í

rO&[}{]Cfü1 HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES

iá:1[ L8'[}{] DESIGN MANUAL

Jost Knauss

Coordinator-edttor
 r

r
INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR HYDRAULIC RESEARCH

ASSOCIATION INTERNATIONALE DE RECHERCHES HYDRAULJQUES

r
¡·
1
HYDRA ULIC STRUcrtJRES
r DESIGN MANUAL

f'

HYDRAULIC DESIGN CONSIDERA TIO'IS

/.
 r

7 Vortex-tlow intakes
F
S.C.Jain & R.Ertema 125

F
8 Conclusions

139
G.E.l lecker (:-

157
Refcrences ,·

r·
165
Subject index
r-
, .

¡'

'
,1

VI
 r

r
Preface

r
f

f.

1 This volume is the first of a series. It belongs to 1he IAHR Hydraulic strnctures

des,gn manual wh.ich is being prcpared by a team of authors co-ordinatcd by

/· thc [AHR, as was de.cidcd during che lAHR Congress in New Delhi in 1981.

This manual is to appear in the fonn of two series. Toe füst series will present

up-to-date information, worldwidc, on the basic knowledge and tools availablc

for the analysis oí phenomena affccting hydraulic Structurcs. The second series

will serve the practising cngjnecr as an application index aiding him 10 selcct

the rclevant scctions ofthe manual 10 beconsultcd in thc task to ensure a hydraulica!!y

saf
c design:

Hydraulic design considerations: Application indcx:

Dischargc characteristics, energy losses Low-head oontrol structures

Hydrodynam.ic brees High-head oontrol suuctures

Aow-induoed vibrations Intakc structurcs

Cavitation Conduit and channcl transitions

Air cntrainmenl in free-surface flows Energy dissipators

Air water mixture problems in closed Fish protection facilities.

conduits

Swirling flow problems at intakes

1

Energy dissipation

Scouring

Scdiment control

Scepage and uplift

Water-equality dfccts.

On behalf of che &:lilorial Committce, consisting of J.S.McNown, J.E.Prins,

A.J.Raudkivi, D.Vischcr, and mysclf, 1 am happy to prcsent this first comribution

to thc IAHR Design manual for thc benefit of ali thosc who are involved with

hydraulic suuceures both in engincering practice and education. Work on the

remarning pans of thc manual rs well on its way. Toe othcr votumes will come

out wilhin the nexr two to threc years as they are °b:impleted. I am sure the

engineering cornmunity wiU we!comc the consolidation of this informarion which

VII

•
 r

is nonnallyscanered amonga vust numbcrofjoumalsand books. with theassurance

r
that both the data couecuon and its presemation werc: pc:rformcd on an internatronal,

lughly-expert

The present
level.

volumc: Swirímg jlow problems at mtakes i

s a good examplc. !t
r
was preparcd by eleven authors from di!fc:rc:nt countrics who are ali intcmationatt.
r·
rcoog:uzed expcns on swirling flow problems. Morcovcr, Dr. Knauss, thc coor­

dinamr-cditor, has takcn great pains to recerve inpul to this work from d1sc11��,01h

at intemational

by five experts in
meerings

the lield.
When thc:

Despirc: aU
m.:muscript was oomplctcd,

lhese efforts, 1 wish to

he

sc:cond
had it revtcw

the....,•n¡
e.i
r
of caution exprc:ssc:d by Dr. Knauss and Dr. Hc:ckcr in the lntroductior ª"'.
I '
the Conciusíons. T11t:1t: 1� eull huensive rcsearch aetivity tOOay on swirüng :".o,:,

so that it is impossiblc: to prc:sent material in a final fonn. Thereforc, rather ,:,. :,

fcigning false security by stringentguidelinc:s and prescribed mc:thods, the mon�a:'.·,

r •·
present.s 'statc:-oí-the-an' knowlcdge by mc:ans oí a numbc:r of sumrrercin,

contribulions. \Ve wrsh to invite aU colleagues corkjng i

n this field to rejort to,

us new findings, from both rcsearch and practic:al expenence, so that we may

incorporate them in the rcvised new editions which are planned t

o appear m

five year-intervals.

Last, but not least, l wish to thank everyone who hclped to make publicauon

of this volumc: possible. In particular, 1 wish to thank Dr. Knauss who had the

tremendous and often frusuating task of coordinating and cditing the many

contributions. Wc are: most gratcful to him and all his co-authors for taking on

the chore oí prescnting their knowlcdgc and expc:rience, and íor doing it in such

an admirable: fonn, even though their jobs already occupied them 10 the limit.

Toe secretariat of lAHR is to be t.hankcd for giving the much-needed suppon

and counsel in all phases of thc pubücation of this volume.

Karlsruhe, May 1987 Eduard Naudascher

VIII

L
 r·

r Contributors

r
E.Chang, Dr. M.Padmanabhan, Dr.
[
Training Centre far Small Hydro Power AJden Research Laboratory

P.0.Box 544 \Vorccster Polytechnic lnstitute

1 Hangzhou Ha/den, Massachusetts 01520

China USA

1 R.Ettema, Assi. Prof. Dr. M.J.Prosser

lowa lnstitute of Hydraulic Rescarch Principal Rcsearch Engineer

Univcrsity of Iowa BHRA Fluid Engincering

1
lowa City, lowa 52242 Crnnficld, Ikdford

USA UK

, - R.J. Garde, Prof. Dr. K.G.Ranga Raju, Prof. Dr.

Depanment of Civil Enginccring Department of Civil Engincering

Univcrsity of Roorkee Univcrsity of Roorkcc

1

Roorkcc, U.P. Roorkee, U.P.

India India

G.E.Hecker, Prof. Dir. P.Rutsclunann

Alden Research Laborarory versuchsanstau für Wasscrbau

Worcester Polytechruc lnstitute Eil-f-2.c:utmm

Holdcn, Massachusetts 01520 CH-8092 Zürich

USA Switzcrland

S.CJain, Proí. Dr. D. Vischer, Prof. Dr.

lowa lnstitute of Hydraulic Research Versuchsa.'lStail für Wasserbau

Univcrsity of lowa ETH-Zcntrum

Jowa Ci1y, lowa 52242 CH-8092 Zilrich

USA Switzerlaod

J.Knauss, Prof. Dr.·ing. P. Volkart, Dr.

Versuchsanstalt für Wasserbau Versuchsantstalt für Wasserbau

Tcchnische Univcrsitat München ETH-Zemrum

D- 8 1 1 1 Obemach/Walcheruee CH-8092 Zürich

FR Gennany Swilzerland

IX

1
 r
Reviewers
r
r
f�

r
r·
F. W.Blaisdell
¡·
Research leader

Agricullural Rcsearch Scrvicc

St. Anthony Falls Hydraulic Laboratory

f
Minneap::,1.is, Minnesota 55414

USA

G.S.DhiUon, Dr. f

Superintcnding cnginc:er

Anandapur Sahib Hydcl ConsL, Circlc No. 2

Nangal Township, Pb.

India

Santokh Singh

Chicf cngincer (Rescarch)

r
lrrigation and Power Rescarch lnstitutc

Amritsar, Pb.

India
,.

XJ L
 Symbols and dimensionless numbers

¡ ·
Symbo!s used in tlus volume corrcspond to ISO 772. SymOOls wtuch are n01
•
menucned below will be introduccd wit.hin the individual chapters in which they

are first mentioned.

g(m·s-2) accelerauon due to gravity

1
p (kg · m-l) fluid mass density

v(m2.s-1) kinematic viscosity

1 )
o(N·m- surface tension force per unit length
1
h (m) intake submergencc (detailed dcfinition given in Fig­

ure 4 . 1 )

he, (m) critica! intake submcrgcnce

J !O!
d (m) intake diarnetcr (or an other typical linear dimension

of the intake cross section if nor circular)

1 Q (mt . s - 1 ) intake discharge

. k 1 . Q
v(m·s-1) mta e ve ocrty: v = dl;i-/
4
l
v (m · s "') tangential velocity: v1 = w r, with w = angular veloci­
1

ty, r = general radius, and d/2 = intake radius, rr =

malching radios between free and forced vortex rcgion

(see Figures 2.1 and 4.8), re = shadow radius (outer

radius of surface deprcssion, sce Figure 5.4)

r ( m 2 . s-1) circulation: r = 2..- v1 r = 2..- e

e (m2. s-1) circulation ccnstant: e = r/2..-

swirl angle
" approach flow swirl angle (index a indicates approach
"•
flow conditions)
l
intake orientation (detailed definition given in Fig­

ure 4 l)

'

XIII
1

l
 r,

&frie dimensioníess numbers

r
h/d rclativc intakc submcrgencc

critica! value
r
(h/d)cr

F, • ---,..,,
v
intake Froude number r
"• d
,d
Re=- intakc Reynolds numbcr

'
/pd
We = v -y -;¡ intake Weber number

rd
Nr=- circulation numbcr
Q

1
Other í"mponant notations

v 1
discharge cocfficienl
e;·
.;
"'2
,-h
'"

v 1 F
submergence Froude numbcr
7.h - ..Jh/d r

1
_g_ = �- - Re radial Reynolds number
" h .. h/d

,_,
,pc.-=
d
- -we2 Weber numbcr
o

Other nOlatiom ofcirculation number

F T
- ..: - N r Kolr numbcr
,d 4

' 1
N,•-=-Nr
,d 8

rh h
-=-Nr Jain numbcr
Q d

e d I
-•-Nr Anwar number
Q 2T

XIV
 r
r Introduction l

r
r J.KNAUSS

T«l,n,rn/ UntvtrntyofMumdt. O/Nnwd1, FR Grmu111y

1 .

["

1
1.1. SCOPE OF THE VOLUME

,.
According to the main guide-line oí the IAHR-initiative conceming the publication

of a Hydraulic st1Vct11res des1g11 manULJI this volume is intended to provide up­

lo-date itúormation on intcmational scale on the subjc(t under discussion, namely:

Swirling flow problcms at mtakes.

1
Swirling now probkms are associatcd wilh intakc structurcs of diffcrem types

which are prone 10 conex fonnation. Prob!ems arisc from air entrainment and

1 swirl intrusion at the transi:ion from free surfaee to prcssurc flow c.onditions. lntakcs

confrontcd with such phcnomena are installed ar water power plants or pump

sumps for example.

!
Gencrally, an inmke structure may beconsidercd as wcU dcsigned when a possible

vonex formation is comrclled in such a way that air cntrainment is avoided on

principie and swirl entrainmcnt is nnnimized down to a tolerable amount.

In the case of swirling flow problcms at íntakes thc devclopment and improvemem

of the basic knowlcdge cf tae hydraulic phenomena in volved and ofthe fundamental

tools available for practical apphcation is progressing, but by no way firúshed.

The present starc of the art (1985) will be ctiscussod in this monograph by means

I·
of a series of summarizing contributions (chapters of thc monograph) presented

by expcricnced hydraulic engineers from ctiffcrent countrics.

1.2. SOURCES OF SWIRL

Among thc many sources of swirl and voncx fonnation, thc most frequently

cncountcred ooe is an eccentricity of thc approach llow relative to the intakc

and thc connected conduit. In most of thc cases, asymmetry in thc approach

flow ficld due t

o geomctrical oonditions causes vortex formation, but thcre are

also special hydrautic processes responsible for swut production in gcomctrically

symmctric installationc;, even with an ideal vclooty distribution in thc approach

flow. Durgin & Hcckcr (!978) define chrcc fundamental types ot vorticity sources
 r

r
I I I

¡
r
(/oJ
�

r
1 1 1 I I I ¡-

�¡ (&/
1 1

Jt t I
¡ ¡ �

-VI G-
1

l { Figure

mctry
1.1. Rou1t1onal How ansmg from (a) asym-

and (b) chllngc m d1rcction of boundanQ

(•) (b) {Dc:nny & Youn¡, 1957)

- .... ,,
-·--... ·,
-- ' ''
', \
,,r----
1

�Ü,/
i•, r L
1
.',.
= ,�
�\\(fu l \ {�'

'\ +
:, ' ,-_
/

\
''
o �
' -
- o \ I
• ,. o , Figure 1.2 lnt.akc pronc t
o vortcx fonnat,on

'-----''-�-C.:'-' {Anwar, 1968).

- -_ 113 -:i
)
:::. o_9..,
�

J =-=� -/�t =
- +-; e�
------...::.; +,
-n0
¡,
---
- .

(b) (e)
<•)

¡.
- igu
re IJ. ) vdocity gracbcnts. (e) obul\lcuon (Durg¡n
Sourccs ofvonicity. (a) offset in1roduc:tion, (b

&. 1--b:ko:r, 1978).

2
 e<rculct,on ons1ng from

osymmetr1co\ geometry

of the bC11J11dories

vorticn �eporated

from offsels

vort1ces 011d cktulahon stimulated by

symmetr1cal boundories
o�y.,melricol veloc1ty distnbulio11 i
n the

npproath flow due lo bou1100.ry layer

seporoho11, wtnd oct1on or eccentnc

weok vort1ces generated inflow inlo !he bns111

in the interface al

counlenurrent 5

' I '

' '

Figure 1.4 Vanous ciramples of vortex íormation al asymmctrical approach flow oonditions (Knauss,

1972).

as shown in Figure 1.3 and described in Section 6.21. In literature onc can find

a lot of schematic illustrations showing the various examples of intakes prone

to vortex formation (see Figures 1.1 up to 1.5). Vortio=s mainly were stimulated

by: cccentric oriemation of the intakc rcletive to a symmetric approach flow area,

asymmetric approach flow conditions due to irregularilies in boundary !ining,

unfavourablc cffccts of obstructions such as offscts, picrs or dividing walls, non­

uniform velocity distribution causcd by boundary layer separation, wind action,

wakcs, countercurrents and othcr rcasons.

An ecccntricity betwecn thc approach flow arca and the intake may stimulate

fonnation of a circulating or swirling flow field in front of or above the inlet

structure. By this circulation harmless or hamúul vórtices may be gcnerated.

Generally one can state that the intcnsity and stability of the resulting flow rotation

increase with the increase in arca pronc 10 circulation.

Very often the given local conditions or spccial design considerations such as

an economic optimization of the whole schcme intetfere with the hydraulic principie

of a vortex free intake. Toen, vortex fonnation must be tolcrated, provided that
 furlher uampl�•

F,gurc 1.5. Von.cJc l"om1:1t100 al ,makes of pumped

storage schcmes (Knauss, 198)).

operanonal probtcms dueto dangerous arr and swirl entrainmeat can be elimmated.

This mcans. that circulation must be controlled and limited by suitable measures.

1.3. INTAKE lYPES, GENERAL CLASSIFICATION

Thc common bricí classification conccms a distinction betwcen 'intake slructures'

and 'pump sumps'. lntakc strvcturcs are associered with oower planL�, cspccially

with P.Umped stora� schel]}� w1th a!l kinds o( waJcr supply systems. with lock

fillmg mstallations or with the various hydraulic structures at dams (c.g. bottom

outlets, moming glory or siphon spillways). Conceming thc flow rate ali kmds

of pump intakes in sum� may gencrally be considered as sm.all or medium size

installations, whcrcas intake structures normally are classifted as large size instaY:

lations.

--· With respect to hydraulic considerations the above mentioned classification is

insufficient and should be completed by the introduction of further criteria conceming

spccial characteristics of the oonstruction.

Figure 1.6 shows a proposal for a subclassification due to two typical desiiw

(lli;me.nts. The firsJ Q® s

i a distinction relatcd to thc intake dircction or orientation.

The secood onc coosroers an important structural measurc distinguistung wht\ht:1

an in�k� is located in 1he floor or_ _y,,alls_oí the basin or &S projecliñgjmQ_the

rcscrvoir gr sump. The latter distinction may be he pfu

l l oonceming the i
d fforen t

types of vortcx ñows at intakes.

n
I Figu re 1.6 also thc general fcatu re of the main hydrnulic system 'iruake'

is pointed out sche matically. i

W tbin thc intakc the O ow coodíuoos .changs.Irom

[rec surfase to pressure flow .

4
 general system. , tservo,r

pump •vmp - - condu,t.closPd chaonel

np•n channtt

frtt •urtQCI + prn�urt l!cn,

( >-" 1 )

structural d1sti'nct100
(.k,,-'-)
genera( I o I I b1

clcsstñcchcn
r 1ntak1 lorottd ,n1okt pro¡ect,ng

due to !he intake 1n ttl

t >1011 or lht ,nlo !he bos1n

floor of th, basm

direction
1

--.--�
1
1) vertically downwards " .

"
'

inlokn al

2l inclined downwards
powu plonh

-. 8_.
l
3 ¡ horizontal
" -.
.l

l. ) incHned upwards "

+
/, N
)-'
s1phon -,-
' · ..:;. ....
+-,- -flt..
51 verlically upwards
t
b

Figure 1.6. TYJ!C$ of intakc: fflUClUreS.

s
 ! 4 VORTEX TYPí:S, GENERAL CLASS!ílCAllON

voníces at intalccs appear in forms correspondmg to nurnerous typc specrñceucns

and dcscript,ons. Toree main distinctivc marks are givcn by (a) the location o�

vortcx form.ation rclauvc to the intake, (b) the time depcndency of the phcnomen.,

and (e) the shapc of the cstablished vortex. Further fundamental dassificerion

is necessary conceming a vcrtex strcngth scale and an appropnate desceoucn

of the vonex dcvelopmcnt relative to thc intakc (see Scct.ion l 1.3).

A very important classification of vonex typcs ccosiders the location of ,oc:·�,.

formation: (a) suñace vórtices, startlng from the free water surface and 4x'mf!

rcsponsible for possiblc entrainmcnt of air and swirt, (b) subsuñace vonices, star:,ng

from the floor and/or thc walls of the upstream basin, being mainly respoesibre

for swirl intrusion (sec Figure l. 7). Wall located intakcs nonnally are assoeeued

with surface votticcs only. Projecting intakcs especia Uy in pump sumps are subjected

to both, suñacc and subsuñacc vórtices.

Coccming time dcpendcncy of vortcx fonnation, a basic disrincuon bctwecn

stcady or stabl: vorticcs and unsteady or unstablc, transient, intennittcnt types

is necessary. Stable vortices are characterizcd by a sceady production of swirl in

CD iutfatt vertex

-•

0 1ubsurfou YoriU

I sut111ttgtd or undenlGltt vorlu I

lal

,.---� 1 - lOCGI Yotft:t

---@ -
+- conctnhlc or colu111n vcrtex

I bI l

optn eb--eore

tvcrtex orlflct flowl

le I

F,gure 1 7 Typcs tL YOrtxlC1 duc to location of appeararv:c and n::sulting shape

•
 r
r
cp
<?
jepc
r·
•
-y* 1 /

r deHr!Pl1on
� 1 W'
.4í! 9A W,
,44 �¡(�
duelo:

r 1 l increos.f of weok cr1lical slrong

circulat1on

2l devetopment undevetoped crll1cal developed

r rercnve lo

the mlake

3J physicol cor.bined polent1al cril1col stage potenl1al vortex

1
explanaliO!l and rololionol vorlex fer a1r-entro.inment Of' free spiral vortu

(Rank111e vortu) wilh on open oir-cort

Figure 1.8. 1lic different types of stablc surface cornees at intakes venically downwards (dra,n
r
YOrticcs). indicauon and distillction.

the approach Oow field. lntermittent vorticcs result from an unsteady supply of

1 swirl. TI1e instability of tbc proccss may be chockcd by statisticaion of vortex

types considera thc location of vortex formation: (a) surfacc vórtices, staning from

the free water surfaoe and bcing rcsponsible for possiblc emrainmem of air and

L swirl, (b) subsuñacc vórtices, starting from the íloor and/or the walls of the upstream

basin, bcing mainly rcsponsiblc for swirl intrusion (

see Figure 1.7). WaU locatcd

intakes normally are associated with sarface YOrticcs only. Projccting intakes

cspccially in pump sumps are subjccted 10 both, surface and subsurfacc voníces.

Coreming time dcpcndcncy of voncx formation, a basic distinction bctwccn

steady or stable vorticcs and unstca.dy or unstablc, transient, intermiuent types

is necessary. Stablc vortices are charactcrized by a stcady production of swirl in

thc approadi flow field. Intennittent vortic.cs resul! from an unstcady supply of

swirl. The instabi1ity of thc process may be chec.kcd by sterísncar methods as

discus.sed in Scction 2.1.4.

Sorne common typc: classifications of stablc surfacc vonices duc to the overall

shapc of thc cstablishcd vortex and its dcvdopment rdativc to the intake are

shown in Figures 1.7 and 1.8. 111c Rankinccombined vortex is discusscd in Scctions
l
ree spirnl vortices is giVCfl in Chaptcr 3.
2.1.2 and 4.4.1. Information on f

1.5. SWIRUNG FLOW PROBLEMS

Two main hydraulic problcms may be encountered with thc entrainment of air

and swirl at intakcs: (a} unfavourable hydrodynamic impact on thc opcration an

performance of hydraulic machines, (b) dangerous hydropncuma1ic eff

ccts in thc-

L
 \

closed channel system downstream of the mlet

An intakc pronc ro vortex Iormanon rcsulting in a considerable entrainmcr t

of arr and swtrl may be the source of the following difficulucs (see atso Scctio«,

2.3.1 and 6.23):

- mercase ofhcad losscs dueto the hindcrcd mtake proccss,

- reduction of maxmmm intakc rarc by the vortex ílow useíf or by rncar-s

of adjusted opcrational condltions aimed to mininuze swrrhng Oow problems,

- reduaion of cffiaency ofthe hydraulic machines dueto thcdeacascd d1·.,·'· ,e

and by oper:uing thc machines within an unfavourab'e rcgion of cfficiency <11.(111 g

at lower ílow ratcs,

- detcriorationoftherunningconditions ofthe hydrauhc machines byr -d

air associated with Iluctuations of flow rate and prcssure distribution, · lcast

rcsulting in considerable drops of efficicncy, rough operaticn oonditi� . cod <'

cnvironmental impact by increased noisc,

- slimulation of vibrations and cavitation inceptioo leadin to wear awd da: ...ge

of sensitivc construction elements (impeUcr blades, bcarings or other-enportant

parts of the installation),

- production of an unbalanced loading of pump impeUers or turbine runners

by swirl and unevcn Oow distribution,

- appearance of slug flow conditions within the condui, ctue to aceumulation

of entrapped air (sudden relcasc of large air pockcts, flow pulsations),

- incrcasc in operationa[ problems by thc suaion of dcbris pos¡ibly pullcd

down by surfacc vortices (c.g. esymmctríc bloc:kage of scrcens, dislocntion of bulk

head and dama.ge to grating).

•
Ali the lista! difficulties may be intcnsified by thc nonnaUy grven instability

of thc vonex fonn.ing process. The most disa.greeable consequence:s are associated

with thc entraincd air.

ldcally, thc flow passing from free surfacc closed channel conditioru. should
Q__
t

be unifonn, stcady and of single µliase (Pro=r, I9n). The laner condition concems

two main po.smlations for intakc dcsign and operation: no dircct cntrainmcnt of

ree air by surfaoe vortices and no rclcasc of dis.so!YCd air or gas by strong sub.surfaoe
f

vorticcs. However, f
or practic:al application the desirable unifonnity and absolutc

stcadyness of thc intakc fiow panern must be modified by thc introduction of

tolerable limits and acccptancc criteria handling unavoidable ewirl cntrainmcnt.

l.6. QUANTIFICATION OF DANGEROUS AIR ANO SWIRL

ENTRAINMENT

Gcnerally, air cntrainment causes detrimental eff

ects on lhe opcration of pumps

and turbincs, but in spccial cases smaU volurnes of cmrappcd air may not scriously

degrade thc peñonnance condnions (see Scction 2.2.3). Axial flow pum°ps are more

scnsitivc to air ing(Stion than centrifuga! pumps (Chang, 1977). Au- by water sclumes

up to 3 or 4% may givc risc to a small but oontinuous decreasc in pump efliciency.

8
 JI

r sntcke ,

r
, " revolut,ons of swor! mct�r per l1m�

r ,, . rt d n , v = �
'ª
d rt

r to a •
�

' . a
o
• tnd1caled S\ftr( angle

1
J�1¡¡urc 1.9. Swirl mncr (see Scction 2.2.2).

1 .

lngestion retes abovc this margin normally rcsuh in a suelden drop of efficicncy.

( For an interruption of pump operation large air rates of about 7 up to 20%

are oecessary. Critica! operation conditions vary with rhe pump type and the

characteristic performance criteria. Fundamcntally, for a 1% drop in efficiency

r only a smail ratc of entrapped air is necessary. But a loss in cfficiency by this

relatively small ratc may lead to losses in profit which, in a f

ew years, can exceed

thc initial capital costs of the pump (Chang, 1979b).

r
An intcresting invcstigation on thc influencc of voncx entrained air on the

operational conditions of a turbinc (Dcxtcr & Zeigler, 1978) did not result in

1 untenable pressurc surges or nmner dcfie.ctions. Howcver, interrupted air ingestion

did creare rough opcrational conclilions, which can be 1olerated only over a limitcd

time.

In summary, vortex entraincd air normally disturbs lhcsafe operation ofhydraulic

' .
machines as well as thc water transport in closcd channcl supply systcms. Air

cntrainmem by intake vórtices should be avoidod on principie.

In ordcr to define and mcasure the entrained swirl, lhe swirl angle indicatcd

by a swirl meer was found to providc a suitable critcria scc

( Figure 1.9 and

Scction 2.2.2).

Manufacturers and dcsigners of pumps, turbines and pump-turbincs postulate

an upper limit of a tolerable swirl angle. Regarding the type of the hydraulic

machine, prero.ation expressed by the indicatcd swirl angle shall nonna!ly not

excecd 5° (scc Scctions 2.3.1 and 6.2.3) and in spccial cases evcn 2° (e.g. Nathan,

1 98 1 ; Maynord, 1982} Oesides the obscrvation of the tolerable prerotation affectcd

by the swirl, uneven vclocity distributions in front of thc impeller must be kcpt

wilhin a margin of ±5% deviation from the mean value.

' 1.7. BASIC CONCEPT OF CRITICAL INTAKE CONDITIONS

Whether a surfacc vortcx resulting from a stable initial circulaúon is air entrruning

or not depends vcry much on the water dcpth above the intake under consideration.

Presum.ing a sufficient definition of thc inccption of air ingestion (scc Section 2.1.3)
l

l
 ne

utr entra1

Figure I JO. Basic rdauo�up between circutnnon btrcngth, subnv:rgcricc, a1r and swul cntnwm,!'11

a certai.n critica! submergencc dcplh can be relared to thc given circulation strc11g1!t

(sec Figure 1.10). Toe critica! submergencc incrcases with increasing circulation

suength. Onc: rmportam design critcrion conccming advoidance of air entremmcnt

by intakc voníces is to choosc subme:-gcnce rcquircmcnts above the criucal stage

Regarding thc cntrained swrrl, with otherwisc equat conditions the indicated

swirl anglc is indepcndent of the flow rate and also indcpendcnt of 1he occurrcncc

of air ingcstion. Thc amount of entrained swirl is prcdetermined by the given

1
submergencc of thc iruake. Rclatcd to overall symmetrical cooditions thc entraincd

swirl decrcascs with incrcasing water dcpth (scc Figure 1.10). If it is necessary

to raíse the water leve! in arder to avoid air cnt.rainment, thcn simultaneously

swirl imrusion will be rcduccd. 1-lowever, critica! submcrgencc oonditions can not

be dircctly related to ailical swírt entrainment.

1.8. LAYOUT OFTHE VOWME

As mentioned prcviously, research and basic knowledge on lhe matter discusscd

m this mooograph is stíll in progress A complete understanding of ali hydraulic

phcnomena involvcd in vortcx formation and swirling flow prob!cms at intakes

is not yct available. But until now cxtcnsivc basic and applicd rcsearch has been

carricd out and numcrous rcports havc bccn publ.isbed. Important invcstigations

were finishcd recenuy and sorne are still in cxccution and c:omplclion.

The subjcct under discus.sion is very complex and a state of lhe art report

cornposcd oí summarizing contributions from a tcam of expcrienccd rcscarchcrs

will therefore maniícst the complcxity of the \\.'hok matter by a survcy of thc

numerous ideas, various opinions and different methods gctting down to the soluúon

of the apparert problcms. This is thought to SCTYC the main intcntion and aim

of the wlume in an appropriate way. Variety of the discussion will be prefcrred

versus a more bomogencous represcntation of the technical material.

The subdivL<ion of thc vohimc mto eight main chapters should cover the whole

maner of conccm giving special attention to considcrations l.ikc: already available

and generaUy accepted basic knowlcdge versus advances in science, approved tools

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