>,
{001}<110>, { 112}<110>,
112}<110>, {111}<110> {111}<112> orientation-deformed
{111}<110> and {111}<112> orientation-deformed
grains. As
grains. As {100}<011>
{100}<011>has hashigh
highcontent
content but
but low
low deformation
deformation energy,
energy, part
part of the {100}<011>
of the {100}<011>
texture would retain by in-situ recrystallization during annealing. Because
texture would retain by in-situ recrystallization during annealing. Because of nucleation of nucleation
sites advantage
sites advantage of of α*-fiber texture recrystallized
α*-fiber texture recrystallized grains,
grains, they
they would
would nucleate
nucleate and
and grow
grow
mainly in the deformed tissue of α-fiber texture ({100}<011>~{112}<
mainly in the deformed tissue of α-fiber texture ({100}<011>~{112}< 011>). 011>).

640℃ 660℃ 680℃ 700℃

640℃ 660℃ 680℃ 700℃

Figure 8. Textures and grain boundary distribution map of Fe-0.65%Si non-oriented electrical steel
Figure 8. Textures and grain boundary distribution map of Fe-0.65%Si non-oriented electrical steel
during recrystallization process.
during recrystallization process.
Currently
Currently recognized
recognized texture
texture formation
formationtheories
theoriesarearedivided
dividedintointodirectional
directionalnuclea-
nucle-
tion
ation theory [45], directional growth theory and directional nucleation-directional growth
theory [45], directional growth theory and directional nucleation-directional growth
theory
theory [46].
[46]. Analyzing
Analyzing the
the formation
formation andand transformation
transformation of of the
the texture
texture during
during thethe recrys-
recrys-
tallization
tallization process, formation and transformation of the texture are different at the
process, formation and transformation of the texture are different at the initial
initial
stage
stage of recrystallization. The
of recrystallization. The types
types ofof recrystallized
recrystallized textures
textures nucleate
nucleate inin the deformed
the deformed
grains
grains ofof different
different orientations
orientations and
and the
the distribution
distribution of
of recrystallized
recrystallized grains
grains is
is also
alsouneven.
uneven.
It
It shows
shows that
that the
the type,
type, percentage,
percentage, number
number andand distribution
distribution of of grain
grain nucleation
nucleation tex-tex-
ture
ture are different on deformed grains with different orientations. With the progress of
are different on deformed grains with different orientations. With the progress of
recrystallization,
recrystallization, thethechanging
changingtrend
trendofof different
different textures
textures are are different,
different, andmainly
and are are mainly
man-
 Materials 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8
Materials 2022, 15, 197 8 of 14

manifested as the gradual increase of γ-fiber texture content, the obvious decrease o
fiber texture,
ifested as the gradual the slight
increase increase
of γ-fiber of Goss
texture and cubic
content, texturedecrease
the obvious content, ofand the rotating-c
α-fiber
texture
texture, the slight greatlyofreduced
increase Goss and and α* fiber
cubic texture
texture content
content, and shows an increasing
the rotating-cube trend. Theref
texture
in the
greatly reduced andprocess
α* fiberoftexture
recrystallization, it is more
content shows appropriate
an increasing to explain
trend. Therefore,the in
formation
the me
nism of the recrystallized
process of recrystallization, texture by the
it is more appropriate directional
to explain the nucleation theory.
formation mechanism of
the recrystallized texture by the directional nucleation theory.
3.3. Microstructure and Texture Evolution during Grain Growth
3.3. Microstructure and Texture Evolution during Grain Growth
EBSD inverse pole figure (IPF) maps of each Fe-0.65%Si non-oriented electrical s
EBSD inverse polesheet
annealing figurein(IPF) maps of each
the thickness Fe-0.65%Si
direction duringnon-oriented electrical
the grain growth steeland the O
process,
annealing sheet in the thickness direction during the grain growth process, and the
cross-sectional view of φ2 = 0° and φ2 = 45° are shown in Figure 9. With the increas ODF
cross-sectional
annealing ϕ2 = 0◦ and ϕ
view of temperature, the 45◦ are
2 =grain sizeshown in Figure
increases 9. With
obviously, andthe increase
textures of in the th
type
annealing temperature, the grain size increases obviously, and textures type in the thickness
ness direction are basically unchanged, but texture content of γ-fiber increases sig
direction are cantly.
basically unchanged, but texture content of γ-fiber increases significantly.

φ2=0° φ2=0°
740℃ 800℃

φ2=45° φ2=45°
φ2=0° φ2=0°
860℃ 920℃

φ2=45° φ2=45°

Figure 9. EBSD inverse(IPF)

polemaps,
figureϕ(IPF) ◦ and φ ◦ ODF
Figure 9. EBSD inverse pole figure 2 = 0maps, ϕ22==0°45and φ2 = sections
45° ODFof sections of Fe-0.65%Si
Fe-0.65%Si
oriented steel
non-oriented electrical electrical steel sheet
annealed annealed sheet
during during
grain grain
growth growth
(levels: (levels:
1,2,4,8; 1,2,4,8;angle
deviation 15◦ ). angle 15°
deviation

The orientationThe line distribution

orientation of α, γ-fiber
line distribution texture
of α, γ-fiberand content
texture and distribution of
content distribution of
specific texture in texture
cific grain growth process
in grain of Fe-0.65%Si
growth non-oriented
process of Fe-0.65%Si electrical steel
non-oriented annealed
electrical steel anne
sheet are shown
sheetinare
Figure
shown10.inThe grain10.
Figure growth process
The grain is usually
growth processaccompanied by the
is usually accompanied by
migration of migration
grain boundaries
of grainand a changing
boundaries andofa texture.
changing of texture.
With the growth of crystal grains, the main change in texture is reflected in the intensity
change of specific texture, and is mainly concentrated on γ and α*-fiber textures, among
which γ-fiber texture is mainly {111}<112>, and α*-fiber texture is mainly concentrated on
{411}<148> and {001}<120>. With the increase in the annealing temperature, the texture con-
tent of <100>/η-fiber and {001}/λ-fiber decreases, γ-fiber increases, and α*- fiber decreases.
Figure 11 shows the distribution diagram of specific texture components in the annealed
sheets during the grain growth of the CSP process Fe-0.65%Si non-oriented electrical steel.
 2 16 γ-fiber
800℃ 3min-Center α-fiber
8 860℃ 3min-Surface

f(g) intensity

f(g) intensity
860℃ 3min-Center 12
6 920℃ 3min-Surface
920℃ 3min-Center

4 8
Materials 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 14
Materials 2022, 15, 197 9 of 14
2
4

0
12 200
0 10 740℃
203min-Surface
30 40 50 60 70 80 90 60 Φ=55°
70 80 90
φ =0° φ2=45°φ , (°)
740℃ 3min-Center Φ, (°)1
10 1

45
800℃ 3min-Surface φ2=45°
40
16 γ-fiber
800℃ 3min-Center α-fiber {110}<010> {001}<110> {111}<112>
8 860℃ 3min-Surface {001}<010> {112}<110> {411}<148>
f(g) intensity

30

f(g) intensity
36
860℃ 3min-Center {001}<120> 12 {111}<110>

Volume Fraction, %
Volume Fraction, %

6 920℃ 3min-Surface 20
920℃ 3min-Center
{100}/θ-fiber 10 8
427 <100>/η-fiber 8
{110}
<111> {111}/γ-fiber
2 6
18 α-fiber 4

0 4

9 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 2 60 70 80 90
Φ, (°) φ1, (°)
450 400
700 750 800 850 900 950 700 750
{110}<010> 800{001}<110>
850 900
{111}<112> 950

Temperature, ℃ 30 {001}<010> {112}<110> ℃

Temperature, {411}<148>
36 {001}<120> {111}<110>

Volume Fraction, %
Volume Fraction, %

20
Figure 10. Orientation line distribution of α, γ fiber textures and distribution of texture content in
Fe-0.65%Si {100}/θ-fiber
non-oriented electrical steel
10 annealed sheet during grain growth.
27 8
<100>/η-fiber {110}
<111> {111}/γ-fiber
6
18 With the growth of crystal grains,
α-fiber the main change in texture is reflected in the inten-
sity change of specific texture, and is mainly concentrated on γ and α*-fiber textures,
4

9 among which γ-fiber texture is mainly 2

{111}<112>, and α*-fiber texture is mainly concen-
trated on {411}<148> and {001}<120>. With the increase in the annealing temperature, the
0 0
700 750 texture
800 content
850 of <100>/η-fiber
900 950 and700{001}/λ-fiber
750 decreases,
800 γ-fiber900
850 increases,950 and α*- fiber

Temperature, ℃ Temperature, ℃
decreases. Figure 11 shows the distribution diagram of specific texture components in the
annealed
Figure
Figure
sheets
10.10. during
Orientation
Orientationline
the grain growth
linedistribution α,γγof
of α,
distribution of
thetextures
fiber
fiber
CSP process
textures and
and
Fe-0.65%Si
distribution
distribution
non-oriented
of texture
of texture
elec-
content
content in in
trical steel.
Fe-0.65%Si non-oriented electrical steel annealed sheet during grain
Fe-0.65%Si non-oriented electrical steel annealed sheet during grain growth. growth.

740℃ With the growth of crystal grains, the main change in texture is reflected in the inten-
800℃ 860℃ 920℃
sity change of specific texture, and is mainly concentrated on γ and α*-fiber textures,
among which γ-fiber texture is mainly {111}<112>, and α*-fiber texture is mainly concen-
trated on {411}<148> and {001}<120>. With the increase in the annealing temperature, the
texture content of <100>/η-fiber and {001}/λ-fiber decreases, γ-fiber increases, and α*- fiber
decreases. Figure 11 shows the distribution diagram of specific texture components in the
annealed sheets during the grain growth of the CSP process Fe-0.65%Si non-oriented elec-
trical steel.

740℃ 800℃ 860℃ 920℃

Figure
Figure11.11.
Texture
Texturecomponent
component diagram duringgrain
diagram during grain growth
growth of Fe-0.65%Si
of Fe-0.65%Si non-oriented
non-oriented electrical
electrical
steel annealed
steel annealed sheet.
sheet.

According
Accordingtotothethe statistics
statistics ofofthe
the grain
grain boundary
boundary angleangle
of theof the grains
grains along
along the the thick-
thickness
direction after annealing at 740–920 ◦ C, it was found that the large-angle grain boundary
ness direction after annealing at 740–920 °C, it was found that the large-angle grain bound-
aryaccounts
accounts forfor
73%–81%,
73%–81%, andand
the the
small-angle graingrain
small-angle boundary does not
boundary appear
does to be concen-
not appear to be con-
trated in a specific orientation grain trend. It is generally considered that the large-angle
centrated in a specific orientation grain trend. It is generally considered that the large-
grain boundary with an orientation difference of more than 15◦ and less than 45◦ with the
angle grain boundary with an orientation difference of more than 15° and less than 45°
adjacent grains is a high-mobility grain boundary, and the recrystallization stages of the
grains with a large-angle grain boundary are basically completed.
Therefore,
Figure 11. it is speculated
Texture component that the
diagram grain
during growth
grain rateof
growth of Fe-0.65%Si
each orientation during electrical
non-oriented the
grain growth process
steel annealed sheet. is similar, and the percentage of each grain remains stable with the
increase of temperature. However, since there are more original recrystallized grains in
{111}<112>
According andto{411}<148> orientations,
the statistics average
of the grain size of {111}<112>
boundary angle of and
the {411}<148>
grains alongoriented
the thick-
ness direction after annealing at 740–920 °C, it was found that the large-angle grain bound-
ary accounts for 73%–81%, and the small-angle grain boundary does not appear to be con-
centrated in a specific orientation grain trend. It is generally considered that the large-
angle grain boundary with an orientation difference of more than 15° and less than 45°
 with the adjacent grains is a high-mobility grain boundary, and the recrystallization stages
of the grains with a large-angle grain boundary are basically completed.
Therefore, it is speculated that the grain growth rate of each orientation during the
grain growth process is similar, and the percentage of each grain remains stable with the
Materials 2022, 15, 197 10 of 14
increase of temperature. However, since there are more original recrystallized grains in
{111}<112> and {411}<148> orientations, average size of {111}<112> and {411}<148> oriented
grains are significantly larger, which reflects the difference in the growth rate of grains
grains
with are significantly
a specific larger,
orientation which
during thereflects the difference
grain growth stage. in the growth rate of grains with
a specific orientation during the grain growth stage.
3.4. α*-fiber Texture Formation Mechanism
3.4. α*-Fiber Texture Formation Mechanism
Increases in α*-fiber texture ({h 1 1}<1/h 1 2>) is usually accompanied by a decrease
Increases in α*-fiber texture ({h 1 1}<1/h 1 2>) is usually accompanied by a decrease in
in γ-fiber texture, which is beneficial to improve the magnetic properties [1–3]. Statistical
γ-fiber texture, which is beneficial to improve the magnetic properties [1–3]. Statistical main
main texture content changes in the recrystallization and grain growth process of the CSP
texture content changes in the recrystallization and grain growth process of the CSP process
process Fe-0.65%Si non-oriented electrical steel annealed sheets are shown in Figure 12.
Fe-0.65%Si non-oriented electrical steel annealed sheets are shown in Figure 12. During the
During the recrystallization process, the occupancy rate of γ and α*-fiber texture is grad-
recrystallization process, the occupancy rate of γ and α*-fiber texture is gradually increased,
ually
Goss increased,
and cubic Goss andshowed
textures cubic textures showedtrend,
an increasing an increasing trend,texture
rotating-cube rotating-cube tex-
and α-fiber
ture and α-fiber texture decreased greatly. In the process of grain growth, γ-fiber texture
texture decreased greatly. In the process of grain growth, γ-fiber texture gradually increases,
gradually increases,
and α*-fiber textureand α*-fiber
shows texture shows
a downward a downward
trend. Therefore, trend. Therefore,
{111}<112>, {111}<112>,
{411}<148> and
{411}<148> and {100}<120> texture are selected for comparative analysis to study
{100}<120> texture are selected for comparative analysis to study the formation mechanism the for-
mation mechanism
of α*-fiber texture. of α*-fiber texture.

30
{110}<010> {112}<110>
{001}<010> {111}<110>
25
{001}<120> {111}<112>
Volume Fraction, %

{001}<110> {411}<148>
20 Recrystallization completion

15

10

cold rolled sheet 640℃ 660℃ 680℃ 700℃ 740℃ 800℃ 860℃ 920℃
Recrystallization Grain growth

Figure
Figure12.
12.Variation
Variationtrend
trendof
ofmain
maintexture
texturecomponents
componentscontent
contentininrecrystallization
recrystallizationand
andgrain
graingrowth
growth
process of CSP process Fe-0.65%Si non-oriented electrical steel annealed sheets.
process of CSP process Fe-0.65%Si non-oriented electrical steel annealed sheets.

Regarding the
Regarding the nucleation
nucleation characteristics
characteristics ofof {111}<112>
{111}<112>oriented
orientedgrains
grains[1–3],
[1–3],the
theearly
early
stage of
stage of recrystallization
recrystallization preferentially
preferentially nucleates
nucleates nearnear the
the grain
grain boundaries
boundaries andand inside
inside
{111}<uvw>deformed
{111}<uvw> deformedgrains,
grains,{111}<112>
{111}<112>deformed
deformedgrainsgrainswith
withhigh
highstored
storedenergy
energywould
would
preferentially nucleate.
preferentially nucleate. The
The {411}<148>
{411}<148>andand{100}<120>
{100}<120>orientation
orientationgrains
grainsmainly
mainlynucleate
nucleate
near the
near the {100}<011>~{112}<110>
{100}<011>~{112}<110>textures
textureswith
withaahigher
highercontent.
content.Therefore,
Therefore, {411}<148>
{411}<148>andand
{100}<120> orientation grains have more nucleation positions in the subsequent
{100}<120> orientation grains have more nucleation positions in the subsequent recrystal- recrystal-
lizationprocess,
lization process, and
and have
have an
an advantage
advantage inin the
the number
number of of nucleation.
nucleation.
Statistics concerning the angle distribution between {111}<112>,
Statistics concerning the angle distribution between {111}<112>, {411}<148>,{411}<148>,
{100}<120>
textures andtextures
{100}<120> their adjacent grainadjacent
and their orientation
grainin recrystallization and grain growthand
orientation in recrystallization processes
grain
of Fe-0.65%Si
growth non-oriented
processes electrical
of Fe-0.65%Si steel annealed
non-oriented sheets
electrical steelare shown sheets
annealed in Figures 13 and in
are shown 14.
Annealing at 640 ◦ C, {111}<112> oriented grains with low-angle grain boundaries
Figures 13 and 14.
between adjacent grains (orientation difference with adjacent grains less than 15◦ ) account
for 50.64%, the ratio of low-angle grain boundaries between oriented grains and adjacent
grains of {411}<148> and {100}<120> are 79.66% and 80.6%, respectively. {411}<148> and
{100}<120> oriented grains account for 14.65% and 12.6% of high mobility grain boundaries
(the difference in orientation with adjacent grains is greater than 15◦ and less than 45◦
grain boundaries), respectively; {111}<112> oriented grains accounted for 30.37% of high
mobility grain boundaries. Therefore, in the early stage of recrystallization, {111}<112>
texture precedes {411}<148> and {100}<120> textures to recrystallize. With the progress of
recrystallization, the ratio of {411}<148> and {100}<120> recrystallization texture is greater
than {111}<112> orientation recrystallization texture due to the advantages of nucleation
location and quantity.
 Materials 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 14
Materials 2021, 15,
Materials 2022, 14, 197
x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of
11 of 14

60 15
60 640℃ {100}<120> 15 680℃ {100}<120>
50 640℃ {111}<112>
{100}<120>
12
680℃ {111}<112>
{100}<120>
50 {114}<148>
{111}<112> {114}<148>
{111}<112>
12
40 {114}<148>

% %
{114}<148>
% %

Frequency,
Frequency,

40
30 9

Frequency,
Frequency,

30 6
20 6
20
3
10
3
10
0 0
0 15 30 45 60 0 15 30 45 60
0 0
0 15Misorientation
30 angle45
(°) 60 0 15Misorientation
30 angle45
(°) 60
15 Misorientation angle (°) 15 Misorientation angle (°)
15 700℃ {100}<120> 15 740℃ {100}<120>

12
700℃ {111}<112>
{100}<120>
12
740℃ {111}<112>
{100}<120>
{114}<148>
{111}<112> {114}<148>
{111}<112>
12 12
{114}<148>
% %

{114}<148>

% %
9 9

Frequency,
Frequency,

9 9

Frequency,
Frequency,

6 6
6 6

3 3
3 3

0 0
0 15 30 45 60 0 15 30 45 60
0 0
0 15Misorientation
30 angle45
(°) 60 0 Misorientation
15 30 angle (°)
45 60
Misorientation angle (°) Misorientation angle (°)
Figure 13. Distribution of orientation difference between {100}<120>, {111}<112> and {411}<148> tex-
Figure
Figure 13. Distribution
tures and
13. Distribution of orientation
their adjacent
of orientation difference
grains of CSP between
process
difference {100}<120>,
Fe-0.65%Si
between {111}<112>
non-oriented
{100}<120>, and
electrical
{111}<112> {411}<148> tex-
steel annealed
and {411}<148> tex-
tures and their adjacent grains of CSP process Fe-0.65%Si non-oriented electrical steel annealed
sheets.
tures and their adjacent grains of CSP process Fe-0.65%Si non-oriented electrical steel annealed sheets.
sheets.
90 90
90 Low Angle Large Angle 90
Low{411}<148>
Angle Large Angle
boundary

{411}<148>
boundary

boundary

{411}<148> {411}<148>
boundary

{100}<120> {100}<120>
60 {100}<120>
{111}<112> {100}<120>
{111}<112> 60
%%
(≤15°), %

60 60
Large Angle grain

{111}<112> {111}<112>
(15°~45°),
grain
%

grain
(15°~45°),
grain
(≤15°),
Angle

Angle
Angle

30 30
30 30
Low

Large
Low

0 0
0 640℃ 680℃ 700℃ 740℃ 0
640℃ 680℃
Recrystallization 700℃Grain growth
740℃
Recrystallization Grain growth
Figure 14. Angle distribution of grain boundaries betweenspecific
Figure 14. Angle distribution of grain boundaries between specificorientation
orientationgrains
grainsand
andadjacent
adjacent
Figure
grains 14.
of Angle
CSP distribution
process of grain
Fe-0.65%Si boundaries
non-oriented between
electrical specific
steel orientation
annealed sheets, grains
%. and adjacent
grains of CSP process Fe-0.65%Si non-oriented electrical steel annealed sheets, %.
grains of CSP process Fe-0.65%Si non-oriented electrical steel annealed sheets, %.
Annealing
The averageatgrain 640 °C,size{111}<112> oriented
has increased grains
to 11.4 µmwith
in the 740 ◦ C annealing
low-angle grain boundaries
sheet, andbe-
tween
that Annealing
of adjacentat
{411}<148> 640 °C,
grains
and {111}<112>
(orientation
{100}<120> oriented
difference
oriented grains
with
grains with
areadjacent
12.9 andlow-angle
grains
12.1 µm, grain
less boundaries
than be-
15°) account
respectively, which
tween
are adjacent
for smaller
50.64%, the grains
than ratio of(orientation
{111}<112>low-angle difference
grain
oriented with
boundaries
grains adjacent
between
(the average grains lessgrains
oriented
grain size isthan
14.515°)
µm).account
and adjacent
After
for 50.64%,
grains of the ratio
◦
{411}<148> of low-angle
and grain
{100}<120> boundaries
are 79.66% between
and 80.6%, oriented grains
respectively.
annealing at 740 C, the proportion of low-angle grain boundaries of {111}<112> is 7.95%, and adjacent
{411}<148> and
grains
and of
{100}<120> {411}<148>
low-angle oriented and
graingrains {100}<120>
account
boundaries are
of for 79.66%
14.65% and
{411}<148> and 80.6%,
and12.6% respectively.
of high are
{100}<120> mobility {411}<148>
17.8%grain
and bounda-and
13.71%,
{100}<120>
respectively. oriented
ries (the difference
Compared grains
in with account
orientation for adjacent
with 14.65% and
the recrystallization 12.6%
grains
process, of
thehigh
is greater mobility
than
low-angle grain
15°grain
and less bounda-
than 45°
boundaries
ries
have (the
grain difference
boundaries),
decreased, but in orientation
respectively;
the low-angle with adjacent
{111}<112>
grain grains grains
oriented
boundaries isofgreater than 15°
accounted
{411}<148> and and
for less than
30.37%
{100}<120> 45°
of high
are
grain
higher boundaries),
mobility thangrain ofrespectively;
thatboundaries.
{111}<112>. {111}<112>
Therefore, oriented
in the
The proportions grains
earlyofstage
high of accounted for 30.37%
recrystallization,
mobility grain of high
{111}<112>
boundaries of
mobility
{411}<148>, grain
texture precedes boundaries.
{411}<148>
{100}<120> Therefore, in the
and {100}<120>
and {111}<112> are early
textures
47.5%, stage of recrystallization,
to recrystallize.
47.67% and With the {111}<112>
53.2%, respectively. progress of
texture precedes {411}<148>
recrystallization, the ratio ofand {100}<120>
{411}<148> andtextures
{100}<120>to recrystallize. Withtexture
recrystallization the progress of
is greater
recrystallization, the ratio of {411}<148> and {100}<120> recrystallization texture is greater
Materials 2022, 15, 197 12 of 14

The texture evolution of {411}<148> and {100}<120> regarding the grain growth process
could be explained by the influence of driving force and mobility during normal grain
growth. Studies [47] on the process of grain growth showed that as far as the driving force
is concerned, the certain orientation of grain size larger than the critical size of the matrix
grain would grow due to a positive growth rate. In addition, with respect to adjacent
crystal grains, low-angle grain boundaries are considered to have a lower mobility, and
the more low-angle grain boundaries are, the less likely they are to migrate. During the
growth of recrystallized grains, the total grain boundary area and grain boundary energy
per unit volume decreased with the increase of grain size. Therefore, the reduction of grain
boundary energy could be the driving force for grain growth. There would always be a
difference in the size of each crystal grain in a ferrite, and the larger the difference in the
sizes between adjacent crystal grains is, the easier it is for the large-size grains to swallow
the small-size grains and to grow.
{411}<148>, {100}<120> and {111}<112> orientation grains would appear to grow
rapidly after completely recrystallized, and their average grain sizes are larger. Therefore,
it occupies a higher size advantage, and it is easier to swallow other small crystal grains
during the growth process. From the perspective of misorientation, low-angle grain
boundaries between {411}<148>, {100}<120>, {111}<112> and adjacent grains are gradually
decreasing, which means that they are more likely to occur in migration, but because
{111}<112> has fewer low-angle grain boundaries and a higher mobility, selective growth
appears due to the advantages of high mobility and size.
In summary, {111}<112> texture in the early stage of recrystallization recrystallizes
before {411}<148> and {100}<120>, and the content of α*-fiber is greater than {111}<112>
orientation recrystallization texture in the middle of recrystallization. During the grain
growth process, {111}<112> grains would grow selectively by virtue of higher mobility,
sizes and quantity advantages than that of {411}<148> and {100}<120>.

4. Conclusions
Evolution of textures and α*-fiber texture formation mechanism of Fe-0.65%Si non-
oriented electrical steel produced by CSP process during recrystallization and grain growth
process were investigated. The main conclusions are:
(1) Columnar crystals in continuous casting billet are small and well developed, and
reach the center. The texture of the hot-rolled band varies greatly in the thickness direction.
Textures of the cold-rolled sheet are mainly γ- and α-fiber texture. γ-fiber texture grains
preferentially nucleate and grow, and α*-fiber texture recrystallized grains would nucleate
and grow in the deformed structure of α-fiber texture in the annealed sheet.
(2) With the progress of recrystallization, γ-fiber texture gradually concentrates to-
wards {111}<112>, and γ and α*-fiber texture increases greatly. {111}<112> content gradu-
ally increases and that of {411}<148> and {001}<120> show a downward trend in the process
of grain growth.
(3) {111}<112> would recrystallize before {411}<148> and {100}<120> in the early
stage of recrystallization, and the content of α*-fiber texture is higher than {111}<112>
in the middle stage of recrystallization. During grain growth, {111}<112> grains would
grow selectively by virtue of higher mobility, sizes and quantity advantages than that of
{411}<148> and {100}<120>.

Author Contributions: Formal analysis, methodology, investigation, resources, data curation, and
writing, J.-Q.C. and J.-L.Q.; investigation and validation, F.-H.G.; project administration and fund-
ing acquisition, S.-T.Q. and H.-J.W. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of
the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the National key research and development plan (Sheng-tao
Qiu, grant number 2016YFB0300305) and National Natural Science Foundation of China (Hai-jun
Wang, No.51804003).
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Materials 2022, 15, 197 13 of 14

Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References
1. He, Z.Z.; Zhao, Y.; Luo, H.W. Electrical Steel; Metallurgical Industry Press: Beijing, China, 2012.
2. Zhang, Z.G.; Wang, D.P. Texture and Magnetic Properties of Non-oriented Silicon Steel; Metallurgical Industry Press: Beijing, China,
2012.
3. Mao, W.M.; Yang, P. Material Science Principle of Electrical Steel; Higher Education Press: Beijing, China, 2013.
4. Jeong, W.C. Effect of hot-rolling temperature on microstructure and texture of an ultra-low carbon Ti-interstitial-free steel. Mater.
Lett. 2008, 62, 91–94. [CrossRef]
5. Sidor, J.J.; Verbeken, K.; Gomes, E.; Schneider, J.; Calvillo, P.R.; Kestens, L.A. Through process texture evolution and magnetic
properties of high Si non-oriented electrical steels. Mater. Charact. 2012, 71, 49–57. [CrossRef]
6. Takashima, M.; Komatsubara, M.; Morito, N. {001}<210> texture development by two-stage cold rolling method in non-oriented
electrical steel. ISIJ Int. 1997, 37, 1263–1268. [CrossRef]
7. Gutiérrez-CastaEda, E.J.; Salinas-Rodríguez, A. Effect of annealing prior to cold rolling on magnetic and mechanical properties of
low carbon non-oriented electrical steels. J. Magn. Magn. Mater. 2011, 323, 2524–2530. [CrossRef]
8. Jong-Tae, P.; Szpunar, J.A.; Sang, Y.C. Effect of Heating Rate on the Development of Annealing Texture in Nonoriented Electrical
Steels. Trans. Iron Steel Inst. Jpn. 2007, 43, 1611–1614.
9. Sidor, Y.; Kovac, F.; Kvackaj, T. Grain growth phenomena and heat transport in non-oriented electrical steels. Acta Mater. 2007, 55,
1711–1722. [CrossRef]
10. de Campos, M.; Landgraf, F.J.G.; Falleiros, I.G.S.; Fronzaglia, G.C.; Kahn, H. Texture Evolution during the Processing of Electrical
Steels with 0.5% Si and 1.25% Si. ISIJ Int. 2004, 44, 1733–1737. [CrossRef]
11. Da, C.; Paolinelli, S.C. Effect of the Annealing Temperature on the Structure and Magnetic Properties of 2% Si Steel. Mater. Res.
2002, 254–255, 1–29.
12. Dorothée, D.; Zaefferer, S.; Raabe, D. Retention of the Goss orientation between microbands during cold rolling of an Fe-3%Si
single crystal. Acta Mater. 2007, 55, 2519–2530.
13. Park, J.T.; Szpunar, J.A. Effect of initial grain size on texture evolution and magnetic properties in non-oriented electrical steels. J.
Magn. Magn. Mater. 2009, 321, 1928–1932. [CrossRef]
14. Liu, H.-T.; Li, H.-L.; Wang, H.; Liu, Y.; Gao, F.; An, L.-Z.; Zhao, S.-Q.; Liu, Z.-Y.; Wang, G.-D. Effects of initial microstructure and
texture on microstructure, texture evolution and magnetic properties of non-oriented electrical steel. J. Magn. Magn. Mater. 2016,
406, 149–158. [CrossRef]
15. Qiao, J.L.; Liu, L.; Guo, F.H.; Xiang, L.; Qiu, S.T.; Wang, H.J. Effect of hot band annealing on inclusions, texture, and magnetic
properties of 2.97%Si-0.59% Al non-oriented silicon steel. IRONMAK STEELMAK 2020, 47, 22–30. [CrossRef]
16. Lee, K.; Huh, M.; Lee, H.; Park, J.; Kim, J.; Shin, E.; Engler, O. Effect of hot band grain size on development of textures and
magnetic properties in 2.0% Si non-oriented electrical steel sheet. J. Magn. Magn. Mater. 2015, 396, 53–64. [CrossRef]
17. de CAMPOS, M.F.; Landgraf, F.J.; Takanohashi, R.; Chagas, F.C.; Falleiros, I.G.; Fronzaglia, G.C.; Kahn, H. Effect of the Hot Band
Grain Size and Intermediate Annealing on the Deformation and Recrystallization Textures in Low Silicon Electrical Steels. ISIJ
Int. 2004, 44, 591–597. [CrossRef]
18. Van Houtte, P.; Li, S.; Seefeldt, M.; Delannay, L. Deformation texture prediction: From the Taylor model to the advanced Lamel
model. Int. J. Plast. 2005, 21, 589–624. [CrossRef]
19. Stojakovic, D.; Doherty, R.D.; Kalidindi, S.R.; Landgraf, F.J. Thermomechanical Processing for Recovery of Desired <001> Fiber
Texture in Electric Motor Steels. Metall. Mater. Trans. A 2008, 39, 1738–1746. [CrossRef]
20. Cheng, L.; Zhang, N.; Yang, P.; Mao, W.M. Retaining {100} texture from initial columnar grains in electrical steel. Scr. Mater. 2012,
67, 899–902. [CrossRef]
21. Mehdi, M.; He, Y.; Hilinski, E.J.; Kestens, L.A.; Edrisy, A. The evolution of cube ({001}) texture in non-oriented electrical steel. Acta
Mater. 2020, 185, 540–554. [CrossRef]
22. Shan, N.; Liu, J.; Sha, Y.; Zhang, F.; Zuo, L. Development of Through-Thickness Cube Recrystallization Texture in Non-oriented
Electrical Steels by Optimizing Nucleation Environment. Metall. Mater. Trans. A 2019, 50, 2486–2494. [CrossRef]
23. Park, J.T.; Szpunar, J.A. Evolution of recrystallization texture in nonoriented electrical steels. Acta Mater. 2003, 51, 3037–3051.
[CrossRef]
24. Hyunwoo, M.; Hoe, H.N.; Yangmo, K. Development of Cube+Goss Texture in Electrical Steels and their Magnetic Properties. ISIJ
Int. 2018, 58, 765–768.
25. Nguyen-Minh, T.; Sidor, J.J.; Petrov, R.H.; Kestens, L.A.I. Occurrence of shear bands in rotated Goss({110}<110>) orientations of
metals with bcc crystal structure. Scr. Mater. 2012, 67, 935–938. [CrossRef]
26. Qin, J.; Yang, J.; Zhang, Y.; Zhou, Q.; Cao, Y. Strong {100}<012>-{411<148> recrystallization textures in heavily hot-rolled
non-oriented electrical steels. Mater. Lett. 2020, 259, 126844.1–126844.6. [CrossRef]
Materials 2022, 15, 197 14 of 14

27. Gobernado, P.; Petrov, R.; Kestens, L. Recrystallized {311}<136> orientation in ferrite steels. Scr. Mater. 2012, 66, 623–626.
[CrossRef]
28. Sanjari, M.; He, Y.; Hilinski, E.J.; Yue, S.; Kestens, L.A. Development of the {113}<uvw> texture during the annealing of a skew
cold rolled non-oriented electrical steel. Scr. Mater. 2016, 124, 179–183. [CrossRef]
29. Qiao, J.L.; Liu, C.X.; Guo, F.H.; Xiang, L.; Qiu, S.T.; Wang, H.J. Effect of recrystallization annealing temperature on texture and
magnetic properties of 2.97% Si non-oriented silicon steel. Metall. Res. Technol. 2019, 116, 412–418. [CrossRef]
30. Marco, A.D.C.; Sebastião, C.P. Effect of the annealing temperature on the structure and magnetic properties of 3% Si non-oriented
steel. J. Magn. Magn. Mater. 2003, 254–255, 379–381.
31. Paolinelli, S.C.; Cunha, M.A.D. Effect of stress relief annealing temperature and atmosphere on the magnetic properties of silicon
steel. J. Magn. Magn. Mater. 2006, 304, 599–601. [CrossRef]
32. Xiong, X.; Hu, S.; Dang, N.; Hu, K. Effect of stress-relief annealing on microstructure, texture and hysteresis curve of mechanically
cut non-oriented Fe-Si steel. Mater. Charact. 2017, 132, 239–247. [CrossRef]
33. Jiao, H.; Xiong, W.; Yang, J.; Zhang, Y.; Fang, F.; Li, C.; Cao, G.; Xu, Y.; Yu, Y. Role of Annealing Time in Thin-Gauge Non-oriented
Silicon Steels Processed by Strip Casting. In Advances in Materials Processing, Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering; Springer:
Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 2017; pp. 325–334.
34. Wu, S.Y.; Lin, C.H.; Hsu, W.C.; Chang, L.; Sun, P.L.; Kao, P.W. Effect of Heating Rate on the Development of Annealing Texture in
a 1.09 wt.% Si Non-oriented Electrical Steel. ISIJ Int. 2016, 56, 326–334. [CrossRef]
35. Li, J.J.; Yue, E.B.; Wang, L.T.; Zhu, T.; Zhao, P. Effects of Main Processes on Microstructure, Precipitates and Magnetic Properties of
Low Carbon and Low Silicon Non-oriented Silicon Steel Produced by CSP Process. J. Iron Steel Res. 2010, 22, 59–63.
36. Xiang, L.; Yue, E.B.; Fan, D.D.; Qiu, S.T.; Zhao, P. Calculation of AIN and MnS Precipitation in Non-Oriented Electrical Steel
Produced by CSP Process. J. Iron Steel Res. (Int.) 2008, 15, 88–94. [CrossRef]
37. Zhu, T.; Shi, L.F.; Dong, M.; Feng, H.; Chen, Q.A. Comparative Analysis of the Effect of Microstructure and Texture on Magnetic
Properties of Non-oriented Electrical Steel Produced by CSP and Traditional Process. J. Iron Steel Res. 2009, 11, 35–39.
38. Tang, W.; Xiang, L.; Qiu, S.T.; Wang, J.J. Texture Evolution of 50W270 High Grade Non-oriented Silicon Steel Produced by CSP
Process. J. Beijing Univ. Sci. Technol. 2014, 9, 1189–1194.
39. Fan, L.F.; Yue, E.B.; Xiang, L.; Qiu, S.T. Microstructure and Inclusions of High Grade Non-oriented Electrical Steel Produced by
CSP Process. J. Iron Steel Res. 2008, 1, 32–36.
40. Rong, Z.; Ma, L. Texture Analysis of Corrugated Defects in the Trial Production of High-grade Non-oriented Silicon Steel by CSP
Process. Hot Work. Process 2015, 44, 1–5.
41. Gobernado, P.; Petrov, R.; Ruiz, D.; Leunis, E.; Kestens, L.A.I. Texture Evolution in Si-Alloyed Ultra Low-Carbon Steels after
Severe Plastic Deformation. Adv. Eng. Mater. 2010, 12, 1077–1081. [CrossRef]
42. Sha, Y.; Sun, C.; Zhang, F.; Patel, D.; Chen, X.; Kalidindi, S.; Zuo, L. Strong cube recrystallization texture in silicon steel by twin-roll
casting process. Acta Mater. 2014, 76, 106–117. [CrossRef]
43. Abe, M.; Kokabu, Y.; Hayashi, Y.; Hayami, S. Effect of Grain Boundaries on the Cold Rolling and Annealing Textures of Pure Iron.
Trans. Jpn. Inst. Met. 2007, 23, 718–725. [CrossRef]
44. Homma, H.; Nakamura, S.; Yoshinaga, N. On {hll}<1/h12> the Recrystallization Texture of Heavily Cold Rolled BCC Steel. Mater.
Sci. Forum 2004, 467–470, 269–274. [CrossRef]
45. Dillamore, I.L.; Katoh, H. A Comparison of the Observed and Predicted Deformation Textures in Cubic Metals. Met. Sci. 1974, 8,
21–27. [CrossRef]
46. Walter, J.L.; Koch, E.F. Electron microscope study of the structures of cold-rolled and annealed (100)[001] crystals of high-purity
silicon-iron. Acta Metall. 1962, 10, 1059–1075. [CrossRef]
47. Sandstrom, R. On recovery of dislocations in subgrains and subgrain coalescence. Acta Metall. 1977, 25, 897–904. [CrossRef]
Reproduced with permission of copyright owner. Further reproduction
prohibited without permission.