Department of Civil Engineering Fluid Mechanics

Dr. Jafar Safari

CHAPTER 1. Fundamentals

t : time Total derivative of V

s : location (!)   d
 : partial derivative
d : ordinary derivative

⃗ ⃗
⃗ =𝑉
𝑉 ⃗ = 𝜕𝑉 𝑑𝑡 + 𝜕𝑉 𝑑𝑠
⃗ (𝑠, 𝑡) ⇒ 𝑑𝑉
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑆
⃗
𝑑𝑉 ⃗
𝜕𝑉 ⃗ 𝑑𝑠
𝜕𝑉 ⃗
𝑑𝑉 ⃗
𝜕𝑉 ⃗
𝜕𝑉
= + ⇒ = ⃗
+𝑉
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑆 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑠

V Local Convective
acceleration acceleration

Linearity & non-linearity

⃗ =𝑉
𝑉 ⃗ (𝑠, 𝑡) s, t : independent variable
V : dependent variable
 nV
aV  b
n

....
a and b are Coefficients of the dependent variable or its derivatives

if the coefficient is:

 A constant then the term is linear. a or b = constant
 Dependent on the independent variables then the term
is quasi-linear.
𝑎 = 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡(𝑠, 𝑡)
𝑏 = 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡(𝑠, 𝑡)

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 Department of Civil Engineering Fluid Mechanics
Dr. Jafar Safari

CHAPTER 1. Fundamentals

 Dependent on the dependent variable then the term is

non-linear.
𝑎 = 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡(𝑉⃗)
𝑏 = 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡(𝑉⃗)
Therefore: fluid mechanics is more complex than solid
mechanics. Because the acceleration contains non-linear terms
in fluid mechanics
dV V V
 V
dt t S

Linear Non-Linear
Local terms Convective terms

 Fluid mechanics uses theoretical equations.

 Hydraulics uses empirical equation to solve problems.

Total derivative:
∀= 𝑥. 𝑦. 𝑧
d∀x change in  due to change dx in x

d x  dx
x

What is x
? It is change in  due to unit change in x.
𝜕∀
d∀y change in ∀due to change dy in y. 𝑑∀𝑦 = 𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑦

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 Department of Civil Engineering Fluid Mechanics
Dr. Jafar Safari

CHAPTER 1. Fundamentals

𝜕∀
d∀z change in ∀due to change dz in z. 𝑑∀𝑧 = 𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑧

  
d   d x  d y  d z  dx  dy  dz
x y z

Note:
Ignored x.dy.dz , y.dx.dz , z.dx.dy second – order infinitesimal

Terms dx.dy.dz tired – term infinitesimal

The conclusion:
The exact differential of a variable gives the total change in
that variable due to change in the independent variable.
Volume of a cone:
 r 2h
V ( r , h) 
3
V 2 rh V  r 2
 
r 3 ,
h 3
( h → constant ) ( r → constant )

dV V V dh dV V V dr
   
dr r h dr dh h r dh
Say: h = k.r * k : constant
dV 2 rh r2
Then dr  3  k 3

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 Department of Civil Engineering Fluid Mechanics
Dr. Jafar Safari

CHAPTER 1. Fundamentals

1.5 Forces
Forces acting on the surface.

F  m .a External forces
Forces due to mass or volume body forces)
External forces acting in the mass, m.

Surface forces:
F  N T
tangential
Normal

F N T
    
A A A Shear stress /
Normal stress frictional stress

Mass / Volumetric forces (body force):

Weight mg = γ ∀
Centrifugal force 𝑚𝜔2 𝑟 = 𝜌∀𝜔2 𝑟
Conclusions:
External forces

Mass / volumetric forces Surface forces

_ body forces _
Normal Tangential
_ pressure _ _ shear / frictional _
𝐹𝑝 𝐹𝑓
From now on:
𝛴𝐹 = 𝑚. 𝑎 = ⃗⃗⃗
𝐹𝑝 + ⃗⃗⃗
𝐹𝑓 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹𝑏

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 Department of Civil Engineering Fluid Mechanics
Dr. Jafar Safari

CHAPTER 1. Fundamentals

1.6. Statics, kinematics & dynamics

(1) Static analysis
⃗ =0
𝑉 No motion
𝜏 = force (velocity change)
⃗ = 0, there will be no velocity change.
If 𝑉
Then 𝜏 = 0
There will only be 𝜎 ≠ 0
(2) Kinematic analysis:
⃗ ≠ 0 , fluid is in motion
𝑉
No matter what forces are acting on the fluid.
Only length and time are interested
For example:
1
𝑥 = 𝑣. 𝑡; 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑡 2 + 𝑣0 𝑡 + 𝑥0
2

(3) Dynamic analysis:

⃗ ≠ 𝑂 , fluid is in motion and forces are interested.
𝑉
Remember that:
Forces

Forces due to mass / volume Forces acting on surface of fluid

Normal forces Tangent forces

The hard part is in tangential

forces

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 Department of Civil Engineering Fluid Mechanics
Dr. Jafar Safari

CHAPTER 1. Fundamentals

Therefore:
Dynamic analysis is considered in two phases
(1) Dynamics of ideal fluids.
No friction / frictionless fluid
(2) Dynamics of real fluids
Friction is conceded

1.7. Stress on a point

There are three different (six in total) surface.

 ij
The stress is acting on a surface perpendicular to i and is
parallel to j.

Then there are 9 components of a stress. And a stress is,

therefore a tensor.

  xx  xy  xz 
 
  yx  yy  yz 
  zy  zz 
 zx 
Scalar → independent of direction.
Vectoral → 3 components.
Tensoral → 9 components.

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 Department of Civil Engineering Fluid Mechanics
Dr. Jafar Safari

CHAPTER 1. Fundamentals

From the figure:

 xx ,  yy ,  zz acts perpendicularly (normal stress).

 xy  xz  yx  yz  zx  xy acts tangentially (shear

, , , , ,

stress).
We know that:

 xy =  yx
 xz = 𝜏𝑧𝑥 →
Then stress acting on a point can be defined by six different
values.

 yz =  zy +
3 normal components
3 shear components
6 in total

1.8. Behaviors of fluids against stresses:

(a) Behavior against shear stress
_ viscosity_
From observations:
It is very logical to expect a shear stress due to
gradient in the velocity, du/dy
Therefore in its simplest case:

du
   func {𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑, 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤}
dy

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 Department of Civil Engineering Fluid Mechanics
Dr. Jafar Safari

CHAPTER 1. Fundamentals

→ Who can write the physical meaning of du/dy?

du
Answer : dy is the change in u due to unit change in y.

μ: dynamic viscosity of the fluid

𝜇
Definition : 𝜐= kinematic viscosity.
𝜌

Conclusion
 , gas

liquids 𝑡 ↑, 𝜇, 𝜐 ↓
fluids
gases 𝑡 ↑, 𝜇, 𝜐 ↑
liquid
𝑡(𝑐 ° )

𝑑𝑢
Definition: A fluid satisfying 𝜏 = 𝜇 is called a Newtonian
𝑑𝑦
fluid.
n
 du 
In a non-Newtonian fluid,     .
 dy 

Question: determine the units of μ and ν MSI and 𝑀𝑘𝑓 𝑆 unit

systems.
𝑑𝑢 𝑚/𝑠
𝜏=𝜇 N/m2 = [𝜇] unit of 𝜇 is N.s/m2
𝑑𝑦 𝑚

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 Department of Civil Engineering Fluid Mechanics
Dr. Jafar Safari

CHAPTER 1. Fundamentals

(b) Behavior against normal stress.

_compressibility_
P : pressure difference
  P .X .
 : volume
 : Bulk modular of elasticity X : Compressibility coefficient

 : change in volume due to

pressure difference

1 𝛥𝑃 𝛥∀ 𝛥𝑃
𝜀= → 𝛥∀= − . ∀→ =−
𝑥 𝜀 ∀ 𝜀

→ Question: determine the dimension of ε

-using force-length-time dimension.
-using mass-length-time dimension.
𝜀𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 2 × 104 𝑘𝑔𝑓 /𝑐𝑚2

𝜀𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 = 2 × 106 𝑘𝑔𝑓 /𝑐𝑚2 →  solid  liquid  gas

 gas  too small

In liquids, 𝛥∀→ 0 unless P is extremely high.

M = constant =  . →𝜌= constant

Conclusion :
Fluid

Gases liquids
_compressible_ _non-compressible_

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 Department of Civil Engineering Fluid Mechanics
Dr. Jafar Safari

CHAPTER 1. Fundamentals

Question :
→ determine the units of μ and ν MSI and 𝑀𝑘𝑓 𝑆 unit
systems.
→ determine the dimension of ε
using force-length-time dimensions.
using mass-length-time dimensions.

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