Introduction to Lab Equipment

Digital Flocculator
The Digital Flocculator enables the well-known 'jar tests' to be performed on water samples that
need to be treated to establish the correct coagulant dosage on a laboratory scale prior to full-
scale plant operation. It is employed for the following purposes:
 Determination of optimum coagulant dosage
 Determination of optimum pH
 Effect of mixing time and intensity on aggregation
 Coagulation tests in conjunction with activated
carbon
 Coagulation tests in conjunction with filterability
tests

Deep Bed Filter Column

A Deep Bed filter is a granular filter that removes TSS from secondary treatment effluent with a
media depth of at least four feet and a filtration rate of more than 2 gpm/ft2 utilizing a media
depth of at least four feet and a filtration rate of more
than 2 gpm/ft2. In most cases, coarse media is
employed to encourage solids to penetrate deeply into
the media bed. Longer filtration runtimes are possible
as a result of this. Backwashes of air and water are
used simultaneously to guarantee that the filters are
cleaned as needed.
Gravity, pressure, and modular filters, as well as pre-
assembled gravity deep bed filters, are available from
Severn Trent Services.
Refrigerator
The concept of operation of a refrigerator (and refrigeration in general) is relatively simple: heat
is removed from one location and deposited in another. The fundamentals of refrigeration are as
follows:
 As it enters the expansion valve, the coolant is a pressurized liquid. The quick drop in
pressure causes it to expand, cool, and partially change into a gas as it passes through.
The coolant boils and transforms entirely into a gas as it circulates around the chiller
cabinet (typically around a pipe buried in the back wall), absorbing, and removing heat
from the food inside.
 The coolant is squeezed by the compressor, which raises its temperature and pressure. It's
now a very hot and very high-pressure gas.
 The coolant circulates through tiny radiator pipes on the back of the refrigerator,
dissipating heat and cooling back to a liquid.
 The coolant returns to the expansion valve after passing through the insulated cabinet,
and the cycle begins again. As a result, heat is constantly taken from inside the
refrigerator and returned to the outside.
Reverse Osmosis
Reverse osmosis (RO) is a water purification process that removes
ions, molecules, and bigger particles from drinking water using a
partially permeable membrane.
An applied pressure is utilized in reverse osmosis to overcome
osmotic pressure, a colligative phenomenon generated by chemical
potential differences in the solvent, a thermodynamic parameter.
As a result, the solute is trapped on the pressured side of the
membrane while the pure solvent is permitted to pass through. This
membrane should not allow big molecules or ions to pass through
the pores to be "selective" (holes),
However, smaller components of the solution (such as solvent molecules, such as water, H2O)
should be allowed to pass.
Aeration Unit
The Aeration Unit's objective is to allow researchers to
investigate the oxygen transfer properties of diffused air
systems, as well as the physical and chemical factors that affect
their oxygenation capability. This research is crucial for gaining
a better understanding of wastewater biological treatment. It is
used to figure out:
 Effects of oxygen transfer under non-steady state
conditions
 Measurement of the absorption coefficient Ks and the
oxygenation capacity R
 The effect on Ks and R of
Sedimentation Unit
The Sedimentation unit allows researchers to investigate the fundamental
physical processes that occur during sedimentation. It is used to research.
 Sedimentation rates are affected by initial concentration.
 From a single batch test, settling-rate curves are constructed.
 Sedimentation rates are affected by the initial suspension height.
 Particle size distribution has an impact.
 Flocculant additives are used.
Biological Safety Cabinet
A biosafety cabinet (BSC) is an enclosed, ventilated
laboratory workplace for securely working with
materials infected with (or potentially contaminated
with) pathogens needing a defined biosafety level.
There are numerous forms of There are many types of
BSC depending on the level of biocontainment
necessary. BSCs were initially commercialized in the
1990s.In 1950, it was available. The primary function of a BSC is to provide protection to
laboratory workers. Pathogens, as well as the environment around them. Cabinets must be
cleaned and maintained on a regular basis. The airflow and filter capabilities are verified during
this certification check.
AREATION UNIT
Theoretical context
The technique of adding air to wastewater to allow aerobic biodegradation of harmful
components is known as wastewater aeration. Most biological
wastewater treatment systems include it as a component.
Chemical treatment, on the other hand, employs chemicals to
react with and stabilize pollutants in wastewater. Biological
treatment uses microorganisms that naturally reside in
wastewater to degrade the water. Pollutants found in
wastewater Aeration is a stage in municipal and industrial
wastewater treatment. This is referred to as the secondary
therapy phase. In secondary treatment, activated sludge is the
most prevalent method. Pumping air into a tank, which promotes microbial growth in the
wastewater, is the basis of aeration in an activated sludge process. The microorganisms feed on
the organic material and create flocks that are easy to separate.
Aeration working
Bacteria need oxygen to clean and stabilize wastewater, thus aeration helps. The bacteria require
oxygen to allow biodegradation to take place. Bacteria in the wastewater use the oxygen to break
down carbon-containing organic debris, producing carbon dioxide and water.
Bacteria cannot biodegrade incoming organic stuff in a suitable amount of time if there is not
enough oxygen. In the lack of dissolved oxygen, degradation must take place in septic
conditions, which are sluggish, smelly, and result in incomplete pollutant transformations. Some
biological processes convert hydrogen and sulfur to generate hydrogen sulfide and ammonia
under septic conditions.

Types of Aerators
Aerators are divided into two groups. They either put air in the water or put water in the air. The
water-to-air method is intended to create little water drops that fall through the air. The air-to-
water approach involves injecting microscopic air bubbles into the water stream. Aerators are all
designed to increase the amount of contact between air and water to improve gas transmission.
Water into Air
In this category we have the following Aerators
1. Cascade aerators
2. Cone aerators
3. Slat and Coke aerators
Air into Water
In this category we have the following Aerators
1) Pressure aerators
2) Air stripping

Operational Testing
Three basic control tests are involved in the operation of the aeration process:
1) Dissolved oxygen
2) pH
3) Temperature
The amount of dissolved oxygen in the process can be used to determine whether it is over or
under aerated. The amount of carbon dioxide removed will be determined by the pH test. As the
carbon dioxide is eliminated, the pH rises. pH can also be used to measure the hydrogen sulfide,
iron, and manganese removal effective range. The temperature is significant because the oxygen
saturation point rises as the temperature falls. As the water temperature drops, the aeration
procedure must be adjusted to maintain the proper DO level.
Limitations
The efficiency of air stripping procedures is heavily influenced by temperature. As a result, some
methods may not be appropriate for usage in colder climes. Aeration to equilibrium conditions
can theoretically lower the carbon dioxide level of the water to 0.5 ppm at 68°F. From an
economic sense, this is not always feasible, and a reduction of carbon dioxide to 10 parts per
million is usually deemed adequate. Although removing free carbon dioxide raises the pH of the
water and makes it less corrosive, aeration also causes the water to become saturated with
dissolved oxygen. When the original oxygen content is already high, this is usually not a
concern.
Apparatus
Laboratory aeration unit

 Aeration tank

 Rota meter

 Air pump  Agitator

 DO meter with probe.

 Air inlet diffuser

Experiment # 01
Objective:
Determine the amount of DO by changing speed of agitator.
Procedure:
 Filled the tank with water at 25C.

 Noted the amount of saturation DO at 250C.

 Supplied the air with constant flow rate.

 The flow rate of air can be adjusted by using Rota meter.

 inserted probe of DO meter in water tank.

 First measured the amount of dissolved oxygen C1 at zero RPM and time t1.

 Changed the rpm (revolutions per minute) of agitator and measure the amount of
dissolved oxygen.

 Repeated this procedure by changing speed of agitator after every 3min.

Calculations
Initial flow rate of Air = 1 L/min
PH = 7.8
Temperature = 25 C
Agitator Speed = 0 rpm
Initial Dissolved Oxygen = 3.65
Table No 1:
NO OF OBS Agitator Speed DO AIR FLOW Rate
(RPM) MG/L L/min
1 300 3.8 1
2 400 4 1
3 500 4.2 1

Conclusion
The graph of DO and RPM shows that increasing the amount of dissolve oxygen in water while
maintaining the air flow constant and adjusting the agitator speed.

Experiment # 2Objective:
Determine the amount of DO by changing Air Flow Rate.
Procedure:
  Filled the tank with water at 25C.

 Noted the amount of saturation DO at 25C.

 Supplied the air with constant flow rate.

 The flow rate of air can be adjusted by using Rota meter.

 Inserted probe of DO meter in water tank.

 First measured the amount of dissolved oxygen C1 at constant RPM and time t1.

 Changed the Air Flow Rate and measure the amount of dissolved oxygen.

 Repeated this procedure by changing speed of agitator after every 3min.

Calculations
Initial flow rate = 0 L/min
PH = 7.8
Temperature = 25 C
Agitator Speed =
Initial Dissolved Oxygen =
Table No 2:
NO OF OBS Agitator Speed DO AIR FLOW Rate
(RPM) MG/L L/min
1 300 3.8 1
2 400 4 1
3 500 4.2 1
Conclusion
Based on the graph of DO and RPM, it can be determined that increasing air flow while
maintaining the agitator speed constant increases the amount of soluble oxygen in water.
Experiment # 3
Objective:
Determine the amount of DO in coffee water by changing speed of agitator.

 Procedure:
 Filled the tank with water having dissolved coffee at 25C.
 Noted the amount of saturation DO at 25C.
 Supplied the air with constant flow rate.
 The flow rate of air can be adjusted by using Rota meter.
 Inserted probe of DO meter in water tank.
 First measured the amount of dissolved oxygen C1 at zero RPM and time t1.
 Changed the rpm (revolutions per minute) of agitator and measure the amount of
dissolved oxygen.
 Repeated this procedure by changing speed of agitator after every 3min.
Calculations:
  Initial flow rate of air = 1 L/min
 PH = 8.87
 Temperature = 25C
 Agitator Speed =
 Initial Dissolved Oxygen =

NO OF OBS Agitator Speed DO AIR FLOW Rate

(RPM) MG/L L/min
1 300 3.21 1
2 400 3.36 1
3 500 3.40 1

Conclusion
By examining the graph of DO and RPM, it is inferred that the same pattern can be observed in
the case of coffee, namely that by maintaining the air flow rate constant while gradually
increasing the agitator speed, the amount of soluble oxygen in water increases.

A Reverse Osmosis Water Filter System Review

The invention of Reverse Osmosis is thought to have occurred some 400 years ago, and it has
long been recognized as a significant form of water filtering. The process had evolved and
matured through time, and it had begun to become a system that was accessible to everyone.
However, this procedure is not without its drawbacks is not bulletproof; when impurities rise, the
method's effectiveness may diminish.
Many people saw reverse osmosis as the ideal alternative to the costly distillation process, and it
is still regarded as one of the most effective and safest methods of water treatment. Apart from
being less expensive, it has been proven to be more effective than distillation at removing
impurities. Compounds dissolved in water Heavy metals and compounds such as lead, and
mercury can be removed with this procedure. Nitrates, fluoride, salt, mercury, uranium, lead,
radium, and a variety of other contaminants are among them. It might also be able to get rid of
potentially dangerous substances. Bacilli, chlorine, and other potentially harmful substances.
Introductory
Water, a finite resource that is essential for the survival of life on Earth as well as for economic
and social development and
environmental sustainability, is
increasingly scarce. This is it. caused
by the population growth, the change
of lifestyle, water pollution, in
efficient use of water and climatic
changes with more frequent extreme
events such as droughts and floods.
Where the availability of water cannot
be increased by using conventional
resources or by recycling or cannot be
made available by demand management methods, the desalination of sea or brackish water offers
an alternative solution. For separation, the procedure employs a variety of technologies. The
multi-stage flash (MSF) distillation and reverse osmosis (RO) processes are two of the most
economically important technologies.
Reverse Osmosis
The osmotic pressure on the feed water is overcome in the reverse osmosis (RO) process by
adding external pressure greater than the osmotic pressure. As a result, water flows across the
membrane in the opposite direction of natural flow, leaving dissolved salts behind and increasing
salt concentration. There is no need to heat or change the phase. The pressurization of the
seawater supply is the most energy-intensive part of the desalting process. Feed water pre-
treatment, high-pressure pumping, membrane separation, and permeate post-treatment are the
four key components of a typical large seawater RO plant.

Permeate (or product) water is desalinated water that has been demineralized or deionized. The
reject (or concentrate) stream is the water stream that carries the concentrated pollutants that did
not pass through the RO membrane.
Vocabulary and Basic Components
 Feed water: Supply water that is fed into the RO system to be treated.
 Permeate: A portion of the feed water that passes through a series of membranes and is
returned as purified water.
 Concentrate: A portion of the feed water that is rejected by the membrane and contains
the solution of impurities that have been filtered out of the permeate.
 Water flux: The rate of permeate production typically expressed as the rate of water flow
per unit area of membrane (e.g., gallons per square foot per day)
  Recovery rate: The ratio of permeate flow to feed water flow, which indicates the
overall water efficiency of the system.

Types of Membranes
Following are the types of membranes.

Advantages
Improve Taste: By removing pollutants that cause taste and odor concerns, RO filtering
enhances the taste, odor, and appearance of water.
Saves Money: You can terminate your water delivery service and cease buying cases of bottled
water if you have a RO system. For just cents per gallon, reverse osmosis filtration offers “better-
than-bottled water” grade water.
Removes Impurities: Nitrates, pesticides, sulphates, fluoride, bacteria, medicines, arsenic, and
other contaminants are all removed using RO systems
Simple Maintenance: RO systems have very few moving or replaceable parts make RO systems
easy to clean and service.
Limitations:
 Higher operating costs.
 High energy costs.

 Higher discharge volumes, higher concentrate volume than NF.

 High operating pressure than NF.

 Requires supply water to be treated (pre-filtration 0.1 - 20 microns).

 Reverse osmosis normally provides water with aggressive pH level (in other words, a
low or high pH in water with few ions).
 Membranes sensitive to free chlorine.
Experiment No.04
Objective: Treatment of water using Reverse Osmosis Equipment

Apparatus: Lab Scale RO Equipment

Principle:
Osmotic pressure causes the solvent to flow through the membrane, towards the more
concentrated solution, when two aqueous solutions of different concentrations are
separated by a semi-permeable membrane. To overcome the concentration, a counter
pressure is given to the concentrated solution. The flow of the solvent changes direction
or reverses due to osmotic pressure.
Procedure:
 A tube connects the valve to the inlet side of the RO pre filter. This is the RO system's
water supply.
  The Reverse Osmosis Pre-Filter receives water from the cold-water supply line first. In a
Reverse Osmosis system, there may be more than one pre-filter. Sediment filters are the
most widely used prefilters. Sand, silt, dirt, and other sediment are removed with these.
 In addition, carbon filters can be employed to eliminate chlorine, which can be harmful to
membranes.
 The Reverse Osmosis Membrane is the system's beating heart. The spiral wound is the
most popular, with two options: CTA (cellulose triacetate), which is chlorine tolerant,
and TFC/TFM (thin film composite/material), which is not chlorine tolerant.
 The product water passes through the post filter after leaving the RO storage tank (s).
 The post filter (s) is usually made of carbon (either in granular or carbon black form).
Post-filtration removes any leftover tastes and odors from the product water.
 The RO system incorporates an automatic shutoff valve to save water. When the storage
tank is full (depending on the incoming water pressure), this valve prevents any more
water from entering the membrane, thereby shutting down the water production. This
valve prevents water from pouring down the drain by shutting off the flow.
 The outlet end of the RO membrane housing has a check valve. Backflow of product
water from the RO storage tank is prevented by the check valve. The RO membrane
could be ruptured by a backward flow. The outlet end of the RO membrane housing has a
check valve. Backflow of product water from the RO storage tank is prevented by the
check valve. The RO membrane could be ruptured by a backward flow.
 Up to 2.5 gallons of water can be stored in a conventional RO storage tank. When the
tank is full, a bladder inside the tank keeps the water pressurized.
 The RO unit has its own faucet, which is typically mounted on the kitchen sink. An air-
gap faucet is commonly used in regions where plumbing rules mandate it.
 This tube connects the drain to the output end of the Reverse Osmosis membrane
housing.
 This line is used to remove pollutants and impurities from the incoming water supply (tap
water). The flow control is also installed in this line.
Results:
After taking samples we checked the parameters. That are shown in table.
Conclusion:
The factors that affect the performance of a Reverse Osmosis System are:
Pressure:
Because solvent flux increases with pressure, solute rejection rises. Increased water flow over the
membrane promotes faster fouling, which is the single most common cause of membrane failure.
Water Temperature:
The temperature of the input water has a significant impact on RO permeate flow. The permeate
flowrate increases as the temperature rises. Water permeates through the membrane barrier more
easily when the viscosity is lower. The permeate flow will rise by 3% for every 1°C increase in
temperature.

Experiment 5
Objective:
To find the settling time for different concentration solutions of chalk and to see the relationship
between settling time and concentration.

Apparatus:
 Sedimentation unit
 Chalk
 Water
 Beakers 100ml (3)
 Stopwatch

Theory:
Sedimentation:
Sedimentation is a physical water treatment process using gravity to remove suspended solids
from water. Solid particles entrained by the turbulence of moving water may be removed
naturally by sedimentation in the still water of lakes and oceans.
Sedimentation is accomplished by decreasing the velocity of the water to a point which the
particles will no longer remain in suspension. When the velocity no longer supports the particles,
gravity will remove them from the water flow.
Difference Between Sedimentation & Agglomeration:
In Sedimentation there is no need for the particle to form flocculates or agglomerates they can
fall on their own under the influence of gravity in a fluid while agglomeration is the process of
amassing material fines into cohesive units like pellets or granules
Also, in agglomeration there may include external binding agents to form agglomerates which
then settle down in a fluid.
Principle of Sedimentation:
In a solution, particles whose density is higher than that of the
solvent sink (sediment), and particles that are lighter than it
floats to the top. The greater the difference in density, the
faster they move.
Apparatus Used:
For Laboratory Purposes the apparatus used is Liquid
Sedimentation Apparatus which looks like as given in
following figure.

Figure 1 Sedimentation Unit

Types of Sedimentation:
On the basis of the process used, Sedimentation Types are described as following:
 Discrete settling.
 Flocculant settling.
 Zone settling.
 Compression settling.
Discrete Settling:
In discrete settling, particles settle as individual entities, and there is no significant interaction
with neighboring particles. Discrete particles have little tendency to flocculate or coalesce upon
contact with each other and hence they do not change their size, shape or mass during settling.
Flocculant settling:
With flocculent settling the particles clog together during the settling process, forming bigger
flocs that settle faster. This process can be stimulated by adding a coagulant. With increasing
time and depth, the frequency distribution of the settling velocities will change with flocculent
settling.
Zone Settling:
As the concentration of particles in a suspension is increased, a point is reached where particles
are so close together that they no longer settle independently of one another and the velocity
fields of the fluid displaced by
adjacent particles, overlap.
Compression Settling:
Settling which occurs in the lower
reaches of clarifiers where particle
concentrations are highest.: Particles
can settle only by compressing the
mass of particles below. Figure 2 Settling Types
Figure 3 Demonstrates these types of sedimentation.
Factors Affecting Sedimentation:
Following Factors Affect Sedimentation:
Particle Size:
Larger particles (with identical specific mass) sediment faster than smaller particles.
When particles are typically smaller than about a = 10 − 100nm, sedimentation velocities in the
earth's gravitational field are very small, and sedimentation experiments must be performed by
centrifugation.
Water Temperature:
When water temperature decreases, the rate of settling becomes slower. The result is that, as
the water cools, detention time in the sedimentation tank must increase and the operator must
make changes to the coagulant dosage to compensate for the decreased settling rate. In most
cases, temperature does not have a significant effect on treatment. A water treatment plant has
the highest flow demand in the summer when the temperatures are highest and settling rates are
the best. When water is colder, the flow in the plant is at its lowest and, in most cases; detention
time in the plant is increased so floc has enough time to settle in the sedimentation basin.
Currents:
Several types of water currents may occur in the sedimentation basin. Density currents are
caused by the weight of solids, the concentration of solids, and the temperature of the water.
Eddy currents are produced by the velocity and flow of the water coming into the basin and
leaving the basin. Currents can be beneficial in that they promote sedimentation of the particles.
However, currents also tend to distribute floc unevenly throughout the basin; as a result, do settle
at an even rate. Current problems can be reduced by proper design of the basin and installation
of baffles can help prevent currents from short circuiting the basin.
In addition to particle size, density and concentration, and fluid viscosity, other less obvious
factors affect the sedimentation rate. These include particle shape and orientation, convection
currents in the surrounding fluid, and chemical pretreatment of the feed suspension.
SEDIMENTATION BASIN ZONES:
Most sedimentation tanks are divided into these separate zones:
Inlet Zone:
The inlet or influent zone should distribute flow uniformly across the inlet to the tank. The
normal design includes baffles that gently spread the flow across the total inlet of the tank and
prevent short circuiting in the tank. (Short circuiting is the term used for a situation in which part
of the influent water exits the tank too quickly, by flowing across the top or along the bottom of
the tank.) The baffle is sometimes designed as a wall across the inlet, with holes perforated
across the width of the tank.
Settling Zone:
The settling zone is the largest portion of the sedimentation basin. This zone provides the calm
area necessary for the suspended particles to settle.
Sludge Zone:
The sludge zone, located at the bottom of the tank, provides a storage area for the sludge before
it is removed for additional treatment or disposal. Basin inlets should be designed to minimize
high flow velocities near the bottom of the tank. If high flow velocities are allowed to enter the
sludge zone, the sludge could be swept up and out of the tank.
Outlet Zone:
The basin outlet zone (or launder) should provide a smooth transition from the sedimentation
zone to the outlet from the tank. This area of the tank also controls the depth of water in the
basin. Weirs set at the end of the tank control the overflow rate and prevent the solids from
rising to the weirs and leaving the tank before they settle out.

Solids Contact Unit:

A solid contact unit combines coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation in one unit. These
units are also called up flow clarifiers or sludge-blanket clarifiers. These units are used primarily
with lime-soda ash to settle floc formed during water softening. Flow is usually in an upward
direction through a sludge blanket or slurry of flocculated suspended solids.

Procedure:
 Take 3 Beakers of 100 ml each.
 Prepare solutions of different concentrations 3, 5 and 7 % of chalk with water in each
beaker.
  Launch them into sedimentation unit in three different tubes of same size and shake them
so they get homogenized.
 Start stopwatch and take initial reading of sediments.
 After every 5 minutes note the readings of the sediment formation.
 Repeat it till, all solutions particles subside.
 Form the table and then draw a graph between settling time and sediment height.
Observations and Calculations:
Conclusion:
After analyzing the results, we infer that the settling time for concentrated solution was less than
the settling time for dilute solution. The reason being that for concentrated solutions particles
tend to settle more quickly because of the compression from other particles above them resulting
in quicker settling than for solutions of less concentration.
Applications:
• In water treatment sedimentation might be used to reduce the concentration of
particles in suspension before the application of coagulation, to reduce the amount of
coagulating chemicals needed, or after coagulation and, possibly, flocculation.
• When sedimentation is applied after coagulation, its purpose is usually to reduce
the concentration of solids in suspension so that the subsequent filtration can function
most effectively.
• Sedimentation is one of several methods for application prior to filtration: other
options include dissolved air flotation and some methods of filtration. Generically, such
solids-liquid separation processes are sometimes referred to as clarification processes.
Experiment 6
Objective:
To perform Alkalinity Test for given sample of water.
Apparatus
 1 Beaker (20 mL)
 1 Beaker (50 mL)
 1 syringe (1 mL) with tip
Reagents:
 Alkaline Solution
 Indicator, Drops with dropper
 Water
Theory:
Alkalinity is a measure of the ability of the water to resist changes in pH, this is also
known as buffering. For the majority of applications, it is important to maintain a stable
pH.
Alkalinity is made up of calcium and magnesium carbonates, bicarbonates, chlorides, and
sulfates, however it is conventionally always quoted as mg/L CaCO3.
Alkalinity is basically the property of having pH greater than 7. Alkalinity is the
quantitative capacity of a water sample to neutralize an acid to a set pH. This measurement
is very important in determining the corrosive characteristics of water, primarily due to
hydroxide, carbonate and bicarbonate ions.
Chemical Reaction:
Alkalinity can be measured as Phenolphthalein Alkalinity and Total Alkalinity. The
Phenolphthalein Alkalinity is determined by neutralizing the sample to a pH of 8.3 using a
dilute hydrochloric acid solution, and a phenolphthalein indicator. This process converts
hydroxide ions to water, and carbonate ions to bicarbonate ions:
−1 −¿¿
OH + HCl→ H 2 O+Cl
−¿¿
−2 −¿+Cl ¿
CO 3 + HCl→ HCO 3
To completely convert the carbonate ions, hydrochloric acid is added until the sample’s pH
is 4.5:
−¿+Cl −¿ ¿ ¿
−¿+ HCl → H 2 CO3 ¿
HCO3
This is known as Total Alkalinity.

Procedure (Phenolphthalein Alkalinity):

 Remove the cap from the small plastic vessel. Rinse the plastic vessel with water
sample, fill to the 5-ml mark and replace the cap.
 Add 1 drop of phenolphthalein indicator through the cap port and mix carefully
swirling the vessel in tight circles. If the solution remains colorless, record the
alkalinity as zero, and proceed with procedure for Total Alkalinity. If the solution
turns pink or red, proceed to next step.
 Take the titration syringe and completely fill it with HI 3811-0 solution.
 Place the syringe tip in cap port, and slowly add titration solution until the solution
in the plastic vessel turns colorless, while continuously swirling the vessel.
 Read off the millimeters of titration solution from the syringe scale and multiply by
300 to obtain mg/L CaCO3.
 ppm of CaCO3 = 300 * 0.= 0ppm
Procedure (Total Alkalinity):
 Remove the cap from the plastic vessel. Rinse the plastic vessel with water sample
and fill to 50ml mark.
 Through the cap port, add 1 drop of Bromophenol blue indicator and mix. If the
solution is yellow, then it is acidic and an acidic test must be carried out. If the
solution is green or blue, then proceed to next step.
 Take the titration syringe and fill it completely with HI 3811-0 solution.
Significance and Use:
Alkalinity is the quantitative capacity of a water sample to neutralize an acid to a set pH. This
measurement is very important in determining the corrosive characteristics of water due
primarily to hydroxide, carbonate and bicarbonate ions. Other sources of alkalinity can be from
anions that can be hydrolyzed such as phosphates, silicates, borates, fluoride and salts of some
organic acids. Alkalinity is critical in the treatments of drinking water, wastewater, boiler &
cooling systems and soils.
Observation and Calculations
Titration solution H13811-O used= 7ml
Amount of CaCO3 = 7 * 300 = 2100 mg/l
Result and Discussions
The alkalinity test indicates the amount of Calcium Carbonate present in the water taken
from the given sample. In order to make water drinkable and better for washing purposes
the alkalinity should be removed but as indicated the alkalinity was found out to be lying
within allowable range because the water was taken from the filter. But in case we get the
value exceeding it
Precautions
 The chemicals contained in this test kit may be hazardous if improperly handled.
Read Material and Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) before performing the test.
 Use People Protection Safety Equipment (PPEs).
Experiment 7
Objective
To perform chloride test of given water sample.
Apparatus
  1 Color Comparator Cube
 Chlorine Reagent 1 (20 mL)
 Chlorine Reagent 2 (15 mL)
 Chlorine Reagent 3 (15 mL)
Theory
The presence of free chlorine (also known as chlorine residual, free chlorine residual, residual
chlorine) in drinking water indicates that; a sufficient amount of chlorine was added initially to
the water to inactivate the bacteria and some viruses that cause diarrheal disease; the water is
protected from recontamination during storage. The presence of free chlorine in drinking water is
correlated with the absence of most disease-causing organisms, and thus is a measure of the
potability of water.
Significance and Use:
In pools and drinking water supplies, chlorination serves to kill or deactivate disease-producing
microorganisms. It can also improve water quality by reacting with ammonia, iron, sulfide and
some organic substances. However, an excessive concentration of chlorine in water can produce
adverse conditions, such as formation of carcinogenic chloroform or other toxins. To maximize
the purpose for chlorination and minimize any adverse effects, it is essential to monitor the
chlorine levels closely.
Chemical Reaction:
The addition of chlorine to water produces hydrochloric and hypochlorous acids. The
hypochlorous acid acts as the disinfectant and bleaching agent. The formation of chloramines
and nitrogen trichloride will occur if ammonia is present. These are known as bound chlorine.
Total chlorine is measured by a colorimetric method.
Procedure
 Add 5 drops of Chlorine Reagent 1, 2 drops of
Chlorine Reagent 3 and 3 drops of Chlorine
Reagent 2 to the color comparator cube

 Fill the color comparator cube with sample to the

5 mL mark.
 Replace the cap and mix by carefully swirling
the cube in tight circles and inverting it several
times.
  Determine which color matches the solution in the vessel
and record the results in mg/L (ppm) total chlorine.

Observation and Calculations

Sr. no Sample Titrant Used Amount of
(ml) (ml) Chloride (ppm)
1 5 0.50 50

 Amount of Chloride ions = 0.50 * 1000 = 50 ppm

Result and Discussions
After performing the experiment, we inferred that the chloride ions in our water sample was
found out to be 50 ions which is in the allowable limit of chloride ions I water which is about 40-
250 ppm. It’s because our water sample was taken from the filter that’s why it has low chloride
ions in it.
Precautions:
 The chemicals contained in this kit may be hazardous if improperly handled. Read the
relevant Safety Data Sheet before performing this test
 Use lab coat, gloves and closed shoes in lab.
Experiment 8
Objective
To determine the hardness in water.
Apparatus
 1 beaker (20 mL) with cap
 1 beaker (50 mL) with cap
 1 syringe (1 mL) with tip
Reagents:
 Hardness Buffer, 1 bottle with dropper (30 mL)
 Calmagite Indicator, 1 bottle with dropper (10 mL)
 HI 3812-0 EDTA Solution, 1 bottle (120 mL)
Theory:
Hardness indicates the impurities in water such as the presence of carbonates or bi-
carbonates of Ca or Mg in water. Hardness is of two types:
 Temporary Hardness
 Permanent Hardness
Temporary hardness is due to presence of bi-carbonates of Ca or Mg, while Permanent
Hardness is caused by presence of carbonates (Ca or Mg Carbonates) in water.
The good thing about temporary hardness is that it is easy to remove by boiling or
through precipitation with lime (calcium hydroxide). Boiling and adding lime are two of
the older methods used to soften water containing temporary hardness. Permanent
hardness is simply the hardness that is not removed by boiling rather, it is removed by
taking it through Ion Exchange Column or other hardness removal techniques.
Principle:
The hardness level as mg/L (ppm) calcium carbonate is determined by an EDTA (ethylene-
diamine-tetra acetic acid) titration. The solution is first adjusted to a pH of 10 using a buffer
solution. The indicator chelates with metal ions such as magnesium or calcium to form a red
colored complex. As EDTA is added, metal ions complex with it. After all the free metal ions
have been complexed, an excess EDTA removes the metal ions complexed with the indicator to
form a blue colored solution. This color change from red to blue is the endpoint of the titration.

Procedure:
HIGH RANGE – 0 to 300 mg/L CaCO3

 Remove the cap from the small plastic beaker. Rinse the plastic beaker with the
water sample, fill to the 5 mL mark and replace the cap.
 Add 5 drops of Hardness Buffer through the cap port and mix carefully swirling the
beaker in tight circles.
 Add 1 drop of Phenophthalein Indicator through the cap port and mix as described
above. The solution becomes a red-violet color.
  Take the titration syringe and push the plunger completely into the syringe. Insert
tip into HI 3812-0 EDTA Solution and pull the plunger out until the lower edge of
the seal is on the 0 mL mark of the syringe.
 Place the syringe tip into the cap port of the plastic beaker and slowly add the
titration solution dropwise, swirling to mix after each drop.
 Continue adding the titration solution until the solution becomes purple, then mix
for 15 seconds after each additional drop until the solution turns blue.

Read off the milliliters of titration solution from the syringe scale and multiply by
300 to obtain mg/L (ppm) CaCO3.
LOW RANGE – 0.0 to 30.0 mg/L CaCO3
 If result is lower than 30 mg/L, the precision of the test can be improved by
following the procedure below.
 Remove the cap from the large plastic beaker. Rinse it with the water sample, fill to
the 50 mL mark and replace the cap.
 Proceed with the titration as for the high range test.
 Read off the milliliters of titration solution from the syringe scale and multiply by
30 to obtain mg/L (ppm) CaCO3.

Observations & Calculations:

S Tap Buffer Phenolphthal Titrat Amou

r Wate Solution ein Indicator e with nt of
. r (Drops) (drops) EDT CaCO
N (ml) A 3
 o (mg/ (mg/L)
L)
1 5 3-5 2 0.23 69
(No (Reddish (Purpl
Color) Color) e
Color)

Amount of CaCO3= 0.23 x 300 = 69ppm

Allowable range is 40-80 ppm
Significance & Use:
In history, water hardness was defined by the capacity of water to precipitate soap.
The ionic species in the water causing the precipitation was later found to be primarily
calcium and magnesium. In the present, therefore, water hardness is actually a quantitative
measure of these ions in the water sample. It is also now known that certain other ion
species, such as iron, zinc and manganese, contribute to the overall water hardness.
The measure and subsequent control of water hardness is essential to prevent
scaling and clogging in water pipes. The Hardness Test Kit makes monitoring easy, quick
and safe. The compact size provides the versatility to use the kit anywhere. The design of
the kit makes it easy to handle.

Health & Safety:

 The chemicals contained in this kit may be hazardous if improperly handled.
 Read the relevant Safety Data Sheet before performing this test.
Results & Conclusions:
The hardness test indicates the amount of Calcium Carbonate present in the water taken
from the Filter. In order to make water drinkable and better for washing purposes the
hardness should be removed but as indicated the hardness was found out to be lying within
allowable range because the water was taken from the filter. But in case we get the value
exceeding it. Then, Hardness must be removed form it in order for us to use it for drinking
purposes.
 Experiment 9
Objective:
To find the settling time for different concentration solutions of chalk and to see the relationship
between settling time and concentration.

Apparatus:
 Sedimentation unit
 Chalk
 Water
 Beakers 100ml (3)
 Stopwatch
Principle of Sedimentation:
In a solution, particles whose density is higher than that of the
solvent sink (sediment), and particles that are lighter than it
floats to the top. The greater the difference in density, the faster
they move.
Apparatus Used:
For Laboratory Purposes the apparatus used is Liquid
Sedimentation Apparatus which looks like as given in following
figure.
Types of Sedimentation:
Figure 3 Sedimentation Unit

On the basis of the process used, Sedimentation Types are described as following:
 Discrete settling.
 Flocculant settling.
 Zone settling.
 Compression settling.
Discrete Settling:
In discrete settling, particles settle as individual entities, and there is no significant interaction
with neighboring particles. Discrete particles have little tendency to flocculate or coalesce upon
contact with each other and hence they do not change their size, shape or mass during settling.
Flocculant settling:
With flocculent settling the particles clog together during the settling process, forming bigger
flocs that settle faster. This process can be stimulated by adding a coagulant. With increasing
time and depth, the frequency distribution of the settling velocities will change with flocculent
settling.
Zone Settling:
As the concentration of particles in a
suspension is increased, a point is
reached where particles are so close
together that they no
longer settle independently of one
another and the velocity fields of the fluid
displaced by adjacent particles, overlap.
Compression Settling:
Settling which occurs in the lower reaches of clarifiers where particle concentrations are highest.:
Particles can settle only by compressing the mass of particles below.
Figure 3 Demonstrates these types of sedimentation.
Factors Affecting Sedimentation:
Following Factors Affect Sedimentation: Figure 4 Settling Types

Particle Size:
Larger particles (with identical specific mass) sediment faster than smaller particles.
When particles are typically smaller than about a = 10 − 100nm, sedimentation velocities in the
earth's gravitational field are very small, and sedimentation experiments must be performed by
centrifugation.
Water Temperature:
When water temperature decreases, the rate of settling becomes slower. The result is that, as
the water cools, detention time in the sedimentation tank must increase and the operator must
make changes to the coagulant dosage to compensate for the decreased settling rate. In most
cases, temperature does not have a significant effect on treatment.
Currents:
Several types of water currents may occur in the sedimentation basin. Density currents are
caused by the weight of solids, the concentration of solids, and the temperature of the water.
Eddy currents are produced by the velocity and flow of the water coming into the basin and
leaving the basin. Currents can be beneficial in that they promote sedimentation of the particles.
However, currents also tend to distribute floc unevenly throughout the basin; as a result, do settle
at an even rate. Current problems can be reduced by proper design of the basin and installation
of baffles can help prevent currents from short circuiting the basin.
SEDIMENTATION BASIN ZONES:
Inlet Zone:
The inlet or influent zone should distribute flow uniformly across the inlet to the tank. The
normal design includes baffles that gently spread the flow across the total inlet of the tank and
prevent short circuiting in the tank. (Short circuiting is the term used for a situation in which part
of the influent water exits the tank too quickly, by flowing across the top or along the bottom of
the tank.) The baffle is sometimes designed as a wall across the inlet, with holes perforated
across the width of the tank.
Settling Zone:
The settling zone is the largest portion of the sedimentation basin. This zone provides the calm
area necessary for the suspended particles to settle.
Sludge Zone:
The sludge zone, located at the bottom of the tank, provides a storage area for the sludge before
it is removed for additional treatment or disposal. Basin inlets should be designed to minimize
high flow velocities near the bottom of the tank. If high flow velocities are allowed to enter the
sludge zone, the sludge could be swept up and out of the tank. Sludge is removed for further
treatment from the sludge zone by scraper or vacuum devices which then starts to move along
the bottom.
Outlet Zone:
The basin outlet zone (or launder) should provide a smooth transition from the sedimentation
zone to the outlet from the tank. This area of the tank also controls the depth of water in the
basin. Weirs set at the end of the tank control the overflow rate and prevent the solids from
rising to the weirs and leaving the tank before they settle out. The tank needs enough weir length
to control the overflow rate, which should not exceed 20,000 gallons per day per foot of weir.
Solids Contact Unit:
A solid contact unit combines coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation in one unit. These
units are also called up flow clarifiers or sludge-blanket clarifiers. These units are used primarily
with lime-soda ash to settle floc formed during water softening. Flow is usually in an upward
direction through a sludge blanket or slurry of flocculated suspended solids.

Procedure:
 Take 3 Beakers of 100 ml each.
 Prepare solutions of different concentrations 3, 5 and 7 % of chalk with water in each
beaker.
 Launch them into sedimentation unit in three different tubes of same size and shake them
so they get homogenized.
 Start stopwatch and take initial reading of sediments.
 After every 5 minutes note the readings of the sediment formation.
 Repeat it till, all solutions particles subside.
 Form the table and then draw a graph between settling time and sediment height.
Observations and Calculations:
Conclusion:
After analyzing the results, we infer that the settling time for concentrated solution was less than
the settling time for dilute solution. The reason being that for concentrated solutions particles
tend to settle more quickly because of the compression from other particles above them resulting
in quicker settling than for solutions of less concentration.
Applications:
• In water treatment sedimentation might be used to reduce the concentration of particles in
suspension before the application of coagulation, to reduce the amount of coagulating
chemicals needed, or after coagulation and, possibly, flocculation.
• When sedimentation is applied after coagulation, its purpose is usually to reduce the
concentration of solids in suspension so that the subsequent filtration can function most
effectively.
• Sedimentation is one of several methods for application prior to filtration: other options
include dissolved air flotation and some methods of filtration. Generically, such solids-
liquid separation processes are sometimes referred to as clarification processes.
Experiment 9
Objective
To determine the optimum coagulant dosage for clarifying the given sample of water by using
alum as the coagulant and performing the jar test experiment.

Principle
Coagulants are used in water treatment plants.
(i) to remove natural suspended and colloidal matter,
(ii) to remove material which do not settle in plain sedimentation, and
(iii) to assist in filtration.
Alum [Al2(SO4)3. 18H2O] is the most widely used coagulant. When alum solution is added to
water, the
molecules dissociate to yield SO2– andAl3+. The +ve species combine with negatively charged
colloidal to neutralize part of the charge on the colloidal particle. Thus, agglomeration takes
place. Coagulation is a quite complex phenomenon, and the coagulant should be distributed
uniformly throughout the solution. A flash mix accomplishes this.
Jar test is simple device used to determine this optimum coagulant dose required. The jar test,
device consists of a number of stirrers (4 to 6) provided with paddles. The paddles can be rotated
with varying speed with the help of a motor and regulator. Samples will be taken in jars or
beakers and varying dose of coagulant will be added simultaneously to all the jars. The paddles
will be rotated at 100 rpm for 1 minute and at 40 rpm for 20 to 30 minutes, corresponding to the
flash mixing and slow mixing in the flocculator of the treatment plant. After 30 minutes settling,
supernatant will be taken carefully from all the jars to measure turbidity. The dose, which gives
the least turbidity, is taken as the optimum coagulant dose.

Apparatus
 Jar test apparatus
 Glass beakers
 Pipette
 Nephelometer
 pH meter
Reagents
 Alum solution (1mLcontaining 10mg of alum)
 Lime
 Acid/alkali
Procedure
 Take 1-litre beakers and fill them with sample up to the mark.
 Keep each beaker below each paddle and lower the paddles, such that each one is about
1cm above the bottom.
 3. Find the pH of the sample and adjust it to 6 to 8.5.
 4. Pipette 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 mL of the alum solution into the test samples.
 Immediately run the paddles at 100 rpm for 1 minute.
 Reduce the speed to 30–40 rpm and run at this rate for 30 minutes.
 Stop the machine, lift out the paddles and allow to settle for 30 minutes.
 8. Find the residual turbidity of the supernatant using nephelometer.
 9. Plot a graph with alum dosage along x-axis and turbidity along y-axis.
 10. The dosage of alum, which represents least turbidity, gives Optimum Coagulant
Dosage (O.C.D.).
 11. Repeat steps 1–10 with higher dose of alum, if necessary.
Observation
Trial no. Alum dosage in mg/L Turbidity in NTU

Results
Optimum coagulant dosage = 50

Discussion
1. Why is alum preferred to other coagulants?
2. What is the difference between coagulation and flocculation?
3. What are coagulant aids?
4. Write the significance of pH in coagulation using alum.
5. What factors affect the sedimentation of a discrete particle setting in a quiescent liquid?

Experiment 10
Objective
To determine the amount of B.O.D. exerted by the given sample(s).

Principle
The Biochemical Oxygen Demand (B.O.D.) of sewage or of polluted water is the amount of
oxygen required for the biological decomposition of dissolved organic matter to occur under
aerobic condition and at the standardized time and temperature. Usually, the time is taken as 5
days and the temperature 20°C as per the global standard.
The test consists in taking the given sample in suitable concentrations in dilute water in B.O.D.
bottles. Two bottles are taken for each concentration and three concentrations are used for each
sample. One set of bottles is incubated in a B.O.D. incubator for 5 days at 20°C; the dissolved
oxygen (initial) content(D1)in the other set of bottles will be determined immediately. At the end
of 5 days, the dissolved oxygen content(D2)in the incubated set of bottles is determined.
Then, mg/L B.O.D. =(D1 – D2 ) P
where,
P = decimal fraction of sample used.
D1 = dissolved oxygen of diluted sample (mg/L), immediately after preparation.
D2= dissolved oxygen of diluted sample (mg/L), at the end of 5 days incubation.
Among the three values of B.O.D. obtained for a sample select that dilution showing the residual
dissolved oxygen of at least 1 mg/L and a depletion of at least 2 mg/L. If two or more dilutions
are showing the same condition, then select the B.O.D value obtained by that dilution in which
the maximum dissolved oxygen depletion is obtained.

Apparatus
 B.O.D. bottles 300mL capacity
 2. B.O.D. incubator
 3. Burette
 4. Pipette
 5. Air compressor
 6. Measuring cylinder etc.
Reagents
 Distilled water
 2. Phosphate buffer solution
 3. Magnesium sulphate solution
 4. Calcium chloride solution
 5. Ferric chloride solution
 6. Acid and alkali solution
 7. Seeding
 8. Sodium sulphite solution
 9. Reagents required for the determination of D.O.
Procedure
 Place the desired volume of distilled water in a 5 litter flask (usually about 3 litters of
distilled water will be needed for each sample).
 2. Add 1mL each of phosphate buffer, magnesium sulphate solution, calcium chloride
solution and ferric chloride solution for every litter of distilled water.
 3. Seed the sample with 1–2 mL of settled domestic sewage.
 4. Saturate the dilution water in the flask by aerating with a supply of clean compressed
air for at least 30minutes.
 5. Highly alkaline or acidic samples should be neutralized to pH 7.
 6. Destroy the chlorine residual in the sample by keeping the sample exposed to air for 1
to 2 hours or by adding a few mL of sodium sulphite solution.
 7. Take the sample in the required concentrations. The following concentrations are
suggested: Strong industrial waste: 0.1, 0.5 and 1 per cent
Raw and settled sewage: 1.0, 2.5 and 5 per cent
Oxidized effluents: 5, 12.5 and 25 per cent
Polluted river water: 25, 50 and 100 per cent
 8. Add the required quantity of sample (calculate for 650 mL dilution water the required
quantity of sample for a particular concentration) into a 1000 mL measuring cylinder.
Add the dilution water up to the 650mL mark.
 9. Mix the contents in the measuring cylinder.
 10. Add this solution into two B.O.D. bottles, one for incubation and the other for
determination of initial dissolved oxygen in the mixture.

 11. Prepare in the same manner for other concentrations and for all the other samples.
 12. Lastly fill the dilution water alone into two B.O.D bottles. Keep one for incubation
and the other for determination of initial dissolved oxygen.
 13. Place the set of bottles to be incubated in a B.O.D. incubator for 5 days at 20°C. Care
should be taken to maintain the water seal over the bottles throughout the period of
incubation.
 14. Determine the initial dissolved oxygen contents in the other set of bottles and note
down the results.
 15. Determine the dissolved oxygen content in the incubated bottles at the end of 5 days
and note down the results.
 16. Calculate the B.O.D. of the given sample.
Note: The procedure for determining the dissolved oxygen content is same as described in the
experiment under “Determination of dissolved oxygen”.

Observation
Sample no. or
description
Concentration Dissolved oxygen content mg/L B.O.D. mg/L
(5 days 20°C)
Initial (D1)
Final (D2)
Bottle no.
D.O value
Bottle no.
D.O value
Note: B.O.D. value in mg/L = (D1– D2) P
0.1
If concentration is 0.1 per cent, then P =
100
= 0.001

Sample calculation
D1 = Initial Dissolved Oxygen= ......mg/L
D2 = Dissolved Oxygen at the end of 5 days = ...... mg/L
P = Decimal fraction of sample used = ......
Therefore, mg/L of B.O.D. =
D1 – D2 ......

Results
Sample no. or description mg/L 5 days B.O.D. at 20°C
Discussion
1. What use is made of the B.O.D. test in water pollution control?
2. List five requirements, which must be completed with, in order to obtain reliable B.O.D. data.
3. List five requirements of satisfactory dilution water for B.O.D. test.
4. What are the three methods that can be used to control nitrification in the 5 days B.O.D. test at
20°C?
5. What are the factors affecting the rate of biochemical oxidation in the B.O.D. test?

References:
• https://readcivil.com/types-of-sedimentation/

• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sedimentation_(water_treatment)

• http://www.bioline.org.br/pdf?ja07097

• https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/chemistry/sedimentation

• https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10408391003646270?journalCod
• https://www.amixon.com/en/powder-agglomeration-examples