Philosophy for the Greeks

It was Pythagoras, a renowned Greek philosopher, who coined the term philosophy. From the Greek
perspective, philosophy is derived from the words philo and sophia. The former means "love," while the latter
means "wisdom." For the Greeks, to love wisdom, or to philosophize, means to have a desire or to be in a quest
for truth, and eventually live in it. Every man undeniably has the intrinsic desire to know the truth of or to
acquire knowledge about anything that interests him. And, once a person has attained the object of his quest
for knowledge, he/she can only be deemed wise if he/she has successfully lived in what he/she has discovered.
For example, if a person really wanted to know the gravity of the effect of corruption in the government and
eventually discovered how gruesome and unjust these effects were to the citizenry, then if ever that person
would become a government official, he/she would necessarily undertake some management styles that could
help him/her do away with corruption; or perhaps as a concerned citizen, he/she could initiate some actions
that could bring about the same effect. Only in this manner can this person transcend the chasm between
theoretical knowledge and practical wisdom. To the Greek philosophers, knowledge is not enough; one has to
live up to what one knows. Another example, if a married man is aware of how destructive it would be to his
family if he had a concubine or if he engaged in extra-marital sex, then he should always be faithful to his
marital vows with his wife. It is not necessary for him to actually engage in a promiscuous act in order for him
to discover how much damage a promiscuous act could bring to him and to his family. His observation of the
fate of those who had been in the unfaithful trade is enough evidence. In the same manner, it is not necessary
for a doctor to experience cancer in order for a doctor to cure cancer.

Philosophy for the Chinese

To the Chinese philosophers, philosophy is derived from the words zhe and xue (or che shueh). The word zhe
means "wisdom," while xue means "study." Literally, therefore, the Chinese take philosophy as "the study of
wisdom." Interestingly, however, the Chinese believe that zhe is symbolized by the human mouth and the
human hand. With these two symbols of zhe, it can be inferred that the Chinese adhere to their conviction that
philosophy is a human activity that involves a translation of words into action. Thus, the popular dictum which
says "Follow what I say, but do not follow what I do" does not apply to the Chinese way of looking at
philosophy.

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For example, if a doctor believes that smoking is not good for the body, then this doctor should not be a
smoker himself/herself. Otherwise, the advices that he/she gives his/her patients to quit smoking will never be
obeyed. Another example, if one is convinced that, as a student, it is only by being diligent and earnest in one's
responsibilities can one earn a degree, then one should be really serious with one's life as a student.

Philosophy for the Hindus

To the Hindus, philosophy is made manifest in the Sanskrit words anviksiki, which means "an examination of
things through the use of true cognition," and darsana, which means "a mode of seeing" or seeing not only
through the sense of sight, but seeing (not looking) that's free from the biases and prejudices of one's treatment
of reality. In other words, to philosophize for the Hindus is to be impartial, objective, and critical in one's
assessment of reality or any given phenomenon. Taking as example the insurgency in Mindanao brought about
by some notorious groups in the area and many other kidnap-for-ransom ruffians and bandits, if darsana is to
be applied, then the government should be extra careful in assessing the situation. This entails serious
consideration of whether it is necessary to import the hi-tech assistance of the American government, such as
what is offered by the Balikatan, or this country could just rely on its own native ability to solve its peace
problem, along with many others.

Philosophy for the Muslims

Although the recognized founding Fathers of philosophy are the Indians, the Chinese, and the Greeks, the
Islamic civilization can be added as a minor sponsor to its conception.

In Islamic philosophy, the term falsafa is the counterpart of the

Greek term philosophia. Falsafa, therefore, is the Arabic term for philosophy. However, the Muslims have
another Arabic term they relate very closely to philosophy: hikma, which symbolizes light or illumination.
Islamic philosophers believe that hikma enables one to have an understanding of the basic principles of reality
and humanity. 

In their falsafa (philosophy), through the concept of hikma, Islamic philosophers view the world and humanity
as intrinsically and substantially unified. With this line of thinking, it is clear that Islamic philosophers seek to
establish an understanding of the spiritual wholeness of the world and humanity.

Formal Construction of Philosophy

Many philosophers agree that philosophy can be formally understood as a science that studies or investigates
all things in their ultimate causes, reasons, and principles based on human reason alone. From this, it can be
said that philosophy is not abstract or something outworldly, so to speak. Philosophy is not remote from the
problems of man. The Greeks, the Chinese, the Hindus, and the Muslims (or Arabs) may talk of philosophy in
different ways, but in any case, it is admitted that philosophy is a human undertaking that pertains to man's
inherent longing, desire, aspiration, or pursuit to understand himself, others, the world, and God. The way
philosophy understands reality, be it world, man, or God-the three objects of philosophical inquiry is not
cursory or skin-deep, but a rational and critical inquiry into its basic principles. Thus, in philosophy, meaning
is grasped as the philosopher rationally and critically digs deeper into the very roots of the issue. And, this is
why philosophers are analogically likened to worms, while pilosopos to eagles, pilosopo being a pejorative
Filipino term for someone who persistently argues, whether rightly or wrongly (Quito, 1983, as cited in
Demeterio, 2001b). It is the nature of worms to dig deeper, while eagles to simply fly and glide in the air.

It is the wish of the Filipino philosophers, then, that the Filipinos, as a people, and not only the professionals
and the elite, the educated and the wise, or the academicians and the learned, would come to terms with
philosophy through serious reflection, analysis, and critical evaluation of what can be done about the country's
problems that spawn division, hatred, bigotry, chaos, horror, anger, fear, and degeneration of its culture and
identity. In short, may the Filipino people uphold their dignity through philosophy. May every Filipino student
and teacher set out to master the principles of valid reasoning and argumentation that logic offers so they can
confidently face the multifarious problems that constantly confront them, and eventually come up with better,
convincing, and dependable solutions to these problems.

Other Meanings of Philosophy

Alternatively, philosophy can be understood as an ideology, an art of living, a kind of poetry, an

autobiography, a culture, and a science.

An ideology, a term coined by Destutt de Tracy in 1796, can be understood as a concept that offers a view, or a
universal aspect of knowledge, that serves as a corrective measure to our spontaneous way of looking at things
or the various aspects of life. Essentially, an ideology creates an appeal to provoke people to action. So,
regarded as ideology, philosophy is an intellectual and practical undertaking that leads one to develop a
concept that can help one understand reality better.

An art is that which signifies a body of rules according to which man directs his actions in his performance of a
particular task. The term art refers to a body of precepts that enables man to produce something. In this sense,
art precribes that one should live a productive life. So, as an art of living, philosophy appeals to one's passion
for life. Life is a supra-complicated item to be accounted for. When one has wrestled to understand life, which
consequently sparks meaning in his/her mode of living and existing, it means that one has, so to speak, painted
an art in a very special canvass the canvass, being the world, and the art, the life lived by the one who
philosophizes.

As an autobiography, philosophy is understood in the manner by which one writes the meaning of one's own
life. All accounts and treatises a philosopher writes exemplify his/her personal assessment of his/her life and
how he/she views reality in general.

As a kind of poetry, philosophy refers to one's pursuit of depicting reality with meaning exclusive to the
author, who is the poet (philosopher) himself. A poem has an inherent meaning that only its composer can
attest to its beauty, symbolism, and relevance to personal life. In this sphere, philosophy can be understood as a
subjective and personal encounter and interpretation of reality. In whatever way one gives meaning to reality,
he/she is composing his/ her poem (philosophy, view, or concept) of life.

As a culture, as earlier represented, philosophy is understood as a collective representation of a peoples' way of

life or thinking. Philosophy as a culture pertains to the customs and traditions of a people. It is in this context
that Filipino philosophy can be touched on. And, from here it can be inferred that Filipino philosophy is
embedded in its people's literatures, namely: poems, riddles, proverbs, folksongs, epics, fictions, and dramas,
among others. This is the reason why many philosophy professors claim that there really is Filipino
philosophy.

In their own polemics regarding the question of whether there is Filipino philosophy or none at all, Filipino
philosophers, in the likes and caliber of Emerita Quito, Romy Abulad, Manny Dy, Florentino Timbreza,
Ramon Reyes, Roque Ferriols, Rolando Gripaldo, and Leonardo Mercado, openly disagree with each other's
punto de vista by eagerly and aggressively contesting one another's positions (Demeterio, 2001a). To Quito (a
student of the celebrated French existentialist Jean-Paul Sartre), there is no Filipino philosophy, specifically in
the universal context or the weltanschauung, since to her intellectual temper, Filipinos are God-fearing and are
too busy earning for a living; also, the Filipino language is so indigent that it is inadequate to break into the
thought-constructs necessary in the doing of philosophy. Abulad maintains that there is Filipino philosophy
and uses a schema to demonstrate that this Filipino philosophy has stages running from the colonial phases to
the beginnings of the late indigenization of the Filipino people. To Dy, there is Filipino philosophy since the
Filipinos have their own history. For him, Filipino philosophy is an oral philosophy-something that is duly
anchored in the meaning of the Filipino way of life. In the same way, Timbreza believes that there is Filipino
philosophy. He asserts that if philosophy starts and ends at experience, it follows that there is Filipino
philosophy which is grounded on the unique, typical, and concrete experience of the Filipinos as Filipinos. In
Timbreza's view, if the Greeks, the Chinese, the Spaniards, the Americans, and the Germans have their own
respective experiences as a people, then, the Filipinos too have their own experience to tell.

Meanwhile, in his own stroke of genius, Reyes holds that there are two ways that can help one understand
philosophy, viz: 1) vital thought and 2) reflexive thought. He argues that with vital thought. philosophy can be
discovered in a people's legends, songs, rituals, stories, riddles, maxims or aphorisms, poems, and the like.
Reyes further maintains that with reflective thought, philosophy is encountered through the aid of analysis,
systematization of thought, and principles. Based on these two ways by which philosophy can be treated,
Reyes arrives at a firm conclusion that indeed, there is Filipino philosophy. Ferriols likewise contends that
there is Filipino philosophy, which can be seen in the context of Filipino sayings, maxims, and adages that
boldly manifest the sad exposure of Filipinos to hardships and difficulties in life. Gripaldo shares the same
position that there is Filipino philosophy and that it is embedded in the Filipino way of looking at things (a
question to raise: is he speaking of the Hindu's darsana?), which he calls anthropological approach, and each
Filipino's personal view of things, which he calls real philosophical approach.
Finally, there is Mercado, an SVD cleric and scholar, who also advocates the existence of philosophy in the
Filipino way of life. Mercado puts forward his argument by presenting first the kinds of philosophers, as he
classifies them. According to him, there are elitist and non-elitist philosophers. The elitists are those grossly
contaminated and heavily preoccupied with the European or the western mode of thinking as they earned their
doctoral or post- doctoral degrees in Europe and America. It is worthy to mention that Mercado earned his
doctoral degree from the University of Santo Tomas, something that could have influenced his claim. On the
other hand, the non-elitist philosophers are the ones who passionately and patiently encode the indigenous
philosophy of a people. By and large, Mercado's argument stands side by side with the contentions of Ferriols
and Reyes.

Now, what about philosophy as a science?

Extra care should be taken when talking of philosophy as a science. Science is defined as an organized or
systematized body of knowledge. And, it is true that philosophy is a body of knowledge about reality as a
whole. In fact, philosophy was earlier defined as a science that investigates all things in their ultimate causes,
reasons, and principles based on human reason alone. However, its being a science is totally different from
how other sciences are. Sciences like mathematics, chemistry, and physics provide fixed or closed-ended
answers to problems. In philosophy, answers are left loose; they are open-ended. This gives room to creativity
and avoidance of intellectual paralysis or bankruptcy of thinking, which implies that philosophy entertains the
element of mystery in its advertence to reality.

In mathematics, one plus one is always equal to two; in chemistry, sodium chloride is a natural product of
sodium and chlorine; and in physics, when an object is thrown upwards, the constant answer is such object will
always go down. In these examples, it is obvious science per se always seeks to attain exactitude or certainty in
its answers. But in philosophy, the import of mystery is entertained, however not to be considered literally or
categorically. In Logic, for example, arguments are evaluated as valid or invalid, or as true or false also from
the standpoint of exactitude as guided by the rules of correct thinking. What is in a way mysterious here is the
process through which valid or true arguments are attained or how come invalid and false arguments are
sometimes drawn. Thinking per se is an intellectual or mental experience that manifests the workings of
mystery. This perhaps explains why, in philosophy, questions are given more importance than answers-
because answers can themselves become new questions.

ORIGIN OF PHILOSOPHY

The beginnings of philosophy is attributed to a thinker called Thales of Miletus (624-546 BC) from Greece.
Scholars maintain that one starts to philosophize when one wonders about one's encounter with reality
(wonder, thauma in Greek, always implies an element of mystery). In this context, Thales is said to be the
originator of philosophy. But technically, the one who coined the term philosophy was Pythagoras (582-507
BC), the celebrated proponent and founder of numbers (mathematics). This means that if emphasis is given to
the place or locus where philosophy originated, the answer is Greece. If emphasis is given to the activity,
philosophy originated with Thales-he being the first to wonder (about what stuff constitutes the world).
Finally, if emphasis is given to technicalities, philosophy is to be said to have originated with Pythagoras-he
being the one who coined the term philosophy.

In the upsurge of the itch of wonder, one is led towards the level of questioning where one cannot afford to not
raise questions. It is in the act of asking questions that wonder gets expressed. This is the reason why all
philosophers buy the idea that between questions and answers, it is the questions that matter more than the
answers. Indeed, questions are more important than answers because answers have the proclivity and
disposability to become further questions. Then again, it should be thoroughly understood that not all questions
are philosophical, such as these: "Where do you live?"; "What is your name?"; "What is the name of the school
where you is your vital statistics?"; "What is the weight that you are carrying?"; study?"; "What and "How tall
are you?" It would be different if one could convert all these questions into philosophical ones, like: "Are you
the place you live in?" or "Are you your name, your school, your texture, your skin, or your vital statistics?" or
"Are you what you know, think, believe, or feel?" These questions now assume a different image; a different
"face," in a manner of speaking. They become discursive, dialectical, or reflexive as they are reduced to a form
of a dialogue between the questioner and the world. Philosophical questions then are those that contain germs
of ideas that are willing to impregnate one's natural or scientific ability to understand himself/herself, others,
the world, and God.

BRANCHES OR DIVISIONS OF PHILOSOPHY

In general, there are four branches or divisions of philosophy, each division having a corresponding discipline,
from the word disiplina, meaning "instruction." They are 1) speculative or descriptive, 2) normative, 3)
practical, and 4) critical.

Speculative philosophy is interested in the nature, essence, or substance of reality, e.g., metaphysics.
Normative philosophy is interested in the goodness or the badness of a human act, e.g., ethics. Practical
philosophy is interested in truth in relation to action, e.g., logic. And, critical philosophy is interested in the
meaning of truth without being necessarily related to action, e.g., epistemology.

Now that it is clear what philosophy is, it is time to discuss what logic means, what its material and formal
objects are, how it is related to correct thinking, and what it has to do with deduction and induction (being
methods of reasoning, deduction and induction will be discussed latern).