SHELL LPG STUDY

LPG as energy carrier and fuel

English summary
2 3

WHAT IS LIQUEFIED PETROLEUM GAS?

LIQUEFIED PETROLEUM GAS
SHELL LPG STUDY The term Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG)
comprises mainly the two gases propane and PROPANE C3H8
Shell Deutschland, Hamburg butane, and mixtures of the two, because BOILING POINT –42.1 ºC
Dr. Jörg Adolf (project lead); Dr. Christoph Balzer; Dipl.-Ing. Arndt Joedicke; Dipl.-Ing. Uwe Schabla of their properties and characteristics. Both
gases exist in the liquid state under relatively
Prognos AG, Basel fka mbH, Aachen
Dipl.-Physiker Samuel Straßburg Dr. Bruno Gnörich; Dipl.-Ing. Markus Thoennes low pressure, of less than 9 bar, at room
temperature. That is why they are also known
OWI, Aachen as liquefied petroleum gases. Liquefaction
Dip.-Soz. Michael Ehring; Winfried Koch, M.Sc.; Dr. Klaus Lucka reduces the volume of LP gases by a factor of n-BUTANE C4H10
approximately 250 (Hempel 2007). BOILING POINT –0.5 ºC
In the past few years, Shell has produced a number of scenario studies (see below). Some have
examined the passenger car and goods vehicle sectors as energy consumers, plus domestic Propane and butane are both short-chain
heating of private households (Shell/BDH 2013; Shell 2014). Other Shell studies have analysed saturated hydrocarbons (alkanes). Propane
the present situation and prospects for certain energy sources and fuels, especially biofuels and is a molecule with three carbon and eight
natural gas (Shell 2012; Shell 2013). hydrogen atoms (C3H8). Butane consists of
four carbon and ten hydrogen atoms and has
One energy source which has hitherto received little attention is Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG). iso-BUTANE C4H10
two isomers, normal butane and isobutane;
It is used in nearly all sectors of consumption, for a wide variety of applications – as a source
n-butane and isobutane share the same BOILING POINT –12,8 ºC
of energy, but also as a base material for other products. In the more recent past, use and con-
chemical formula (C4H10), but display different
sumption of LPG have increased steadily. At the same time, global supply and thus availability
spatial arrangements of their atoms and
of LPG are improving as well.
also have different properties, for example
The Shell LPG study therefore deals with the current state of LPG use and LPG application tech- a boiling point at –0.5°C for n-butane vs.
nologies. It also considers the question of what potential and perspectives exist for LPG, –12.8°C for isobutane. Due to their material
especially as an energy source. Apart from non-automotive applications, the focus is on the use and combustion properties, both liquefied
of LPG in road transport, especially as an automotive fuel in passenger cars. petroleum gases suit many possible applica-
tions. When being used as a fuel in vehicles
with an internal combustion engine, LPG is VOLUME REDUCTION THROUGH
also called autogas. LIQUEFACTION
Volume in gaseous state
Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) should not be
confused with Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG)
PROPANE BUTANE
or Compressed Natural Gas (CNG), both
266:1 228:1
of which consist mainly of the natural gas
methane (CH4). LNG is stored as a cryogenic
liquid cooled at –161°C; CNG is kept under Volume of both gases in liquid state
high pressure of at least 200 bar (Shell 2013).
4 5
LPG: ORIGIN AND MARKETS
A fundamental feature of liquefied petroleum
gases is that they are not main products,
but mostly occur as by-products or joint
products in combination with other hydro-
carbons (gases or liquids). They accrue from
crude oil and natural gas extraction and from
processing of the crude oil into petroleum
products in refineries. Worldwide, around
60 % of LPG derive from crude oil and natural
gas extraction and around 40 % from refinery
production. Whereas refining dominates in
Western Europe, gas processing is the main
source of LPG in North America and in the
Middle East.
Gases occurring in crude oil extraction are
also known as Associated Petroleum Gas
(APG). In natural gas production, liquid
hydrocarbon components are often extracted
together with the natural gas. These compo-
nents are known as Natural Gas Liquids
(NGLs). Liquefied petroleum gases are
obtainable both from APGs and NGLs. NGLs
are increasingly important in global oil and
gas supply. They currently represent 15 % of
global crude oil and 20 % of global natural
gas production (IEA 2010; IEA 2014b).
The other main source of LPG is crude oil
processing. Using temperature and pressure,
oil refineries convert crude oil into useful oil
products. LPG is one of the lightest petroleum
products (light distillate), boiling off at low
temperatures. Its share in the range of oil
products depends on the type of the refinery;
on average LPG accounts for 2.5 to 3 % of
refinery output (FE 2014). In principle, LPG
Top 5 LPG Producer
is also obtainable from biomass, though TOP-5 LPG PRODUCER, mln t
biogenic LPG has hitherto played no role on
USA 59.4
the market.
SAR 24.7
The largest producer of liquefied petro-
leum gases is by far the USA, at around 60 CHI 24.6
million tonnes per year. In the USA, substantial
RUS 14.2
quantities of LPG are released in the extraction
UAE 12.2
of unconventional natural gases. The USA
are followed by the oil and gas producers of
the Middle East (Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates), China and Russia. The largest con-
sumers of LPG are the USA, China and Saudi
EUROPEAN REFINING OUTPUT Arabia, and other mainly Asian countries such
STRUCTURE 2013, IN % as Japan, India, Thailand and South Korea
(WLPGA/Argus 2014).
Refinery Gas 3.4
Nearly half the world’s supply of LPG is con-
LPG 2.5
sumed by the domestic sector, in heating and
Naphtha 5.7
cooking. Another major customer for liquefied
Top 5 LPG Consumer
petroleum gases is the petrochemical industry.
ByUSA
contrast,
52.8 the transport sector accounts for
only about one-tenth of world LPG consump-
CHI 27.6
Petrol 19.2 tion. Main centres for LPG applications to
SAR 17.6 are Asia and Europe.
transport
Kerosene 6.8
JAP 16.9
LPG STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
IND 16.3
WLPGA/Argus 2014
Liquefied petroleum gases do not occur in
pure form, neither in oil and gas production
nor in refineries. They generally contain other
hydrocarbons, accompanying substances and
also impurities. Therefore, as for other products,
there are standards and technical rules which
Diesel 39.0
set requirements for LPG and how to handle it.
FuelsEurope 2014
The International Standardisation Organisation
Fuel Oil 13.0 (ISO) has developed two standards for LPG:
ISO 8216 contains a classification of petroleum
fuels including light distillates (Part 3), whereas
Other Prod. 10.4
ISO 9162 specifies required characteristics
Top 5 LPG
TOP-5 LPGConsumer
CONSUMER, mln t
USA 52.8
CHI 27.6
SAR 17.6
JAP 16.9
IND 16.3
WLPGA/Argus 2014
and additional information of commercial
propane and commercial butane. ISO LPG
standards are mainly meant for international
trade and not specifically for product use. The
American standard for Liquefied Petroleum
Gases ASTM D1835 covers liquefied
petroleum gases that are intended for use as
domestic, commercial and industrial heating,
and engine fuels (IEA/AMF 2008).
There are no global standards for gaseous
fuels, only for liquid ones (WFCC 2013).
However, there is a European LPG automotive
fuel standard: ‘EN 589: Automotive fuels –
LPG – Requirements and test methods’.
For non-automotive applications, only national
product standards have hitherto been valid.
Moreover, when liquefied petroleum gases
are used in public gas networks, certain quality
requirements for combustible gases must be
fulfilled.
Product standards directly determine the com-
position of liquefied petroleum gases. One
way they do this is by prescribing maximum
and minimum proportions of individual com-
ponents, in particular respective shares of pro-
pane and butane as well as the shares of the
alkenes propene (C3H6) and butene (C4H8).
6 7

The standards also specify certain characteris-
tics such as density, vapour pressure or volatility.
The aim is to assist trade in the product and
facilitate the safe, technically reliable and
environmentally friendly handling of LPG.
NON-AUTOMOTIVE APPLICATIONS
Liquefied petroleum gases are used in nearly
all sectors of consumption, in almost all
regions of the world, for a wide variety of
applications. A distinction should be made
between energy and non-energy (material)
applications.
Apart from road transport, LPG is used as an
energy source in cooking, domestic heating, hot
water supply and heat generation for work pro-
cesses. Flexibility of energy supply often plays a
key role. As LPG is easy to store and carry, it
can be deployed even at locations unconnected
to public energy networks. LPG is therefore also
known as a ‘mobile energy source’.
In industrialised countries, LPG plays only a
subordinate role in heating and hot water
for private households, while it is used for
cooking primarily in the leisure sector. The
situation is the opposite in many emerging and
developing economies, where LPG offers an
alternative to traditional biomass and open
fireplaces. In these countries, LPG is widely
viewed as a transition fuel pending a more
sustainable energy future (IEA 2006;
Liquefied under pressure, propane and butane
are also used as propellants in spray and
aerosol cans.
Finally, as an alternative to or substitute for
naphtha, ethane and others, LPG can be
used as a feedstock in the production of
intermediate petrochemicals, such as ethylene
and propylene. Intermediate petrochemicals
such as olefins and aromatic hydrocarbons
are used to produce all kinds of plastic and
other materials. Today (2013), petrochemical
industry uses approximately 1.3 million barrels
of LPG per day i.e. 60 million tonnes of LPG
per year. As world demand for petro-
Total
chemicals is growing, rising demand for
9.7 mb/d
LPG can be expected from the petro-
chemical industry (IEA 2013; IEA 2014b).
LPG IN TRANSPORT
After technical modifications, it is possible to
use LPG (autogas)Naphtha
as a 4.94 = 51%
mb/dpropellant
fuel and
combustion driveLPG 1.26 mb/d
systems = 13% engines
(combustion
Ethane 2.71
and turbines). However, itsmb/d = 28%for use in
suitability
Other 0.78 mb/d =
individual means of transport varies.8% Though
GLOBAL DEMAND FOR PETRO-
CHEMICAL FEEDSTOCK 2013
Naphtha 51%
4.9 mb/d
LPG 13%
1.3 mb/d
the application of LPG to rail transport and
shipping is technically feasible, it has been
used little (if at all) in practice. By far the most
important application of LPG as a transport
fuel are road transport vehicles with internal
combustion engines.
There are estimated to be 16.7 million vehicles
driven by LPG worldwide. Most LPG vehicles
run in Europe and Asia. The main autogas
fleets in the European region can be found in
Turkey, Russia, Poland and Italy, while in Asia
LPG vehicles are most numerous in South
Korea, India and Thailand. In many of these
countries, LPG cars are the most important
alternative drivetrain, second to petrol and
diesel cars, and ahead of e-mobility. In Turkey,
the LPG consumption for road transport is even
higher than the petrol consumption (IEA 2014a).
LPG vehicles are typically passenger cars.
Apart from passenger cars, LPG is only used in
in significant volume in light commercial vehicles
using powertrains similar to passenger cars.
The LPG systems applied to passenger cars
are all based on spark ignition engines. All
LARGEST LPG FLEETS BY COUNTRY 2013
mln TUR
4.0
RUS
PL
3.0
LPG vehicles offered in Europe are technically
bi-fuel capable, i.e. they normally run on LPG,
but can also be fuelled with petrol from a
smaller fuel tank. LPG systems for passenger
cars, ex-works or as retrofits, are available
in various technical configurations. So far,
LPG systems have used LPG port injection in
gaseous or sometimes liquid phase. More
recently, LPG direct injection in liquid phase
has entered the market; these systems use the
existing petrol injectors also for LPG. Today’s
LPG vehicles comply with the Euro 5 exhaust
emission standard, and some even with Euro 6.
For heavy lorries, dual fuel systems based on
diesel drivetrains have been developed. Dual
fuel vehicles replace some of the diesel fuel
with an air/LPG mixture. However, so far, they
have been almost unknown in road haulage
(trans aktuell 2013).
In emerging and developing economies, LPG
vehicles are used for passenger and goods
transport in the form of three-wheelers
such as motor rickshaws and tuk-tuks (ICCT
2012). LPG is also of some importance as a

WLPGA/Argus 2014
KOR
World Bank 2011; UN 2015). Total IND IT
9.7 mb/d Ethane 28% 2.0
For non-energy purposes, liquefied petro- 2.7 mb/d
THA
leum gases are used as coolants with low 1.0 USA DE AUS
Other 8%
greenhouse and ozone depletion potential, 0.8 mb/d
in refrigerators and air conditioning systems. IEA 2014b

8 205
57
1711 1850
725
12
1750
96
280
574
LPG FILLING POINTS IN EUROPE
low-emission fuel for industrial lift trucks
(fork-lift trucks).
In many European states, the LPG infrastructure
is well developed, in particular in Central and
Eastern Europe. A total of around 25,000 to
30,000 filling points exists in wider Europe.
In countries with larger LPG vehicle fleets,
the number of LPG vehicles per LPG filling
point ranges from about one hundred to
several hundred vehicles per LPG filling point.
However, there are some countries, where
LPG filling stations are few and far between,
e.g. in Scandinavia, Austria or Switzerland.
4400
33
480
5
However, there are some fuel-specific
440 differences: The octane number of LPG is
5520 higher than for petrol, which can result in
efficiency benefits at high engine loads. On the
6750
other hand, the additional LPG components
1185 2750
(especially the LPG fuel tank) add weight to
207 the vehicle which can lead to increased fuel
40
consumption. Overall, the specific energy
330 consumption of similar cars per kilometer
75 1205
324 (megajoule per km) is roughly the same.
3250 700 However, because LPG has a lower volumetric
energy density, about 25 % more LPG fuel is
2970 used, in litres per 100 km, than petrol.
Diesel vehicles are up to 20 % more efficient
than cars with spark-ignition engine. Only dual
590 10,089 fuel lorries based on the diesel principle can
approximate to the efficiency of a diesel lorry.
With regard to greenhouse gas emissions,
a distinction must be made between direct
WLPGA /Argus 2014, mylpg.eu 2015 emissions (Tank-to-Wheels) from fuel
combustion, and upstream emissions from
the production of the fuel (Well-to-Tank) (JEC
ENVIRONMENTAL BENEFITS OF 2014b; JEC 2014c).
AUTOGAS
For a long time, LPG was thought to have In terms of direct greenhouse gas emissions,
positive effects on the environmental impact LPG generates about 10 % less CO2 per
of road traffic. To some extent, this view is unit of energy (1 megajoule, MJ) than
still held. The environmental impacts of LPG pure fossil petrol (E0) or diesel fuel (B0),
fuelled passenger cars are largely determined due to its lower carbon content. Even when
by their energy consumption and emissions of compared with petrol containing 10 % bio-
greenhouse gases and air pollutants. ethanol (E10) or diesel with 7 % biodiesel (B7),
fossil LPG shows lower direct greenhouse gas
As engines for LPG vehicles are based on emissions per 1 megajoule (see graph above,
spark ignition engines, there is little difference biofuel advantage from biomass capturing CO2
in engine efficiency between LPG and petrol while growing allocated to direct greenhouse
powertrains (DLR 2013; JEC 2014a). gas emissions).
9
TANK-TO-WHEELS GREENHOUSE
GAS EMISSIONS OF FUELS
CO2 emissions per 1MJ
Petrol E0 = 100
120
Biofuel advantage
100
80
60
Petrol Petrol Diesel LPG
E5 E10 B7
40
JEC 2014c
20
A state of the art compact passenger car
fuelled by petrol directly emits around
120 g CO2/km vs. 105 g CO2/km for an
LPG vehicle, as shown in the figure on the
next page. An LPG vehicle offers similar
CO2 advantages in relation to mileage as
in relation to energy content, because petrol
and LPG vehicles operate nearly equally
efficient. However, LPG vehicles offer no
greenhouse gas advantages over diesel cars,
as the diesel engine is much more efficient and
thus over-compensates the greenhouse gas
advantage of the LPG fuel.
Around 15 to 20 % of total or Well-to-Wheels
greenhouse gas emissions originate from the
Well-to-Tank part. As there is little difference
in the Well-to-Tank emissions of LPG vs. fossil
petrol and diesel fuel, LPG cars retain their
advantage over petrol fuelled vehicles – 125
vs. 140 g CO2/km. LPG vehicles emit even less
 60

40

10 20 11

GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS OF COMPACT VEHICLES BY DRIVETRAIN ECONOMICS OF AN LPG VEHICLE RETROFIT
g CO2eq/km LIQUEFIED PURE FOSSIL FOSSIL FUELS WITH Operating costs in €
PETROLEUM GAS FUELS BIOFUEL SHARE
140 20,000

120

based on the New European Driving Cycle (NEDC)

15,000
100
Petrol
Tank-to-Wheels 10,000 LPG
80
Well-to-Tank
60
5,000

JEC 2014b, 2014c;

40
Amortisation LPG vs. Petrol
0
20

0 –5,000 Total mileage, kms

LPG Petrol Diesel Petrol E5 Petrol E10 Diesel B7 20,000 40,000 60,000 80,000 100,000 120,000 140,000 160,000 180,000 200,000

greenhouse gas per kilometre than a petrol
vehicle operated with E10. In total, an LPG
vehicle still emits slightly more greenhouse gas
per km than a more efficient diesel vehicle
(100 g CO2/km).
With regard to local air quality, burning
LPG (without exhaust cleaning technology)
in principle generates fewer air pollutants
than liquid fuels. In addition, stricter exhaust
emission standards have been implemented.
Exhaust gas cleaning systems for vehicles have
become much more advanced and diesel and
petrol fuels have been reformulated to burn
cleaner.
Hence LPG vehicles in road transport offer
hardly any advantages in terms of air pollutant
emissions when compared to new state of the
art petrol and diesel cars. Only the particulate
emissions are significantly lower for LPG than
for liquid fuels if no particulate trap is applied.
In summary, regarding energy and the environ- allows an approximation. It compares only the
ment, LPG vehicles offer two advantages: most important cost items. One is the one-off
LPG vehicles may help to diversify the energy LPG retrofit cost, or the cost differential of a
mix in road transport and LPG will reduce new LPG car vs. a reference vehicle. The other
greenhouse gas emissions of road transport, are running costs, consisting largely of fuel
if LPG vehicles replace petrol cars. cost per kilometre.
A suitable vehicle to use as a reference is a
OPERATING COST OF AUTOGAS
C-segment or compact car like the VW Golf,
VEHICLES
which is the most common class in many
An important criterion, though not the only European countries. Its base version’s price is
one, for retrofitting a petrol car or buying a around 20,000 Euro. A compact car uses 5 litre
new car powered by LPG is an economic of diesel, 6.3 litre of petrol and nearly 8 litre of
advantage over similar reference vehicles. The LPG per 100 km under real driving conditions.
cost-effectiveness of LPG vehicles depends on
A retrofit of a petrol car to LPG costs between
the added costs of LPG engineering, on engine
efficiency, fuel prices, and vehicle mileage 2,000 and 2,500 € nowadays. With LPG retail
prices at 0.75 € and petrol prices at 1.55 € per
(Wietschel et al. 2013, ADAC 2015).
litre, the retrofitting costs are written off after just
A total cost of ownership analysis can help to under a total of 60,000 km on the road; here
calculate the economic advantage of a vehicle LPG and petrol vehicle operating cost curves
engine type. However, often a simplified (including retrofit expenses) intersect each
ownership or operating cost comparison other and the amortisation curve crosses the
x-axis. Depending on the LPG vehicle’s annual
mileage, amortisation times range from three to
seven years.
At present, a new LPG compact car also
requires an extra outlay of around 2,000
to 2,500 € compared to a similar petrol
vehicle. A diesel car costs roughly the same
as an LPG car. With fuel prices for LPG and
petrol at 0.75 and 1.55 € per litre, the higher
procurement costs of an LPG in comparison to
a petrol car are again written off at a total of
around 55,000 to 60,000 km driven.
Compared with a new diesel car, for a roughly
similar procurement price and a diesel fuel
price at 1.40 € per litre, LPG offers a slight
energy cost advantage per kilometre. Despite
the diesel engine’s greater efficiency, it is not
competitive under these energy cost structures
from the beginning.
The economic viability of LPG in road transport
depends on the fuel price level and the
12 13

relative fuel prices. With lower petrol and
diesel prices, running an LPG vehicle becomes
less attractive and vice versa. A further key
factor for the economic attractiveness of LPG is
the national energy tax on transport fuels;
throughout Europe, there is a wide range of
energy tax rates on road transport fuels. Often
governments grant energy tax relief for LPG as
a fuel. Mostly, some economic incentive such
as an LPG tax rebate remains necessary to
sustain a critical mass of LPG vehicles and LPG
fuelling infrastructure (WLPGA 2014).
AUTOGAS SCENARIOS
(FOR GERMANY)
After a sharp upturn in the past decade, the
German LPG passenger car fleet has grown
from approximately 20,000 units in 2005
to 500,000 vehicles today. With a share of
1.1 % in the German passenger car fleet of
more than 44 million, LPG vehicles are the
most important alternative drivetrain to petrol
possible repercussions on the sustainability of LPG VEHICLES: RETROFITS, NEW REGISTRATIONS AND FLEET
car transport in Germany, measured in terms
NEW REGISTRATIONS & RETROFITS FLEET
of energy consumption and greenhouse gas
emissions, can be explored. Based on the trend 120 thsd vehicles mln vehicles 1.2
Data 2014: KBA 2015
scenario for auto-mobility in Germany of the
26th Shell Passenger Car Study (Shell 2014), 100 1.0
two mini-scenarios were considered up to
2030: a Pro LPG and a Contra LPG Scenario. 80 0.8
In the Pro LPG Scenario, supported by an
60 0.6
LPG-favourable economic and fiscal environ-
ment, it is possible to double the stock of LPG
cars to over a million vehicles by 2030, in 40 0.4
particular through increasing the number of
LPG vehicles entering the LPG fleet to more 0.2
20
than 100,000 per year. By 2030, LPG would
replace 40 petajoules or 1.3 billion litres of 0 0.0
petrol equivalent of petrol and diesel. Annual 2014 2030 2030 2014 2030 2030
Pro LPG Contra LPG Pro LPG Contra LPG
Well-to-Wheels greenhouse gas emissions
would be reduced by around 250,000 tonnes.
LPG: FUEL SUBSTITUTION AND GREENHOUSE GAS SAVINGS
In the Contra LPG Scenario, the economic
situation for LPG worsens significantly. This LPG SUBSTITUTION OF DIESEL PETROL CO2-REDUCTION: WtT TtW WtW

and diesel cars. In fact, Germany owns one brings LPG retrofits and new registrations down 50 petajoule (PJ) thsd t CO2 100
of Europe’s largest LPG fleets. However, the to almost zero by 2020. As a result, the stock
of LPG vehicles would be almost halved, to just 40 50
number of licensed LPG cars in Germany has
recently recorded a slight decline. 250,000 by 2030. Largely due to the high age
30
of the vehicles and correspondingly lower LPG 0
95 % of German LPG car registrations are
mileage, the savings of greenhouse gas from 20
private. Most are converted petrol vehicles. In –50
LPG vehicles compared with petrol and diesel
the frequency distribution according to vehicle 10
cars would be reduced substantially.
age, cars of ‘middle age’ predominate the –100
LPG fleet. With an average age of just under 0
Thus, LPG vehicles can contribute to the diversi-
ten years, the LPG vehicle fleet is therefore fication of fuel supplies and to the reduction –150
–10
rather older than the fleet of cars as a whole of greenhouse gas emissions of passenger
(approximately nine years on average). –20 –200
car transport. Nevertheless, to achieve a
With a cohort model of passenger cars and substantial impact, the stock of LPG cars would
–30 –250
scenario technique, future development paths have to grow considerably, even beyond the 2014 2030 2030 2014 2030 2030
for LPG vehicles in the German car fleet and Pro LPG Scenario. Pro LPG Contra LPG Pro LPG Contra LPG
14
LITERATURE
ADAC 2015: ADAC Fahrzeugtechnik, Autokosten –
Berechnungsgrundlagen für die standardisierte
Kostenberechnung, München 2015.
DLR 2013: Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt e.V.
(DLR), Institut für Verkehrsforschung, CNG und LPG –
Potenziale dieser Energieträger auf dem Weg zu einer
nachhaltigeren Energieversorgung des Straßenverkehrs,
Berlin u.a.O. 2013.
FE 2014: Fuels Europe (FE), Statistical Report 2014, Brus-
sels 2014.
Hempel 2007: Peter Hempel, Flüssiggas. Mobiler, umwelt-
schonender Energieträger für Haushalt, Freizeit und Ge-
werbe, München 2007.
ICCT 2012: International Council on Clean Transportation
(ICCT), A Technical Assessment of Emissions and Fuel
Consumption Reduction Potential from Two and Three
Wheelers in India, Washington 2012.
SUMMARY AND IEA 2006: International Energy Agency (IEA), World Energy
Outlook 2006, Paris 2006.
CONCLUSIONS IEA 2010: International Energy Agency (IEA), Natural Gas
Liquids. Supply Outlook 2008-2015, Paris 2010.
Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) belongs to the family of hydrocarbons and consists mainly of the IEA 2013: International Energy Agency (IEA), World
Energy Outlook 2013, Paris 2013.
two gases propane and butane, which are easy to liquefy. Liquefied petroleum gases occur in
crude oil and natural gas extraction and are produced in refineries during crude oil processing. IEA 2014a: International Energy Agency (IEA), Oil
Information 2014, Paris 2014.
LPG has versatile applications in all sectors of consumption and is used in nearly every area of
IEA 2014b: International Energy Agency (IEA), World
daily life today. Energy Outlook 2014, Paris 2014.
LPG is used for non-energy or material purposes: as a propellant or coolant, or as a feedstock IEA/AMF 2008: International Energy Agency/Advanced
Motor Fuel Implementing Agreement (IEA/AMF), Out-
in the petrochemical industry. LPG often offers technical, ecological or economic advantages look on standardization of Alternative Vehicle Fuels.
over alternative substances. Global, regional and national level. Annex XXVIII. Sub
task Report, Stockholm 2008; http://www.iea-amf.org/
As an energy source, LPG has flexible applications and offers emission advantages over liquid content/fuel_information/lpg.
and solid energy sources. In many emerging and developing economies, LPG is a transition fuel JEC 2014a: Joint Research Centre-EUCAR-Concawe collabo-
on the way to a more sustainable energy future. ration (JEC), Well-to-Wheels Analysis of Future Automoti-
ve Fuels and Powertrains in the European Context. Well-
In road transport, LPG cars are the most prevalent alternative type of drivetrain second only to to-Wheels Report, Version 4.a, Luxemburg 2014.
petrol- and diesel-engined vehicles in many countries. Most of the LPG vehicles are retrofitted JEC 2014b: Joint Research Centre-EUCAR-Concawe collabo-
ration (JEC), Well-to-Tank Appendix 2. Summary of
petrol vehicles. New LPG vehicles represent the latest state of the automotive art. WTW Energy and GHG balances, Version 4.a, Luxem-
burg 2014.
LPG can help to diversify the energy mix of road transport and reduce its greenhouse gas
JEC 2014c: Joint Research Centre-EUCAR-Concawe collabo-
emissions. In leading LPG mobility markets, LPG cars offer an economic advantage over ration (JEC), Well-to-Tank Appendix 1. Conversion fac-
petrol-powered vehicles. tors and fuel properties, Version 4.a, Luxemburg 2014.
15
KBA 2015: Kraftfahrt-Bundesamt (KBA), Individualaus-
wertung „Autogas-Pkw“ des Bestands an M1-Fahr-
zeugen nach Segmenten, Kraftstoff-Code, Merkmal
privat/gewerblich und CO2-Angaben für den Stichtag
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