Chapter 1

Basics of Fluid Mechanics

and Hydraulics

Dr. Tarek Merabtene

tmerabtene@sharjaha.ac.ae
Ext: 2924 (06-5050-924)
 Introduction
• The word "hydraulics" originates from the Greek word
(hydraulikos) meaning Study of pipe.
• In applied engineering it is the study of water or other fluids at rest
or in motion.
• Hydraulic topics range through most science and engineering
disciplines.

• In water resources engineering it covers concepts such as design of

pressurized pipe system, hydropower, flow measurements, river works,
flood control, sediment transport and erosion control, artificial waterways,
canals, lakes, estuaries and seas.
• In transportation engineering it covers drainage systems of bridges and
roads.
• In structure engineering it covers all problems related to the design of
hydraulic structures such as spillways, culverts, and energy dissipation in
dams.
2
 Objectives
 Fundamentals of fluid mechanics
 Basic hydraulic system components
 Design of Water Distribution Systems
 Turbomachines
 Design of free surface canals (i.e., storm
water systems)
 Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics
 A fluid is a substance that flows under the action of
shearing forces. If a fluid is at rest the forces on it
are in balance.
 A gas is a fluid that is compressible. A liquid is a
fluid that is hard to compress or incompressible.
 A free surface is formed as a boundary between a
liquid and a gas above it (e.g. water and air).
 Basic of Fluid Properties
 Pressure and Force : Pressure
P is defined as the amount of
force F exerted on a unit area A
of a substance (i.e., fluid).
Force, {F}={M.L.T-2} ={N}
F
P Pressure= {P}={M.L.T-2} /{L2}
A ={N}/m2}={Pa}

1pa= 105 Nm-2 1psi =6895Pa

 Density ρ (rho) is the amount m {}={M/L3} ,
of Mass per Unit Volume of  SI: {Kg/m3} or
fluid:
V Slugs/ft3 in the GB system

 Specific weight  (gamma) W

also known as Unit Weight is   {KN/m3} or
defined as the amount of V lb/ft3 in GB system
weight of fluid per unit volume    .g
of the fluid:

 Specific Gravity (Sg) is the ratio of the s s

Sg  
weight of the body to the weight of an  w @ 4 C  w @ 40 C
0
equal volume of standard substance
 HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE
 The pressure at any given point of a non-moving (static) fluid
is called the hydrostatic pressure
 Pressure is function of the fluid properties and directly
proportional to the height of the fluid column above the
area of concern.

p   .h γ is the specific weight

h is the height of the water column
SI Unit for pressre: Pa, kPa, Psi, Bar, N/m2
F   . hcg . A
F: is the hydrostatic force
The pressure at a given depth in a continuous, static body of liquid is constant.

p1 p3 p 1 = p2 = p3
p2

Tuesday, April 06, 2021 6 Dr. Tarek Merabtene

 Law of Conservation of Mass
 For one dimensional incompressible steady Flow RTT
reduces to: Outflow = Inflow. At constant density the
equations is known as the continuity or flow rate
Equation:
n n n n

Q  Q
i 1
in
i 1
out or (v . A )  (v . A )
i 1
i i in
i 1
i i out

n n n n

m  m
i 1
in
i 1
out or ( .v . A )  ( .v . A )
i 1
i i i in
i 1
i i i out

 v is called the flow average velocity : vav=Q/A= 1/A (v.n).dA

 For pipes of constant diameter and incompressible
flow average velocity vavg stays the same down the
pipe, even if the velocity profile changes
 Fluid Dynamics: The Bernoulli Equation
• To solve for the flow rate (Q) we need dynamic approach to Fluid Mechanics
• Assuming that fluid motion is governed only by pressure and gravity forces,
applying Newton’s second law, F = ma, leads us to the Bernoulli Equation.
2
p 1P/g + V2/2g
v 1 + z along a streamline
 z1   Cst .
γ 2g
(P=pressure g =specific weight V=velocity g=gravity z=elevation)
• A streamline is the path of one particle of water. Therefore, at any two points
along a streamline, the Bernoulli equation can be applied to evaluate
unknown flows and pressures using a set of engineering assumptions.

At any two points on a streamline:

1 2
2 2
p1 v1 p2 v2
 z1    z2 
γ 2g γ 2g
Reynolds Number defines the flow regime
Laminar vs Turbulent flow
 Critical Reynolds number (Recr) for flow in a
Definition of Reynolds number round pipe
Re < 2300  laminar
 .v.D v.D 2300 ≤ Re ≤ 4000  transitional
Re   Re > 4000  turbulent
 
 Note that these values are approximate.
v: velocity  For a given application, Re depends upon
D: diameter  Pipe roughness
: density  Vibrations
: kinematic viscosity  Upstream fluctuations, disturbances (valves,
elbows, etc. that may disturb the flow)
 : Dynamic viscosity
 Friction and Minor Losses in pipe
 Total head loss hT in a system (i.e., the pipe sections) is
comprised of friction losses (hL) and the minor losses (hm)
(in the hydraulics components): hT = hL + hm
Li v 2i v 2j
hT  
i ( pipe )
fi
D i 2g
  K
j ( components
j
) 2g

 f: friction factor (friction loss coefficient), K: Minor loss coefficient ,

D: diameter [m], L: length [m], v: velocity [m/s]
 The total energy equation with head loss becomes:
2
P v Pi v 2
v
Li i
2
v 2

  fi  Kj
j
z   zi   i

 2g  2g i( pipe ) Di 2g j ( components ) 2g
 hp: pump head (energy) in meter (if any)
Energy Equation in a pipe with friction and
Minor losses, Pump and turbine
 When a piping system involves pumps and/or turbines,
pump and turbine head must be included in the energy
equation

 The useful head of the pump (hpump,u) or the head extracted

by the turbine (hturbine,e), are functions of volume flow rate,
i.e., they are not constants.
 Operating point of system is where the system is in
balance, e.g., where pump head is equal to the head
losses.
 Simple Piping System
 Two general types:
 Pipes in series
• Volume flow rate is constant
• Head loss is the summation
of parts
 Pipes in parallel
• Volume flow rate is the sum
of the components
• Pressure loss across all
branches is the same
Energy (EGL) and Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL)
• The fall of the EGL reflects the energy losses in the system. EGL drops slowly due
to friction losses and it drops sharply due to a major loss (a valve or transition) or due
to work extraction (to a turbine). The EGL can rise only if there is work addition (as
from a pump). HGL is obtained as EGL minus the velocity head V2/2g above a
datum.
• The EGL and HGL slope downward in the direction of the flow due to the head loss in
the pipe. A sudden change occurs in the HGL and the EGL whenever a loss occurs
due to a sudden geometry change as represented At points where the HGL passes
through the centerline of the pipe, the pressure is zero. If the pipe lies above the HGL,
there is a vacuum in the pipe, a condition that is often avoided, if possible, in the
design of piping systems; an exception would be in the design of a siphon.
 Computational model of the
friction factor f
 Moody chart was developed for circular pipes, but can be used for
non-circular pipes using hydraulic diameter
 Colebrook equation is a curve-fit of the data which is convenient for
computations.
 Both Moody chart and Colebrook equation are accurate to ±15% due
to roughness size, experimental error, curve fitting of data, etc.

Roughness Coefficient 
Material  [mm]
Glass, Plastic 0 (smooth)
Concrete 0.9 – 9
Cast iron 0.26
Galvanized iron 0.15
Wrought iron 0.046
Commercial steel 0.045
Stainless steel 0.002
 Energy Equation
 The total kinetic energy at the section using average
velocity is given by ½ρV3A. Therefore, the correction factor
α is (A∫½ ρv3dA)/(½ρV3A) or 1/AA∫(v/V)3dA.
 If we have a defined velocity distribution function we can
find the correction factor analytically.
 For inviscid flows it is 1, for laminar flow it is 2 and for
turbulent flows it varies as function of Reynolds Number
between 1.03 and 1.3
 Thus, the real flows calculation using Energy Equation must
be written as:
P v2 P2 v22  Li  v22
z   1  z2   2     f i   K j 
 2g  2g  i Di j  2g
i : sec tions in pipe 2; j : componentsin pipe 2
 Assignment 1
 Your are called to design a water slide as shown in the figure to be installed in a swimming
pool. Your client insist on the satisfaction and safety of his customers (i.e, ensure their
happiness but without burning their bottoms). Your researcher ends to recommend a
continuous water flow of 1.39 L/s (about 22 gal/min) down the slide. To be on a safe side you
decide to use an 80%-efficient pump under the slide, submerged 1 m below the water surface
to feeds a 5-m-long, 4-cm-diameter hose, of roughness 0.008 cm, to the slide. The hose
discharges the water at the top of the slide, 4 m above the water surface, as a free jet. Ignore
minor losses and assume α = 1.06. Find the brake horsepower needed to drive the pump. For
water take ρ = 998 kg/m3 and μ = 0.001 kg/m⋅s. Write the steady-flow energy equation from the
water surface (1) to the outlet (2) at the top of the slide:
 Assignment 2
 A reservoir A delivers water to a reservoir B through two uniform pipelines AJ:JB of
diameters 300 mm and 200 mm respectively. Just upstream of the node J (change
in section) a control discharge of 30 l/s is taken off.
 Length AJ=3000 m; JB=4000 m ; effective roughness of both pipes 0.015 mm; and
head water level =25 m.
 Determine the discharge to B (neglecting losses at node J).

Ans. Q1=62.5 l/s, Q2=32.5 l/s

 Assignment 3
 A 200mm Diameter pipeline of 5000m long and effective roughness 0.03 mm,
delivers water between two reservoirs where the minimum difference of water level
is 40 m.
(a) Determine the steady discharge between the two reservoirs (include friction losses
and the minor losses at the entrance and exit of the tanks).
Ans. 43.52 l/s

(b) If the discharge is to be increased to 50 l/s without increase in gross head,

determine the length of a 200 mm diameter pipe of effective roughness 0.015 mm to
be fitted in parallel. Consider only friction losses.
Ans. 1645m
 Assignment 4
 A 200mm Diameter pipeline of 5000m long and effective roughness 0.03 mm,
delivers water between two reservoirs where the minimum difference of water level
is 40 m.
(a) Determine the steady discharge between the two reservoirs (include friction losses
and the minor losses at the entrance and exit of the tanks).
Ans. 43.52 l/s

(b) If the discharge is to be increased to 50 l/s without increase in gross head,

determine the length of a 200 mm diameter pipe of effective roughness 0.015 mm to
be fitted in parallel. Consider only friction losses.
Ans. 1645m
 Assignment 5
 A four pump-turbine units of pumped storage hydro-electric scheme are each to
supplied by a high-pressure pipeline of length 2000 m. The minimum water head
level between the upper and lower reservoirs is 310 m and the maximum is 340m.
 The upper reservoirs has a usable volume of 3.25x106 m3 which could be released
to the turbines in a minimum period of 4 hours.
 Max. Power output required/turbine = 110 MW
 Turbo-Generator Efficiency = 80 %
 Effective roughness of pipeline = 0.6 mm
Taking Minor losses in the pipeline, power station and draft tube to be 3.0 m:
(1) Determine the minimum diameter of the pipeline to enable the maximum specified
power to be generated. Ans.: 2.6m-2.7 m
(2) Determine the pressure head to be developed by the pump-turbines when reversed
to act in the pumping mode to deliver a total volume of 3.25x106 m3 to the upper
reservoir uniformly during 6 hours in the off-peak period. Ans.: 365m-370 m
 Assignment 6
 A pump delivers a steady flow of water (ρ,μ) from a large tank to two other higher-
elevation tanks, as shown. The same pipe of diameter d and roughness ε is used
throughout. All minor losses except through the valve are neglected, and the partially-
closed valve has a loss coefficient Kvalve. Turbulent flow may be assumed with all kinetic
energy flux correction coefficients equal to 1.06. The pump net head H is a known
function of QA and hence also of VA = QA/Apipe. Subscript J refers to the junction point at
the node J where branch A splits into B and C. Pipe length LC is much longer than LB. It
is desired to predict the pressure at J, the three pipe velocities and friction factors, and
the pump head. Thus there are 8 variables: H, VA, VB, VC, fA, fB, fC, pJ. Write down the
eight equations needed to resolve this problem, but do not solve for now, since an
elaborate iteration procedure, or an equation solver would be required.