Trans IMarE, Vol 107.

Part 3, pp 195-207

Noise prediction and correlation with

full scale measurements in ships
C G Holland, B S C , C E n g , M I M a r E and S F Wong, B E n g , C E n g , MIMarE
Lloyd's Register

The demand for a comfortable environment on cruise vessels and the stringent habitability
standards recommended by autfiorities to protect shipboard personnel against hearing
damage prompt the necessity of an accurate noise prediction at the ship design stage. Whilst
it is recognised that noise prediction is a continuous research and development activity in
many institutes and universities throughout the world, the intention of this paper is to
discuss noise prediction techniques in a general manner and to describe the approach to
noise prediction developed and used by Lloyd's Register (LR). There is no guarantee of
absolute accuracy in any noise prediction technique. This paper first briefly outlines the
problems and factors affecting the degree of accuracy. The development of LR's own noise
prediction programme is then addressed. In order to demonstrate the correlation between
predicted and measured results, two practical cases, which have been completed recentiyon
a modem containership and a luxury yacht, are discussed. The final section of the paper is
devoted to a discussion of how future developments may improve the accuracy of noise
prediction.

INTRODUCTION a n d f o r h u l l s f e a t u r i n g m i n i m u m scantlings have also re-

S h i p b o a r d acoustics have been t r a n s f o r m e d in recent years
d u e to f u n d a m e n t a l changes i n s h i p design. In the 1950s a n d
1960s s h i p p i n g w a s d o m i n a t e d b y general cargo vessels
f e a t u r i n g an a c c o m m o d a t i o n b l o c k situated a m i d s h i p s and
this d e s i g n resulted i n l o w levels of p r o p e l l e r generated
noise i n the a c c o m m o d a t i o n . The general a d o p t i o n of steam
p r o p u l s i o n plant, rather than diesel engines, p r o v i d e d a
relatively quiet w o r k i n g e n v i r o n m e n t a n d also w a s b e n e f i -
cial i n terms of a c c o m m o d a t i o n noise. In a d d i t i o n , s h i p s
w e r e not generally e q u i p p e d w i t h heating, v e n t i l a t i o n a n d
air c o n d i t i o n i n g ( H V A C ) systems. M o d e r n cargo vessels
n o r m a l l y feature diesel engine p r o p u l s i o n , an aft a c c o m m o -
d a t i o n b l o c k a n d c o m p r e h e n s i v e H V A C systems. A l t h o u g h
these design changes do not necessarily mean that the l i v i n g
quarters i n m o d e r n ships are more noisy, it is clear that
ambient noise levels are m o r e l i k e l y to be affected by the
propeller, diesel engine a n d H V A C s y s t e m noise sources.
The d e m a n d s i n s o m e s h i p types f o r h i g h installed p o w e r
sulted i n more onerous d e s i g n c o n d i t i o n s f o r the noise
conttol engineer.
T h e w i d e s p r e a d awareness of noise-related health prob-
lems a n d the need to protect personnel against h e a r i n g
d a m a g e have p r o m p t e d the i n t r o d u c t i o n of stringent habit-
ability standards. Table 1 presents the noise levels recom-
m e n d e d by the Intemational M a r i t i m e O r g a n i s a t i o n ( I M O )
a n d the U K D e p a r t m e n t of Transport, n o w the M a r i n e Safety
A g e n c y . ' * N o i s e levels s p e c i f i e d f o r recent passenger ships
are i n c l u d e d f o r c o m p a r i s o n . A l t h o u g h the a p p l i c a t i o n of
the standards to passenger a c c o m m o d a t i o n is not a legisla-
tive requirement, they are o f t e n used as g u i d e l i n e s d u r i n g
negotiations between s h i p o w n e r s and s h i p b u i l d e r s .
In recent years the cruise i n d u s t t y has e n j o y e d increased
p o p u l a r i t y a n d this is reflected by the level of n e w b u i l d i n g
orders. Passengers w h o join cruise ships f o r vacation p u r -
poses are, to a large extent, c o n d i t i o n e d to expect noise levels
s i m i l a r to those o f hotels ashore or of their o w n homes. N o n e
of the standards m e n t i o n e d above define limits f o r passen-
ger a c c o m m o d a t i o n , but c o n f i n e their attention to the w o r k -

Authors' biographies
Christopher Holland served an engineering apprenticeship with the CEGB, graduating with an Honours degree in Mechanical
Engineering from the University of Bath in 1975. He joined Texaco as a seagoing Engineer Officer, serving on a variety of tankers. During
this time he obtained his DTp Class 1 Certificate of Competency (Motor). In 1985 he joined the Technical Investigation Department of
Lloyd's Register and was promoted to Senior Surveyor in 1989. In 1991 he transferred to the Machinery Design and Dynamics Department
and in 1994 was appointed Head of the Health, Vibration and Noise section of the Technical Investigation, Propulsion and Environmental
Engineering Department.
Mr Wong graduated as a marine engineer from Hong Kong Polytechnic in 1981. He then worked for Orient Overseas Container Lines Ltd
on ocean going vessels, up to the rank of Second Engineer Officer. From 1984-1986 he stiidied at the University of Newcastie-Upon-Tyne
and obtained an Honours degree in Mechanical Engineering. In 1989 he gained the U K ' s DOT Class 1 Certificate of Competency (Motor)
and joined Lloyd's Register as a Surveyor in 1989, working in the engineering investigation field. He was promoted to Senior Surveyor
in 1994 and is currentiy the Deputy Head of the Health, Vibration and Noise section of the Technical Investigation, Propulsion and
Environmental Engineering Department.

Paper read on 21.03.1995 195

c G Holland &SF Wong

Table I Recommended noise levels for specified areas

Location Noise levels Code of practice for Noise levels

onboard ships noise levels in slups specified for recent
IMOA468 (XID UK Dept of Transport passengerships
dB(A) dB(A) dB(A)

Pas.senger cabins - - 40-55

Public area 55-60
- - 60-70
Shopping areas
Crew cabins
-
60
-
60 55-60
Crew mess room 65 65 60-65
Ho.spital 60 60 55-60
65 50-60
Conference room
- 55-60
Offices 65 65
Recreation rooms 65 65 60-65
Open recreation area 75 75 65-70
Galleys 75 75 65-75
Lifeboat stations 65-70
Wheelhouse
-
65 65
- 60-65
Radio room 60 60 55-60
Engine control room 75 75 70-75
Workshop 85 85 80-85

ing a n d c r e w resting a n d recreation spaces of the ship. In
hotels noise levels i n the range 30-40 d B ( A ) can be expected
for the better standard rooms. In conttast, f r o m L R ' s e x p e r i -
ence of c o n d u c t i n g field measurements, m o d e m passenger
cabins have noise levels i n the range 50-55 d B ( A ) i n general,
r e d u c i n g to 40-50 d B ( A ) in the case of s o m e l u x u r y cabins.
The changes i n s h i p consttuction, the emergence of noise
regulations a n d the increasing d e m a n d s of passengers, have
reinforced the importance of noise c o n t r o l considerations as
early as possible i n the design stage i n order to a v o i d a n y
costly r e m e d i a l actions that m a y be r e q u i r e d after consttuc-
tion. T h e f o r m u l a t i o n of a n effective noise conttol sttategy
w i l l i n v o l v e noise p r e d i c t i o n calculations a n d this paper
describes this process.
MAIN ELEMENTS OF NOISE PREDICTION
The process of noise p r e d i c t i o n i n v o l v e s consideration of
three related elements: the noise source, the transmission
path a n d the receiver. W h i l e each element appears to be
independent, they can, jointly o r i n d i v i d u a l l y , affect the
prediction results significantly. A s s u c h , the u n d e r s t a n d i n g
of each element, a n d particularly the i n p u t data r e q u i r e d , is
essential before p r o c e e d i n g w i t h the c a l c u l a t i o n .
Noise sources
G e n e r a l l y s p e a k i n g , steam turbines generate less noise than
diesel engines w i t h s i m i l a r o u t p u t p o w e r , a n d are thus less
l i k e l y to p r o d u c e a n n o y i n g b a c k g r o u n d noise i n a c c o m m o -
d a t i o n areas.
M a c h i n e r y generates noise into the s u r r o u n d i n g air a n d
also induces v i b r a t i o n into a n y structure to w h i c h it is
connected. T h e levels of noise a n d v i b r a t i o n that are gener-
ated w i l l be g o v e m e d by the acoustic p o w e r a n d mechanical
force of the m a c h i n e itself. F o r p r o p e l l e r s the m a i n d i f f i c u l t y
is the e v a l u a t i o n of c a v i t a t i o n generated noise, whereas the
calculation of H V A C noise is relatively s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d .
Machinery
The acoustic o u t p u t p o w e r of a particular m a c h i n e is ex-
pressed b y the s o u n d p o w e r level, w h i c h describes the rate
at w h i c h energy is radiated (energy p e r unit time) f r o m the
s o u n d source, b u t is i n d e p e n d e n t of the nature of the space
s u r r o u n d i n g the s o u r c e - t h e s o u n d field. If the s o u n d p o w e r
level is k n o w n , the s o u n d pressure level c o r r e s p o n d i n g to
the characteristics of a particular s o u n d field m a y be de-
d u c e d . E m p i r i c a l f o r m u l a e have been used f o r m a n y years to
estimate the s o u n d p o w e r level of certain types of m a c h i n -
ery, d e p e n d i n g o n the p h y s i c a l size, o u t p u t m e c h a n i c a l
p o w e r , o p e r a t i n g speed etc, b u t the results are, i n general,
unsatisfactory. In fact, the t r a d i t i o n a l a p p r o a c h is to measure
the s o u n d pressure level directiy a n d d e r i v e the s o u n d
p o w e r level. H o w e v e r , c a r e f u l interpretation is r e q u i r e d as
the measured s o u n d pressure level w i l l be affected by:

1. the distance at w h i c h the measurement w a s carried out;

T h e m a j o r noise sources i n a s h i p are: the m a i n p r o p u l s i o n
machinery, the a u x i l i a r y engines, the p r o p e l l e r a n d trans-
verse p r o p u l s i o n unit, a n d the H V A C system. The relative
sensitivity o f one source, w i t h respect to the noise level at the
receiver, w i l l d e p e n d o n the s h i p type, m a c h i n e r y arrange-
ment a n d the receiver location. A cabin at a location far f r o m
the m a i n engine a n d propeller w i l l more l i k e l y be affected b y
a n y H V A C noise. T h e m a j o r i t y of m a i n a n d a u x i l i a r y m a -
chinery is d r i v e n either b y diesel engines or steam turbines.
2. the d i f f e r e n c e of the acoustic properties between the
spaces w h e r e the machine w a s tested a n d its f i n a l h o u s -
ing e n v i r o n m e n t ;
3. the presence of other s i g n i f i c a n t noise sources.
Ideally, the m a c h i n e u n d e r test s h o u l d be p l a c e d i n
an anechoic chamber, b u t i n practice this is not a l w a y s
possible.

196

n o o D i
A i r D o r n e .-oisi?
ENGINE!
Fig 1 Noise transmission path
The a v a i l a b i l i t y of s o u n d intensity meters i n the late 1980s
enabled the direct measurement of s o u n d intensity. The
d e t e r m i n a t i o n of s o u n d p o w e r t h r o u g h s o u n d intensity
measurement is more direct a n d accurate than the d e t e r m i -
nation t h r o u g h s o u n d pressure measurement. T h i s is d u e to
the fact that the intensity meter takes account of the direction
of the p o w e r flow as w e l l as the m a g n i t u d e . T h u s measure-
ments can be taken i n any s o u n d field w i t h o u t b e i n g i n f l u -
enced by b a c k g r o u n d noises f r o m other m a c h i n e r y . Stand-
ard methods of t a k i n g s o u n d intensity measurements are
still b e i n g f o r m u l a t e d a n d these w i l l be required to ensure a
consistent a p p r o a c h .
T u r n i n g to the subject of m e c h a n i c a l force determination;
i d e a l l y the m e c h a n i c a l force generated by the source s h o u l d
be measured a n d the v i b r a t i o n levels that c o u l d be i n d u c e d
into the structure calculated, based o n the m o b i l i t y of the
seating ( m o b i l i t y is a frequency response f u n c t i o n to de-
scribe the v i b r a t i o n response of a structure to an i n p u t force).
Trans IMarE, Vol 107. Part 3, pp 195-207
4
Structureborne Ncise
»
In practice, h o w e v e r , it is not possible to measure the force
directly a n d , instead, v i b r a t i o n levels at the foot of the
machine are n o r m a l l y measured at the test bed and the
results used as the i n p u t data in noise p r e d i c t i o n . Unless the
m o b i l i t y of the test bed seating is the same as that installed
on the s h i p , test bed results s h o u l d o n l y be tteated as
e x p e r i m e n t a l data. T h i s m e t h o d also does not m a k e any
a l l o w a n c e f o r the flexible nature of the s h i p structure, c o m -
pared to the s o l i d floor at the test site.
Propellers
T h e m a i n d i f f i c u l t i e s i n d e t e r m i n i n g p r o p e l l e r noise are
associated w i t h uncertainties i n the description of c a v i t a f i o n
g r o w t h a n d collapse on the p r o p e l l e r blades, the calculation
of w a k e field d i s t t i b u t i o n a r o u n d the aft end of the s h i p , a n d
the shell plate response to waterborne s o u n d pressure. A l -
though there exist both s e m i - e m p i r i c a l f o r m u l a e d e r i v e d
197
c G Holland &SF Wong

Table II Insertion loss of common construction materials

Material Octave band centre frequency (Hz)

Mean value 63 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 8000

Steel plate
3.2 mm thick 32 16 22 28 34 40 44 32 41
6 mm thick 37 22 28 34 40 45 37 42 51
12 mm thick 42 28 34 40 45 37 41 51 60

Mineral wool (120 kg/m')

25 mm thick 19 4 9 14 19 24 29 34 39
50 mm tfiick 24 9 14 19 24 29 34 39 44
75 mm thick 27 12 17 22 27 32 37 42 47
100 mm thick 29 14 19 24 29 34 39 44 49

Mineral wool (200 kg/m')

25 mm tfuck 22 7 12 17 22 27 32 37 42

Cement
20 mm thick 37 22 27 32 37 42 47 52 57
40 mm thick 42 27 32 37 42 47 52 57 62

Calcium silicate board

6 mm thick 23 8 15 19 23 24 24 34 35
9 mm thick 27 11 18 22 26 27 27 37 38
13 mm thick 29 14 21 25 29 33 40 41 41
19 mm thick 32 17 24 28 32 33 33 43 44

Glass wool (17 kg/m')

50 mm thick 12 0 2 7 12 17 22 27 32

Swedac on steel deck 59 32 43 50 52 67 67 76 90

TNF on steel deck 49 22 38 46 55 53 59 60 60

tiom m o d e l experiments and pred iction models of the e q u i v a -
lent acoustical source sttength (based o n the speed of revo-
l u t i o n , transmitted p o w e r a n d the p r o p e l l e r geometry), the
results d o not c o m p a r e f a v o u r a b l y w i t h practical measure-
ments. The l i f t i n g surface m e t h o d , n o r m a l l y used in p r o p e l -
ler analysis, is potentially capable of estimating the radiated
pressure f i e l d of a cavitating p r o p e l l e r i n the l o w f r e q u e n c y
range. The m e t h o d is p r e d o m i n a n t l y based on a time d o -
m a i n analysis of cavitation g r o w t h a n d collapse, f o r p r o p e l -
lers o p e r a t i n g i n a k n o w n w a k e f i e l d . It is adequate f o r
estimating pressure sources at blade p a s s i n g f r e q u e n c y , but
the q u a h t y of correlation between measured a n d predicted
pressures at higher m u l t i p l e s of blade passing frequency
reduces as the h a r m o n i c n u m b e r increases.
Transverse p r o p u l s i o n units are recognised as a m a j o r
noise source w h e n they are used f o r d o c k i n g manoeuvres. A
unit of this type is n o r m a l l y integrated into the h u l l structure
rather than h a v i n g a fluid m e d i u m between it a n d the h u l l
surface, as i n the case of the propeller. A noise p r e d i c t i o n
m e t h o d d e v e l o p e d b y the Institute of A p p l i e d P h y s i c s , Delft,
is based o n a large n u m b e r of measurements o n b o a r d d i f f e r -
ent types of ships a n d is described i n Ref 3.
Transmission path
Noise ttar\smission can either be waterborne, a i r b o m e or
sttucturebome. E x t e m a l , waterborne noise transmission is
m a i n l y of c o n c e m to specialised vessels such as seismic
survey ships, o c é a n o g r a p h i e research ships, fishery
ships a n d n a v a l vessels. F o r merchant ships, the internal
noise e n v i r o n m e n t is of greater c o n c e m a n d is affected
p r i m a r i l y by airborne a n d structureborne noise. F i g u r e 1
s h o w s t y p i c a l airborne a n d s t t u c t u r e b o m e noise transmis-
s i o n paths.
Airborne noise
A i r b o r n e noise is transmitted b y e x c i t i n g the s u r r o u n d i n g
air particles. A s the noise propagates, part of the energy w i l l
be lost t h r o u g h the barriers it crosses a n d the distance it
travels. G e n e r a l l y , the noise level w i l l d r o p b y 6 d B f o r every
distance d o u b l e d a n d the a m o u n t of noise a t t é n u a ted through
barriers w i l l d e p e n d o n the total insertion loss (IL) t h r o u g h
the barriers (insertion loss is a measure of the decrease i n
transmitted p o w e r i n decibels). In the s h i p e n v i r o n m e n t , the
barriers i n c l u d e decks, b u l k h e a d s a n d c a b i n partitions.
Table II lists the IL of s o m e c o m m o n construction materials.
It s h o u l d be noticed that the IL is higher at h i g h frequencies
a n d w i t h thicker material. T h i s is because the w a v e l e n g t h s of
h i g h f r e q u e n c y c o m p o n e n t s are shorter and are thus more
easily interrupted. In fact, noise at remote areas is n o r m a l l y
d o m i n a t e d b y l o w f r e q u e n c y c o m p o n e n t s w h i c h , i n prac-
tice, are very d i f f i c u l t to eliminate.
A s stated, airborne noise is attenuated b y b u l k h e a d par-
titions a n d distance f r o m the source. It is, therefore, f o u n d to
be the m a i n transmission m e c h a n i s m i n spaces w h e r e exci-
tation sources are located but its influence o n remote areas is

198
 Trans IMarE, Vol 107. Part 3, pp 195-207

Table Radiation factor of common construction materials

Construction Octave band centre frequency (Hz)

63 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 8000

Steel plate (20 mm thick) 25 22 15 10 6 -2 0 0

TNF floor 16 17 13 10 1 -4 1) 0
Swedac floor 19 18 17 16 13 5 -5 0
Cement on steel 19 18 15 2 -2 0 n 0
Cabin wall/lining 19 16 15 10 5 0 0 0

Table IV Absorption coefficients of common construction materials

Description Octave band centre frequency (Hz)

Mean coefficient 63 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 5000

Room partition 0.04 0.10 0.09 0.05 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01
Room ceiling 0.64 0.45 0.50 0.60 0.65 0.75 0.80 0.75 0.65
Floor with vinyl tile 0.05 0.02 0.02 0.04 0.05 0.05 0.10 0.05 0.05
Floor with carpet 0.20 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.25 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.20
Tiled deck 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.02
Steel plate 0.02 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.02

negligible. A t y p i c a l example is the d o m i n a t i o n of a i r b o m e T h i s c o u l d be a n y i n d o o r or o u t d o o r space o f interest i n a

noise generated i n an engine r o o m . ship.

Structureborne noise Enclosed space

The noise level i n an enclosed space is affected b y the total
Structureborne noise is the p r o p a g a t i o n of v i b r a t o r y energy
acoustic p o w e r e n t e r i n g the space and the acoustic proper-
t h r o u g h the sttucture. I n contrast to airborne noise, a n
ties of the space itself. T h e total acoustic p o w e r entering the
i n s i g n i f i c a n t a m o u n t of energy w i l l be lost t h r o u g h ' u n -
space is a c o m b i n a t i o n of both airborne noise a n d radiated
treated' steel sttuctures i n the t r a n s m i s s i o n process, d u e to
airborne noise d u e to s t t u c t u r e b o m e noise ttansmission.
l o w inherent d a m p i n g . In fact, energy c o u l d w e l l be gained
W h e n s t r u c t u r e b o m e noise reaches the receiver, part of the
in the transmission process d u e to c o u p l i n g a n d d u e to
energy w i l l excite the s u r r o u n d i n g air to generate airborne
resonances of sub-systems as the structureborne noise passes
noise. T h i s m e c h a n i s m is called radiation. A s structureborne
t h r o u g h . Because the r e d u c t i o n of s t t u c t u r e b o m e noise is
noise w i l l travel a l o n g a l l surfaces of the enclosure t h r o u g h
m a i n l y achieved through the process of d i v e r s i f i c a t i o n of
s o l i d connections, the r a d i a t i o n factor of each surface w i l l
energy at structural discontinuities rather than distance
contribute to the total p o w e r radiated. T h e r a d i a t i o n factor is
f r o m the source, it is the m a i n cause of noise levels i n spaces
p r i m a r i l y a f u n c t i o n of the material of the sttucture a n d also
remote f r o m excitation sources.
depends o n the m o u n t i n g c o n d i t i o n . Its values are f r e q u e n c y
V i b r a t o r y energy travels t h r o u g h sttuctures i n several
dependent a n d , preferably, s h o u l d be d e t e r m i n e d b y meas-
types of w a v e f o r m s , m a i n l y b e n d i n g , l o n g i t u d i n a l , ttans-
urement on site. Table III lists the radiation factors f o r some
verse a n d even torsional. O f all the w a v e f o r m s c o n s i d e r e d ,
constmction materials used i n ships. For a 20 m m thick steel
b e n d i n g w a v e s are by f a r the most i m p o r t a n t type f o r
plate, the most effective radiation w i l l occur at a 2000 H z centte
structureborne noise ttansmission as they are f o u n d to be
frequency, increasing the noise level by 2 d B. A t a 63 H z centte
w e l l c o u p l e d to the radiation of a i r b o m e noise. H o w e v e r ,
frequency, the radiated noise level w i l l be reduced b y 25 d B .
this does n o t necessarily mean that b e n d i n g w a v e s carry
The acoustic properties of a n enclosure are generally
more v i b r a t o r y energy than other types of w a v e f o r m s . In
expressed as the ' r o o m constant'. T h e r o o m constant is
fact, the w a v e types are interrelated because b e n d i n g w a v e s
d e f i n e d b y the a m o u n t of exposed surface area i n the enclo-
at structural joints c o u l d be ttansformed into other w a v e
sure a n d the acoustic a b s o r p t i o n properties of the surfaces.
types a n d vice versa. A l t h o u g h it is k n o w n that w a v e f o r m
The larger the r o o m a n d the m o r e absorptive area the sur-
ttansformation takes place at joints, the method by w h i c h the
faces have, the larger w i l l be the v a l u e of the r o o m constant
energy is disttibuted in the process is still uncertain. This
a n d the smaller w i l l be the noise level i n the enclosure. Table
uncertainty is c o m p o u n d e d w h e n considering a complicated
I V presents the a b s o r p t i o n coefficients of c o m m o n materials
ship structure i n v o l v i n g a large n u m b e r of discontinuities.
used i n a c c o m m o d a t i o n areas. A g a i n , the values of these
coefficients are frequency dependent.

Receiver
Outdoor area
The receiver is the area o r enclosure w h e r e the final noise A n o u t d o o r area is n o r m a l l y treated as a ' f r e e - f i e l d ' c o n d i -
level d u e to the noise sources c o n s i d e r e d is to be d e t e r m i n e d . tion s u c h that a n y noise ttansmission w i l l not be reflected

199
c G Holland &SF Wong

AIRBORNE NOISE STRUCTUREBORNE NOISE

HVAC
SOURCE A SOURCE A
SYSTEM
OCTAVE BAND 31.5 Hz - 8000 Hz OCTAVE BAND 31 5 Hz - 8000 Hz

AnENUATON ATTENUATION ROOM ATTENUATKIN ATTENUATIOM ROOM ROOM ATTENUATKIN ATTENUATK3N ATTENUATK3N ROOM
TMHOOQH T>4ROUOHROOM Acoosnc THROUGH THROUGH PARTITION ACOUSTIC DUE TO THROUGH THROUGH ACOUSTIC
STRUCTURE PROPERTY MOUNTING STRUCTURE OUCTUENGTW SILENCER r>Hn;'i n r v

ROOM SPL DUE ROOM SPL DUE

ROOM SPL DUE TO
TO SOURCE A TO SOURCE A
HVAC NOISE
(AIRBORNE) (STRUCTUREBORNE)

OTHER OTHER
NOISE NOISE
SOURCE-' SOURCE''

ROOM SPL DUE ROOM SPL DUE

TO ALL NOISE TO ALL NOISE
SOURCES SOURCES
(AIRBORNE NOISE (STRUCTUREBORNE
TRANSMISSION) NOISE TRANSMISSION)

ROOM SPL DUE TO

AIRBORNE AND
STRUCTUREBORNE
NOISES
(ALL SOURCES)

RESULTANT
NOISE
LEVEL
dB (lln), (1B(A)

Fig 2 Noise prediction programme flow chart

f r o m s o l i d surfaces a n d w i l l not encounter any barriers. F o r
example, the c a l c u l a t i o n of the noise level on a n a v i g a t i o n
bridge w i n g d u e to f u n n e l exhaust gas considers o n l y the
direction of the source a n d the distance between the source
and receiver.
NOISE PREDICTION METHODS
O v e r the years a n u m b e r of noise p r e d i c t i o n techniques have
been d e v e l o p e d , based o n various hypotheses a n d theories.
Three m a i n approaches can be i d e n t i f i e d . These are: the
finite element m e t h o d ( F E M ) , statistical energy analysis
( S E A ) a n d the s e m i - e m p i r i c a l m e t h o d . T h e f i r s t t w o
a p p r o a c h e s a i m to a d d r e s s the p r o p a g a t i o n o f
structureborne noise f r o m theoretical stand points. The
last a p p r o a c h uses existing w e l l - d e v e l o p e d e m p i r i c a l for-
mulae to calculate airborne a n d structureborne noise attenu-
ation.
Finite element method
The a p p l i c a t i o n of the F E M i n e n g i n e e r i n g appeared as early
as the mid-1950s. T h e basis of this m e t h o d is to s u b d i v i d e a
complex sttucture into a finite n u m b e r of discrete parts or
elements. Sttuctural relationships can then be d e r i v e d f o r
each finite element w h i c h link force a n d d i s p l a c e m e n t c o m -
ponents at the n o d a l points. A l t h o u g h the great sttength of
the F E M is its versatility, as there is v i r t u a l l y n o l i m i t to the
type of structure that can be a n a l y s e d , the competence
required to select suitable elements i n b u i l d i n g u p the m o d e l
can only be gained t h r o u g h research w o r k a n d / o r practical
experience. T e c h n i c a l l y , p r o v i d i n g the element types are
suitably selected, an increase i n the n u m b e r of elements that
are used to represent a sttucture w i l l give better results.
H o w e v e r , the use of m o r e elements i m p l i e s longer c o m p u t -
i n g time a n d , as such, a balance has to be d r a w n between
these t w o c o n f l i c t i n g criteria. E x p e r i e n c e gathered i n the
past suggests that F E M is p a r t i c u l a r l y suitable f o r p r o b l e m s
concerning low frequency vibrations.
Statistical energy analysis
T h i s m e t h o d i n v o l v e s the e v a l u a t i o n of v i b r a t i o n energy
dissipated between connected resonant structures by a sta-
tistical m e t h o d , a n d is based on the a s s u m p t i o n that the flow
of acoustical energy between t w o subsystems is p r o p o r -
tional to the difference i n energy levels between these sub-
systems. The m a j o r c o n d i t i o n s u n d e r w h i c h S E A can be
a p p l i e d are that the c o u p l e d systems are resonant a n d that
the m o d a l density (the n u m b e r of resonant v i b r a t i o n m o d e
shapes w i t h i n a f r e q u e n c y b a n d w i d t h ) of each system is
s u f f i c i e n t i y h i g h . The h i g h e r the n u m b e r of m o d e shapes that

200

Table V Structureborne noise attenuation of various abatement measures
Description
Mean attenuation 63 125 250
Resilient mount 18.5 12 16 20
Floating floor 17.4 2 6 12
Cement floor 6.4 -2 2 3
TNF floor 24.1 0 3 12
Swedac floor 26.1 17 24 23
appear i n each system, the better is the accuracy. The method
generally provides fairly g o o d results at high frequency bands
but not i n the l o w frequency bands, and it is n o r m a l l y used on
stmctures w h i c h are less complex than ships.
Semi-empirical method
Perhaps this is still the most c o m m o n l y a d o p t e d m e t h o d f o r
noise p r e d i c t i o n . The m e t h o d uses e m p i r i c a l f o r m u l a e for
the calculation but the accuracy of the results w i l l u l t i m a t e l y
be d e t e r m i n e d b y the quality of the i n p u t data. The i n p u t
data c o u l d be obtained from v a r i o u s sources. W i t h respect to
the noise source data, m a n u f a c t u r e r s are u s u a l l y able to
s u p p l y noise data associated w i t h the m a c h i n e r y s u p p l i e d ,
i n terms of both airborne a n d s t t u c t u r e b o m e noise levels.
E v e n w i t h o u t this i n f o r m a t i o n , h o w e v e r , data can be inter-
polated f r o m noise measurements on s i m i l a r m a c h i n e r y , or
even calculated a p p r o x i m a t e l y from e m p i r i c a l f o r m u l a e .
R e g a r d i n g the data f o r the receiver, the acoustic properties
of the sttucture are n o r m a l l y w e l l d e t e r m i n e d either b y
laboratory tests or site measurements. The characteristics of
the t r a n s m i s s i o n path present the most p r o b l e m s i n terms of
the c a l c u l a t i o n of structureborne noise attenuation. O v e r the
years, L R has carried out extensive measurements on v a r i -
ous k i n d s of s h i p s to establish the characteristics of noise
attenuation t h r o u g h different types of construction. These
experimental results are stored i n a data bank, together w i t h
noise source a n d receiver data. Because of the large amount of
information available, the semi-empirical method is used as
the basis for the L R ' s in-house noise prediction programme.
LR NOISE PREDICTION PROGRAMME
Figure 2 s h o w s the flow chart of the p r o g r a m m e . It is b u i l t u p
f r o m three m o d u l e s to cover airborne, structureborne a n d
H V A C noise calculations separately. The merits of u s i n g a
m o d u l a r structure are that the effects of each m o d u l e o n the
noise level at the receiver can be evaluated easily a n d the
d o m i n a n t sources c a u s i n g a n y excessive noise can be i d e n -
tified.
Airborne noise calculation module
The c a l c u l a t i o n is based on the a s s u m p t i o n that the airborne
o v e r a l l s o u n d pressure level i n the r e c e i v i n g space is equal
to the c o m b i n e d effect of the s o u n d p o w e r levels e m a n a t i n g
Trans IMarE, Vol 107, Part 3, pp 195-207
Octave band centre frequency (Hz)
500 1000 2000 4000 8000
20 20 20 20 20
17 18 24 30 30
6 9 10 11 12
14 22 37 50 55
23 26 26 34 36
f r o m all s i g n i f i c a n t noise sources. The p a r t i t i o n insertion loss
in w a y of the noise t r a n s m i s s i o n path a n d the acoustic
properties of the r e c e i v i n g space are considered i n the proc-
ess. A f t e r the s o u n d pressure level at the receiver has been
calculated, d u e to each noise source i n every octave b a n d
(centte frequency of 63 H z to 8000 H z ) , the resultant noise level
can then be obtained b y logarithmic addition to obtain the
overall airbome noise level w i t h i n the space or compartment.
Structureborne noise calculation module
T h e m a j o r a s s u m p t i o n u n d e r l y i n g this c a l c u l a t i o n is that
v i b r a t o r y energy ttansmits into the structure from noise
sources i n the f o r m of acoustic frequency v i b r a t i o n , w h i c h is
attenuated t h r o u g h discontinuities and w i t h distance f r o m
the source. F o r convenience of calculation, the attenuations
areconsidered to be concentrated atstructural discontinuities
a l o n g the p a t h between the source and the r e c e i v i n g end. T h e
discontinuities accounted f o r i n the calculations are: deck
plate s t i f f e n i n g , junctions of deep frames a n d b u l k h e a d s ,
a n d junctions of shell p l a t i n g w i t h decks.
The degree of s t t u c t u r e b o m e noise attenuation through
each junction is not the same f o r all ships d u e to differences
in the geometry of construction. Studies of data collected
through measurements, h o w e v e r , p r o v i d e n o m i n a l values,
a n d as a r o u g h guide, structurebome intensity reduces on
average b y about half a d e c i b e l per frame. Structureborne
noise also falls w i t h vertical distance f r o m the source; f o r
example, the noise r e d u c t i o n on the first t w o decks is ap-
p r o x i m a t e l y 5 decibels per deck a n d on subsequent decks is
a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2 decibels per deck.
N o i s e abatement measures are w i d e l y a p p l i e d i n a s h i p to
control the noise a n d , as such, the calculation also considers
the noise reductions achieved. T y p i c a l measures i n c l u d e
resilient m o u n t s f o r machinery, floating floors f o r the ac-
c o m m o d a t i o n , silencers f o r ventilation outlets a n d d a m p i n g
materials a p p l i e d to steel structures. The attenuation data
for s o m e general abatement measures are g i v e n i n Table V .
It s h o u l d be n o t e d that the effectiveness is frequency de-
pendent a n d , as s u c h , the selection of measures p r o p o s e d
requires c a r e f u l consideration.
T h e s o u n d pressure level radiated f r o m the v i b r a t i n g
surface of each b o u n d a r y i n the receiving space is calculated
in a s i m i l a r m a n n e r to the airborne noise c a l c u l a t i o n , t a k i n g
into account the acoustic properties of the receiver. The
calculation is repeated f o r a l l noise sources i n a l l selected
octave bands. The resultant s o u n d pressure level can then be
used to evaluate the o v e r a l l airborne noise levels i n the space
d u e to the s t t u c t u r e b o m e noise.
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c G Holland &SF Wong

HVAC noise calculation module Table VI Particulars of a 4450 TEU containership

Main engine mcr: 41 310 kW at 93 rev/min

The c a l c u l a t i o n of H V A C noise d e p e n d s on a k n o w l e d g e of ncr: 36 170 kW at 89 rev/min
the s o u n d p o w e r o u t p u t of the fans i n the air c o n d i t i o n i n g Mounting: .solid
system. T h e noise emitted f r o m air outlets i n the r e c e i v i n g Auxiliary machinery 4 off: 1880 kW each at 720 rev/min
space w i l l d e p e n d on the a m o u n t of noise attenuation d u e to Mounting: elastic
the length of d u c t i n g , types of d u c t branches, air flow rates Propeller 1 X 5-bladed
a n d the characteristics of any silencers fitted. The resultant Diameter: 8400 mm
s o u n d pressure level i n the space is then calculated, t a k i n g Mean pitch: 9156 mm

into account the acoustic properties of the space itself.

Once the s o u n d pressure levels i n the r e c e i v i n g space due
Table VII Comparison of predicted and measured noise levels
to the airborne, structurebome a n d H V A C noise sources
(4450 T E U containership)
have been calculated, the o v e r a l l noise level can be obtained
by l o g a r i t h m i c s u m m a t i o n . T h e results are expressed i n Deck Space Noise level, dB(A)
linear a n d A - w e i g h t e d values f o r every octave centte fre-
Predicted Measured
quency b a n d . The o v e r a l l A - w e i g h t e d noise level at the
receiver is also g i v e n . 2nd Workshop 86 82
Engine control room 72 76
Upper Suez crew 64 63
Deck control room 66 64
CASE STUDIES Shipper's office 66 61
A Hospital 59 56
Crew recreation room 62 57
Case 1: 4450 TEU containership Galley 70 68
Crew mess room 57 61
A noise p r e d i c t i o n w a s carried out d u r i n g the ship's early B Gynasium 66 66
design stage. The p r i n c i p a l particulars of the s h i p are listed Chief cook 58 56
i n Table V I . Crew (K) 59 54
The first step i n any noise p r e d i c t i o n process is to i d e n t i f y Officer mess room 62 58
C Open swimming pool 74 77
the sources. A n e x a m i n a t i o n of the general l a y o u t revealed
Bosun 59 55
that the a c c o m m o d a t i o n block w a s located between f r a m e s
Chief steward office 62 58
70 to 90 a n d , therefore, p r o p e l l e r i n d u c e d noise w a s not
Conference room 63 •56
expected to have a n y s i g n i f i c a n t effect on the b a c k g r o u n d
Officer lounge 62 •56
noise levels, even t h o u g h it was i n c l u d e d i n the calculation. D Cadet (A) 66 •51
A l s o , the a c c o m m o d a t i o n b l o c k w a s not expected to be 4th engineer 62 •52
affected by noise f r o m the b o w thruster, w h i c h w a s located Engineer office 59 55
remotely at frame 151 a n d is only operated intermittently 2nd engineer dayroom 58 53
d u r i n g manoeuvring. Further examination of the submitted E Chief engineer dayroom 64 55
d r a w i n g s concluded that accommodation area noise w o u l d Chief engineer 54 53
be caused by the m a i n engine, auxiliary machinery, ventila- F Radio room 53 49
tion and exhaust fans, and the air c o n d i t i ç n i n g units. The fans Captain bedroom 61 •55
Radio officer 53 51
a n d the air conditioning units were located w i t h i n the accom-
Navigation Bridge 52 •60
modation area. The starboard side of the accommodation w a s
expected to be exposed to higher noise levels in comparison More than 5 dB(A) deviahon
w i t h the port side, d u e to the positioning of the machinery.
There were no special acoustic treatments a p p l i e d to the
s h i p a n d cabin consttuction w a s t y p i c a l l y based o n the noise levels w a s expected to be w i t h i n 5 d B ( A ) . In general,
f o l l o w i n g elements: the predicted noise levels correlated w e l l w i t h the measure-
ment results, w i t h the exception of cabins on decks C a n d D .
1. steel deck covered by a thin layer of concrete a n d
The a c c o m m o d a t i o n arrangements of decks C a n d D i n
p o l y v i n y l tiles;
F i g 3 s h o w that the engine r o o m v e n t i l a t i o n fans a n d the
2. cabin l i n i n g r i g i d l y connected to the decks a n d the sanitary exhaust f a n are located o n these decks. Frequency
bulkheads; analysis of the p r e d i c t e d results i n d i c a t e d that the m a j o r
i n f l u e n c e o n the o v e r a l l noise levels of spaces o n these t w o
3. cabin l i n i n g surface made of steel sheet covered b y a decks w a s the structureborne noise emitted by these fans.
PVC film. The p r o b l e m w a s related to the fact that i n f o r m a t i o n on these
It w a s expected that a v o i d space i n t r o d u c e d i m m e d i - fans w a s not s u p p l i e d by the makers, and so the i n p u t data
ately b e l o w the superstructure w o u l d reduce airborne noise used i n the calculation were exttacted f r o m a data bank based
transmission but have little effect o n structureborne noise on similar types of equipment. A s only the cabins i n the
propagation. v i c i n i t y of the fans d i s p l a y e d d i s a p p o i n t i n g results, it
A s u m m a r y of the predicted a n d measured results is is suspected that the data exttacted from the data bank d i d not
g i v e n i n Table V I I . T h e accuracy of the calculated o v e r a l l truly represent the actual acoustic p o w e r of the machinery.

202
 Trans IMarE. Vol 107, Part 3, pp 195-207

OFFICER LCUi-:GE COI:FE?.EI3CE CHIEF OILER OFF. OF] BOSUN

P.CGM STEWAP.r (B)
F.OCH —i

LIFT OFFIC:

ENGINE ENGINE
ROOM ENGINE ROOM LIFE
cO.-.T BOAT
V E N T I L A T 10:: CASING vENTIL.i.TIO:
Fi^^J FA:^^
ROOM .ROCH

2/ENG 2/ENG ENG ' R 4/ENG 3/ENG

BED OFFICE EED CADET C A D E T JlJiCIOR
OFFICE ROCH ENG'R
ROCH ROCH F.OCH

LAUÎ'JDRY S-Z-IHTARY
LIFT
F.y-:i ROOM

Fb'NNEL

DECK D

Fig 3 The cabin arrangement on decks C and D

Table Vlil Particulars of a 70m yacht r o o m v e n t i l a t i o n fan a n d air c o n d i t i o n i n g system. In contrast

Main engine 2 off: 1432 kW each at 1800 rev/min to C a s e 1, p r o p e l l e r noise w a s c o n s i d e r e d as a s i g n i f i c a n t

Mounting: elastic noise c o n t r i b u t o r because of the location of the cabins
Auxiliary machinery 3 off: 145 kW each at 1500 rev/min a n d recreation areas. T h e diesel generators were, however,
Mounting: elastic excluded f r o m the u n d e r w a y noise calculation as the noise
Propeller 2 X 4-bladed highly skewed cpp levels were f o u n d to contribute at least 9 d B p e r octave less
Diameter: 1700 mm noise and 18 d B per octave less vibration than the m a i n
Mean pitch: 20 094 mm engines.
E x t e n s i v e noise a n d v i b r a t i o n attenuation measures were
a p p l i e d to the yacht, w i t h most a c c o m m o d a t i o n areas b e i n g
Case 2: 70m yacht fitted w i t h floating floor arrangements. T h e a p p l i c a t i o n of
special acoustic treatment on s m a l l vessels is quite c o m m o n
P a r t i c u l a r s of the yacht are g i v e n i n Table VIII. T h e noise practice i n o r d e r to achieve m a x i m u m noise attenuation i n
p r e d i c t i o n w a s p e r f o r m e d u n d e r t w o c o n d i t i o n s : alongside the light of the c o m p a r a t i v e l y short t r a n s m i s s i o n path be-
and underway. tween noise sources a n d receivers.
The a l o n g s i d e noise calculation was carried out a s s u m i n g The c o m p a r i s o n between the p r e d i c t e d a n d measured
the o p e r a t i o n of t w o generator sets, one engine r o o m v e n t i - results is g i v e n i n Table IX. U n d e r the a l o n g s i d e c o n d i t i o n
lation f a n a n d the a i r c o n d i t i o n i n g system. T h e u n d e r w a y the c o r r e l a t i o n is v e r y i m p r e s s i v e , s u g g e s t i n g that the q u a l -
noise p r e d i c t i o n w a s based on the r u n n i n g of both m a i n ity of the i n p u t data w i t h respect to the noise sources c o n s i d -
engines a n d propellers, p l u s the noise d u e to the engine ered i n this c a l c u l a t i o n w a s g o o d . H o w e v e r , the predicted

203
c G Holland &SF Wong

Table IX Comparison of predicted and measured noise levels (70m yacht)

Noise level, dB(A)

Deck Space Alongside Underway

Predicted Measured Predicted Measured

Lower Engine control room 56 57 76 •55-60

Engine room 96 93-98 101 98-103
Crew cabin (IV L2) 46 50 63 •50
Guest cabin, P fore 45 43 53 •46
Guest cabin, P aft 45 42 52 50
Main Crew mess 45 46 48 49
Dining room 45 44 49 47
Main saloon 45 43 55 •48
Upper Owner's suite 45 43 47 44
Top VIP suite 45 46 46 45
Outside sitting area 57 59 72 67

* More than 5 dB(A) deviation

results f o r the u n d e r w a y c o n d i t i o n f o r some areas are gen- P r o p e l l e r noise calculations u s i n g the c o m b i n e d l i f t i n g

erally higher than the measured data, m a i n l y at the l o w e r
deck. Frequency analysis reveals that the noise i n the E n g i n e
C o n t t o l R o o m w a s generated m a i n l y b y p r o p e l l e r airborne
noise, w h i l e the noise i n c r e w a n d guest cabins w a s affected
b y structureborne noise f r o m b o t h m a i n engines a n d p r o p e l -
lers. It is believed that the i n p u t data f o r the noise sources,
especially propellers, c o u l d w e l l be overestimated.
The above t w o case studies demonstrate the influence
that the i n p u t data has o n the accuracy of the final results.
H o w e v e r , d e v i a t i o n between the predicted a n d measured
results is also g o v e m e d b y h o w w e l l the final construction
agrees w i t h the d e s i g n d r a w i n g s .
FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS
surface a n d b u b b l e - c l o u d collapse m e t h o d are available. The
v o l u m e of cavitation c o m p u t e d i n the w a k e peak is related
to the d i s t r i b u t i o n of free bubbles generated d u r i n g the
collapse phase of b l a d e sheet cavitation. C o m p a r i s o n s w i t h
s h i p a n d m o d e l scale data s h o w e n c o u r a g i n g results, a l -
t h o u g h the c o m p l e x i t y of the a p p r o a c h is not ideal f o r
p r e l i m i n a r y design studies.
R e g a r d i n g sttucturebome noise ttansmission, although
the semi-empirical method can give g o o d results if the ana-
lysed sttucture is s i m i l a r to p r e v i o u s designs stored in a data
bank, adjustment of parameters such as frame spacing, steel
thickness etc, carmot be studied for different designs. In re-
spor\se to the r a p i d change i n s h i p design concepts, the feasi-
bility of using an S E A technique to address the structurebome
noise ttansmission is currently under investigation.

The target of any f u t u r e d e v e l o p m e n t is to i m p r o v e the ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

accuracy of noise p r e d i c t i o n results. Technically, three areas
in the noise p r o d u c t i o n process can p r o v i d e scope f o r
The authors w o u l d like to express their thanks to the C o m -
i m p r o v e m e n t : d e t e r m i n i n g the s o u n d p o w e r levels of
mittee of L l o y d ' s Register f o r p e r m i s s i o n to p u b l i s h this
excitation sources accurately; i m p r o v i n g the accuracy of
paper. T h a n k s are also extended to the m a n y colleagues i n
estimating p r o p e l l e r noise; a n d u n d e r s t a n d i n g better the
the T e c h n i c a l Investigation, P r o p u l s i o n and E n v i r o n m e n t a l
b e h a v i o u r of structureborne noise p r o p a g a t i o n i n s h i p struc-
E n g i n e e r i n g D e p a r t m e n t w h o have c o n t t i b u t e d to the c o n -
tures.
tent of the paper.
U n t i l recently, s o u n d p o w e r o u t p u t f r o m machinery
c o u l d only be d e r i v e d f r o m s o u n d pressure measurement
and the results are i n f l u e n c e d by the v a r i o u s factors dis-
cussed earlier. W i t h the i n f r o d u c t i o n of the s o u n d intensity REFERENCES
meter, s o u n d p o w e r can n o w be d e t e r m i n e d more c o n f i -
dently f r o m the results of intensity measurements. T e c h - 1. Noise Levels On Board Ships, Intemational Maritime Organisation
niques f o r u s i n g the e q u i p m e n t a n d the measurement p r o - (IMO) Resolution A.468 (XU) (1982).
2. Code of Practice for Noise Levels in Ships, U K Department of
cedures to be f o l l o w e d are still at the d e v e l o p m e n t stage. L R
Transport, Second Edition (1990).
is w o r k i n g w i t h m a j o r engine b u i l d e r s to f o r m u l a t e stand- 3. J S Carlton, Marine Propellers & Propulsion, Butterworth-
ard measurement procedures i n marine applications. Heinemann Ltd (1994).

204

Discussion
A J Sinclair (Brookes, Bell & Co) Predicted a n d measured
noise levels f o r a containership are presented i n Table V U i n
the paper. It is not stated w h e t h e r the measured values were
obtained d u r i n g ballast ttials or at f u l l speed, f u l l l o a d
service conditions. H o w w o u l d the authors expect these
figures to change between the ballast, part load a n d f u l l load
conditions?
C G Holland and S F Wong (Lloyd's Register) T h e
containership noise levels presented i n the p a p e r are f o r the
f u l l speed, f u l l l o a d service c o n d i t i o n .
A i r b o m e a n d sttucturebome noise t r a n s m i s s i o n f r o m
m a c h i n e r y is g o v e m e d b y m a n y factors, i n c l u d i n g the m a -
chine load a n d speed, the m o u n t i n g arrangement, and the
acoustic properties of the enclosure. C h a n g e s i n the vessel's
d r a u g h t w i l l affect the a m o u n t of d a m p i n g a p p l i e d by the
mass of w a t e r a c t i n g on the h u l l but the effect is n o r m a l l y a
m i n o r one. O f greater interest is the effect on the ttansmis-
s i o n of p r o p e l l e r noise. P r o p e l l e r cavitation is generally
m o r e extensive i n the ballast c o n d i t i o n than i n the l o a d e d
c o n d i t i o n . H o w e v e r , this does not necessarily mean that
m o r e energy w i l l be ttansmitted into the s h i p ' s sttucture
because, i n c o m p a r i s o n w i t h the f u l l y l o a d e d c o n d i t i o n , the
ballast c o n d i t i o n m a y result i n a less effective c o n t i n u o u s
wetted surface area to absorb the energy. In s o m e instances
an aerated layer is p r o d u c e d close to the free surface, w h i c h
m a y also conttibute to a r e d u c t i o n i n the e f f i c i e n c y w i t h
w h i c h p r o p e l l e r noise is transmitted to the vessel. D u r i n g the
early stages of p r e p a r i n g a noise p r e d i c t i o n the effect o f
d r a u g h t v a r i a t i o n is assessed a n d the w o r s t c o n d ition is used
as a basis f o r the calculations.
B G M Rice (European Marine Contractors Limited) The
authors are to be congratulated o n their clear presentation of
a v e r y practical p r o b l e m . Table II i n the p a p e r s h o w s an
u n u s u a l l y l o w v a l u e of s o u n d attenuation f o r 19 m m thick
c a l c i u m silicate at 2000 H z , c o n s i d e r i n g the adjacent values.
F r o m Table II one m i g h t c o n c l u d e that c a l c i u m silicate
b o a r d is the best s o l u t i o n f o r cabin b u l k h e a d s w i t h o u t u s i n g
excessively thick m i n e r a l w o o l panels. It is perhaps w o r t h
p o i n t i n g out that reputable manufacturers c l a i m 40-45 dB( A )
reductions f o r S O m m thick systems usingSOOkg/m-* m i n e r a l
w o o l , w h i c h has a s i m i l a r w e i g h t per square metre as 19 m m
c a l c i u m silicate. I a m a d v i s e d that these s o u n d reductions
are measured at 500 H z .
D o the authors have a n y experience of noise p r e d i c t i o n
f o r s e m i - s u b m e r s i b l e s a n d are thereany p a r t i c u l a r p r o b l e m s
associated w i t h s u c h vessels i n m a k i n g noise predictions?
D o the authors have a n y experience of m a k i n g noise
p r e d i c t i o n s f o r vessels w i t h n u m e r o u s large (3-5 M W ) a z i -
m u t h thrusters, p a r t i c u l a r l y p r e d i c t i o n s i n the adjacent
thruster compartments? O n e w o u l d presume that at h i g h
p o w e r the m a i n noise source is the propeller. H o w e v e r , the
paper suggests that p r o p e l l e r i n d u c e d noise is currently one
of the less w e l l m o d e l l e d aspects.
T h e containership a n d yacht e x a m p l e s g i v e n in the paper
s h o w a correlation between predicted a n d measured noise
levels that indicates the m e t h o d has a practical a p p l i c a t i o n .
Trans IMarE, Vol 107, Part 3. pp 195-207
Is the sort of accuracy a c h i e v e d i n these t w o cases repre-
sentative of the accuracy obtained f o r other studies under-
taken b y L l o y d ' s Register, or is there u s u a l l y a w i d e r v a r i a -
tion?
C o u l d the authors p r o v i d e an i n d i c a t i o n of the cost and
time required to undertake a noise p r e d i c t i o n f o r a large
vessel, s u c h as the containership described i n the paper?
C G Holland and S F Wong (Lloyd's Register) The s o u n d
insertion loss data of c o m m o n c o n s t m c t i o n materials s h o w n
i n Table II s h o u l d be interpreted c a r e f u l l y a n d s h o u l d be
used f o r g u i d a n c e rather than as absolute values. T h e objec-
five of the table is to h i g h l i g h t the fact that the degree of
s o u n d attenuation t h r o u g h v a r i o u s materials d e p e n d s on
the f r e q u e n c y of the s o u n d . The mean s o u n d reduction
value, to a large extent, is of l i m i t e d use to the acousfic
engineer, especially w h e n d e a l i n g w i t h the s o l u t i o n of noise
p r o b l e m s . W h e n selecting the appropriate s o u n d i n s u l a t i o n
material, manufacturers s h o u l d a l w a y s be consulted for
advice. A p a r t f r o m the desired s o u n d reduction, the selec-
t i o n of the right material w i l l also be g o v e r n e d by factors like
the cost, area of a p p l i c a t i o n , e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n s , fire
rating, etc.
T h i s paper has concenttated o n the noise e n v i r o n m e n t
o n b o a r d ships. W h e n c o n s i d e r i n g offshore units there are
certain areas that require m o r e detailed attention d u e to their
greater relative importance. F o r example, i n order to achieve
acceptable noise levels i n a c c o m m o d a t i o n areas the siting of
process plant, the r o u t e i n g of h y d r a u l i c p i p e w o r k a n d the
attenuation measures designed f o r the H V A C system are all
i m p o r t a n t considerations. In the particular case of s e m i -
submersibles w i t h a z i m u t h i n g thmsters f o r p r o p u l s i o n or
d y n a m i c p o s i t i o n i n g there are the a d d e d p r o b l e m s of pro-
peller a n d g e a r i n g generated noise. T h i s can be e v i d e n t not
o n l y i n the adjacent c o m p a r t m e n t s but can also be ttansmit-
ted u p the p o n t o o n legs as structureborne noise, l e a d i n g to
noise breakout i n the m a i n deck areas. The waterborne noise
can also interfere w i t h acoustic p o s i t i o n sensor systems.
W i t h semi-submersibles the greater d e p t h s at w h i c h
thrusters are located helps to suppress cavitation, h o w e v e r
the units operate i n the region of b o l l a r d p u l l conditions,
w h i c h are m o r e c o n d u c i v e to cavitation. In a d d i t i o n , f o r
m u l t i p l e installations, the interference effects between thrust-
ers are larger than o n c o n v e n t i o n a l s h i p s a n d hence the
propellers may operate i n m o r e turbulent flow, or may be
starved of s o m e flow by the adjacent thrusters.
P r o p e l l e r noise p r e d i c t i o n methods d o exist f o r the types
of p r o p u l s o r a n d l o a d i n g variations experienced on d y n a m i -
cally p o s i t i o n e d vessels. H o w e v e r , such methods rely on a
s m a l l base of f u l l scale data.
The level of accuracy achieved w h e n p r e d i c t i n g noise
levels varies not o n l y for d i f f e r e n t s h i p types but also be-
tween cabins i n the same s h i p , as demonstrated by the t w o
cases in the paper. H o w e v e r , an o v e r a l l accuracy of ± 5 dB( A )
is a v e r y practical a n d achievable figure.
L F Moore (Noise and V i b r a t i o n C o n s u l t a n t ) In Table V ,
on p201 of the paper, 1 see that f o r resilient mounts the
205
c G Holland &SF Wong
authors give a constant v a l u e of attenuation f o r 250 H z a n d
above. C a n they please e x p l a i n the reason f o r this a n d w o u l d
they care to c o m m e n t o n the relative merits of c o i l s p r i n g a n d
rubber mounts. W h a t is their experience of the effect of
connections such as exhaust pipes, ducts a n d cables o n
mount performance.
In F i g 2 o n p200, n o m e n t i o n is m a d e of the effect o n
H V A C noise of air flow t h r o u g h the terminals. In m y expe-
rience p o o r b a l a n c i n g of air flows i n systems can give rise to
excessive air flows i n some terminals, w i t h resultant h i g h
noise levels. A l s o , d o they find that manufacturers of air-
h a n d l i n g units give s o u n d p o w e r levels based o n f a n o n l y
p e r f o r m a n c e u n d e r i d e a l conditions, instead of a l l o w i n g f o r
fan chambers, s h a r p bends, etc, i n close p r o x i m i t y to f a n
outlets.
A l t h o u g h d B ( A ) levels are g i v e n i n the paper, d o the
authors feel that d B ( A ) is adequate f o r e x p r e s s i n g the subjec-
tive effect of l o w f r e q u e n c y noise, p a r t i c u l a r l y pure tones
such as those e m a n a t i n g f r o m exhaust systems.
A n u m b e r of years ago T N O i n H o l l a n d suggested a
c o m b i n e d noise a n d v i b r a t i o n rating f o r use i n ships. D o the
authors t h i n k that this a p p r o a c h c o u l d be u s e f u l l y d e v e l -
oped.
C G Holland and S F Wong (Lloyd's Register) It s h o u l d be
emphasised a g a i n that the data c o n t a i n e d i n the tables
s h o u l d o n l y be used f o r guidance. The acoustic p e r f o r m a n c e
of materials a n d components w i l l d e p e n d on the type, m o d e l ,
etc, a n d m a n u f a c t u r e r s s h o u l d be contacted f o r detailed
information.
S p r i n g type m o u n t s have linear l o a d / d e f l e c t i o n charac-
teristics, are i m m u n e to temperature v a r i a t i o n s a n d can be
subjected to large deflections a n d shock loadings. T h e y have
the disadvantage of not h a v i n g inherent d a m p i n g a n d c o n -
sequently separate d a m p i n g elements m u s t be p r o v i d e d f o r
some applications. R u b b e r mounts, i n conttast, possess i n -
herent d a m p i n g b u t have n o n - l i n e a r properties. T h e i r per-
f o r m a n c e can be affected b y e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n s if the
installation is not c a r e f u l l y designed. The choice between
s p r i n g or rubber m o u n t s , or a c o m b i n a t i o n , to achieve the
desired effect of either r e d u c i n g s t t u c t u r e b o m e noise trans-
m i s s i o n a n d / o r protecting the stationary e q u i p m e n t w i l l
d e p e n d o n the p a r t i c u l a r apphcation.
O u r trouble-shooting experience suggests that imbalance
i n the air flows is one of the m a i n contributors to H V A C noise
p r o b l e m s , especially f o r systems w h e r e adjustment c a n
be m a d e i n i n d i v i d u a l c a b i n s . M o s t H V A C s y s t e m s
are d e s i g n e d f o r l o w velocity air flows a n d if h i g h velocity
air flow is foreseen, the duct d e s i g n must be m o d i f i e d
and velocity generated air f l o w noise taken into
account. W h e r e manufacturers s u p p l y l i m i t e d i n f o r m a t i o n
about their p r o d u c t s then the effects of f a n chambers, bends,
etc, m u s t be estimated, often u s i n g standard tables of noise
data.
The A w e i g h t i n g n e t w o r k is a filter w h o s e f r e q u e n c y
response a p p r o x i m a t e s to the inverse of the equal loudness
curves of the h u m a n ear at l o w s o u n d pressure levels. It
attenuates l o w frequencies m o r e than h i g h ones a n d results
in the allocation of a single d B ( A ) v a l u e to a g i v e n s o u n d .
T h i s single v a l u e c a n be m i s l e a d i n g as it does not p r o v i d e
a n y i n d i c a t i o n of the frequency content of the s o u n d . It has
206
been s h o w n that h i g h levels of l o w f r e q u e n c y noise m a y be
a n n o y i n g s u b j e c t i v e l y b u t h a v e a r e l a t i v e l y l o w d B ( A ) value.'
The use of noise rating curves w h i c h require the measure-
ment of s o u n d pressure levels at discrete octave band fre-
quencies can o v e r c o m e this p r o b l e m .
The T N O report referred to b y M r M o o r e ' m a d e the p o i n t
that m a n y people find it d i f f i c u l t to m a k e any clear d i s t i n c -
tion between noise a n d v i b r a t i o n , w h e n asked to judge a
g i v e n s h i p b o a r d e n v i r o n m e n t . It is therefore desirable to
measure b o t h s o u n d a n d v i b r a t i o n , w h e n one of the t w o
m u s t be rated. The m e t h o d of c o m b i n i n g the results of noise
a n d v i b r a t i o n measurements i n order to obtain a c o m p o u n d
v a l u e needs care, to ensure that each is g i v e n the correct
w e i g h t i n g a n d is a p a r t i c u l a r l y c o m p l e x a n d subjective
matter.
References
1. I Buiten, A proposal on noise criteria for sea going ships. Report N o
125S, Netiieriands Ship Research Cenh-eTNO, Delft Oune 1969).
2. I H Janssen, A proposal for standardized measurements and annoy-
ance rating of simultaneous noise and vibration in ships. Report No
126S, Netheriands Ship Research Cenh-e T N O , Delft Oune 1969).
J B B o r m a n (Lloyd's Register) In the paper the authors
refer to the i m p o r t a n c e of structureborne noise a n d their
presentation had a slide w h i c h i n d i c a t e d that this w a s the
m a j o r c o m p o n e n t i n the total noise level for the e x a m p l e they
used. In the sections o n f u t u r e d e v e l o p m e n t s , there is m e n -
tion of the use of the s o u n d intensity meter, a n d its benefits,
b u t there is no reference to i m p r o v e m e n t s i n the measure-
ment of m a c h i n e r y v i b r a t i o n .
M y experience of noise a n d v i b r a t i o n p r o b l e m s is re-
stticted to the design, a n d i m p l e m e n t a t i o n , of electric p r o -
p u l s i o n systems w i t h l o w noise a n d v i b r a t i o n characteristics
for such installations as research ships. In this type of vessel
it is noise into the water that is of i m p o r t a n c e .
The major p r o b l e m w a s w i t h the p r o p u l s i o n motors,
w h i c h h a d to be s o l i d l y m o u n t e d on the s h i p s ' seatings a n d ,
a l t h o u g h the machines w e r e d e s i g n e d u s i n g the latest ideas
w i t h regard to v i b r a t i o n r e d u c t i o n , the actual levels c o u l d
not be guaranteed. A v i b r a t i o n test p r o g r a m m e w a s there-
fore required to v e r i f y that the contract target levels were not
b e i n g exceeded.
The p r o c e d u r e a d o p t e d w a s to m o u n t the motors on a
special baseplate that w a s s u p p o r t e d o n very flexible mounts,
so that it w a s d e c o u p l e d f r o m the test shop f l o o r . V i b r a t i o n
measurements were taken at the m o t o r feet w i t h the m o t o r
operation at v a r i o u s loads a n d speeds.
T h i s procedure w a s later r e f i n e d b y m a k i n g measure-
ments of the v i b r a t i o n characteristics of the baseplate/ m o u n t
assembly u s i n g v i b r a t i o n exciters, a n d then u s i n g this infor-
m a t i o n w i t h the measurements o n the r u n n i n g m o t o r to
obtain a better estimate of the m o t o r characteristics. T h i s
d e v e l o p m e n t w a s d e p e n d e n t on c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m s to d o
the necessary calculations.
In recent years c o m m e r c i a l pressures have been such that
special test baseplates are not atttactive options a n d the
p r o c e d u r e a d o p t e d w a s to use standard shop test blocks,
measure their v i b r a t i o n b e h a v i o u r , carry out the r u n n i n g
tests a n d then d o the c o m p u t a t i o n as before. M y u n d e r s t a n d -
i n g w a s that measurement techniques a n d c o m p u t a t i o n a l

facilities h a d d e v e l o p e d to such an extent as to m a k e this a
viable o p t i o n . C a n the authors c o m m e n t on the use of firm,
b u t calibrate, s u p p o r t s f o r diesel engines as a w a y of p r o v i d -
i n g data o n the v i b r a t i o n forces the engine imposes on its
s u p p o r t structure?
C G Holland and S F Wong (Lloyd's Register) First, the
authors w o u l d like to c o m m e n t o n the statement i n the first
p a r a g r a p h of M r B o r m a n ' s question. T h e significance of the
s t t u c t u r e b o m e noise is d e p e n d e n t on the location of the
r e c e i v i n g space. A i r b o r n e noise w i l l be the d o m i n a n t noise
c o m p o n e n t i n the engine r o o m . I n the case of the yacht
example, the overall noise in the engine c o n t t o l r o o m w a s
d o m i n a t e d b y the airborne noise c o m p o n e n t .
Trans IMarE. Vol 107, Part 3. pp 195-207
T h e reason f o r m e a s u r i n g m a c h i n e r y v i b r a t i o n is to at-
tempt to q u a n t i f y the radiated energy ttansmitted to the
s u r r o u n d i n g s t m c t u r e . U n l e s s the force f r o m the m a c h i n e r y
can be m e a s u r e d easily i n practice, m e a s u r i n g v i b r a t i o n is by
far the most c o m m o n practice.
T h e authors w o u l d like to thank M r B o r m a n for the
description of the v i b r a t i o n measurement p r o c e d u r e of elec-
tric p r o p u l s i o n motors. T h e d y n a m i c properties of a n y test
b e d , i n c l u d i n g the effects of m o u n t i n g the m a c h i n e , can be
d e t e r m i n e d b y u s i n g m o d a l analysis techniques. E s t a b l i s h -
i n g the test bed's d y n a m i c characteristics enables the test
machine's v i b r a t i o n signature to be evaluated f r o m the
v i b r a t i o n measurement of the d y n a m i c system c o m p r i s i n g
test bed a n d machine.
207