Equipment and Systems: Atco Initial Training

ATCO INITIAL TRAINING
8.
EQUIPMENT
AND SYSTEMS
EQUIPMENT AND SYSTEMS
© SENASA. Servicios y Estudios para la Navegación Aérea y la Seguridad Aeronáutica, S.M.E.

M.P. S.A. All rights reserved. Any kind of reproduction or transmission, in whole or in part, of
this material, in any form or by any means, digital or mechanical, including photocopying,
recording, or otherwise, without previous and explicit consent in writing from the SENASA
Head of Training (HT) is strictly forbidden.
SENASA ATCO INITIAL TRAINING 2

TITLE
First edition date Issue status
Edition No: 3.1
28/09/2010 Date: 09/06/2020
Code: TBATC_8
Edited by Reviewed by Approved by
ATC Training Staff CEANA Staff Antonio Bonilla (HT)
DOCUMENT CHANGE RECORD

Author Date Version Sections affected/Modifications
CEANA Staff 28/09/2010 1.0 All
Architecture diagrams in all sections deleted,
CEANA Staff 01/10/11 1.1 a number of illustrations modified in various
sections
Proof reading of all manual.
Change of SACTA part from chapter 2 to
chapter 7 (new chapter)
Previous Chapter 2 deleted
Addition of GLONASS and GALILEO
CEANA Staff 08/03/2012 1.2
information to chapter 5 and renamed to
incorporate new content.
Deletion of previous chapter 6 future
equipment and elements included in chapter
5.
CEANA Staff 05/09/2012 1.3 Proofreading
Compliant with the Commission Regulation
CEANA Staff 03/05/2018 2.0
(EU) No 2015/340
CEANA Staff 29/05/2019 3.0 New layout and design
CEANA Staff 09/06/2020 3.1 CCC removed


TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION .................................................................... 9
CHAPTER 2. RADIO ................................................................................ 13
2.1. RADIO THEORY ................................................................................................................. 13
2.1.1. Frequency .................................................................................................................. 13
2.1.2. Period ........................................................................................................................ 14
2.1.3. Wavelength ............................................................................................................... 16
2.1.4. Electromagnetic spectrum ........................................................................................ 17
2.1.5. Principles of radio communications .......................................................................... 18
2.1.6. Description of equipment for radio communications............................................... 32
2.1.7. Propagation ............................................................................................................... 35
2.1.8. Radio horizon ............................................................................................................ 36
2.1.9. HF communications................................................................................................... 40
2.1.10. VHF communications .............................................................................................. 40
2.2. RADIO COMMUNICATIONS .............................................................................................. 41
2.2.1. Radiotelephony – radio channels .............................................................................. 41
2.2.2. Method of off-frequency carriers to avoid interference .......................................... 43
2.2.3. 8.33 kHz channel spacing .......................................................................................... 47
2.2.4. Future: Aeronautical radio broadcasting service within CNS-ATM concept ............. 47
2.3. VHF (VDF) OR UHF (UDF) DIRECTION FINDER .................................................................. 48
2.3.1. General ...................................................................................................................... 48
2.3.2. Modern direction finder............................................................................................ 49
2.3.3. Operating capacity of the system ............................................................................. 50
2.3.4. Airborne Direction Finder ......................................................................................... 54
CHAPTER 3. OTHER COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS................................... 55

3.1. ATC COMMUNICATIONS .................................................................................................. 55
3.1.1. Voice Communications System (VCS) ....................................................................... 55
3.2. SELCAL .............................................................................................................................. 60
3.3. CONTROLLER PILOT DATA LINK COMMUNICATIONS (CPDLC) ......................................... 61
3.4. COMMUNICATIONS ADDRESSING and REPORTING SYSTEM (ACARS) ............................. 62
CHAPTER 4. RADAR ............................................................................... 67

4.1. INTRODUCTION: SURVEILLANCE CONCEPT IN ATS .......................................................... 67

4.2. GENERAL INFORMATION ................................................................................................. 68

4.2.1. Definition of radar ..................................................................................................... 68
4.2.2. Types of radar............................................................................................................ 68
4.2.3. RADAR functions ....................................................................................................... 69
4.2.4. RADAR bands............................................................................................................. 70
4.3. PRIMARY RADAR .............................................................................................................. 70
4.3.1. Operating principle ................................................................................................... 70
4.3.2. Block diagram of primary radar ................................................................................ 71
4.3.3. Cancellation of fixed targets ..................................................................................... 75
4.4. SECONDARY RADAR ......................................................................................................... 76
4.4.1. Introduction .............................................................................................................. 76
4.4.2. Operating principle ................................................................................................... 76
4.4.3. SSR antenna............................................................................................................... 79
4.4.4. Information provided by the SSR .............................................................................. 80
4.4.5. ID code correlation .................................................................................................... 82
4.5. USE OF RADAR.................................................................................................................. 83
4.5.1. PSR/SSR in ATC .......................................................................................................... 84
4.5.2. Characteristics of Primary radar used in ATC ............................................................ 85
4.5.3. Secondary radar used in ATC .................................................................................... 85
4.5.4. Limitations of SSR ...................................................................................................... 87
4.5.5. Surface Movement radar (SMR) ............................................................................... 87
4.5.6. Signal processing ....................................................................................................... 88
4.6. MODE S ............................................................................................................................ 89
4.6.1. General information .................................................................................................. 89
4.6.2. Mode S applications .................................................................................................. 90
CHAPTER 5. SATELLITE BASED SURVEILLANCE AND AUTOMATIC

DEPENDENT SURVEILLANCE ............................................... 91
5.1. THE GLOBAL NAVIGATION SATELLITE SYSTEM (GNSS) .................................................... 91
5.1.1. Basic Working Principles of Positioning Systems ...................................................... 92
5.1.2. GPS ............................................................................................................................ 93
5.1.3. GLONASS (Global Orbiting Navigation Satellite System) ........................................ 102
5.1.4. GALILEO ................................................................................................................... 104
5.1.5. Augmentation systems............................................................................................ 106
5.1.6. EGNOS program ...................................................................................................... 109

5.2. THE AERONAUTICAL MOBILE SATELLITE SERVICE (AMSS) ............................................. 110

5.2.1. INMARSAT system introduction .............................................................................. 110
5.2.2. INMARSAT space segment ...................................................................................... 111
5.2.3. INMARSAT ground segment .................................................................................... 111
5.2.4. INMARSAT Services ................................................................................................. 113
5.2.5. INMARSAT Aero ...................................................................................................... 113
5.2.6. The INMARSAT network .......................................................................................... 115
5.2.7. Communication Channels ....................................................................................... 116
5.3. AUTOMATIC DEPENDENT SURVEILLANCE (ADS) ............................................................ 117
5.3.1. ADS Concept ............................................................................................................ 117
5.3.2. ADS types ................................................................................................................ 118
5.3.3. ADS objective .......................................................................................................... 119
5.3.4. ADS-B ....................................................................................................................... 120
CHAPTER 6. AUTOMATION IN ATS ....................................................... 123

6.1. GENERAL INFORMATION ............................................................................................... 123
6.2. AERONAUTICAL FIXED SERVICE (AFS) ............................................................................ 123
6.2.1. Aeronautical Fixed Telecommunication Network (AFTN) ....................................... 124
6.2.2. Common ICAO Data Interchange Network (CIDIN)................................................. 125
6.2.3. Air Traffic Services (ATS) Message Handling System (AMHS) ................................. 125
6.2.4. Co-existence between ATS messaging technologies .............................................. 126
6.2.5. ICAO Location Indicators ......................................................................................... 127
6.3. ONLINE DATA INTERCHANGE ......................................................................................... 129
6.3.1. Online data interchange: flight plan information flows .......................................... 129
6.4. CLOSED CIRCUIT INFORMATION SYSTEMS (CCIS) .......................................................... 132
6.4.1. Principles of CCIS ..................................................................................................... 132
6.4.2. Use of CCIS in ATS ................................................................................................... 133
6.5. SYSTEMS USED IN THE AUTOMATIC DISSEMINATION OF INFORMATION .................... 133
6.5.1. VHF Broadcasts........................................................................................................ 133
6.5.2. Working principles of broadcasting systems .......................................................... 134
6.5.3. VOLMET broadcasting ............................................................................................. 135
6.5.4. ATIS broadcasting .................................................................................................... 135
CHAPTER 7. SACTA .............................................................................. 139

7.1. ARCHITECTURE OF THE SACTA SYSTEM ......................................................................... 140
7.1.1. Multi-dependence Surveillance Data Processing Subsystem (TDVM) .................... 141

7.1.2. Flight Plan Processing Subsystem (TPV) .................................................................. 142

7.1.3. Meteorological and Aeronautical Information Processing System (MET/AIS) ....... 143
7.1.4. Position Subsystem (UCS-FOCUCS) ......................................................................... 144
7.1.5. Supervision Subsystem (SPV) .................................................................................. 145
7.1.6. Flight Plan Information Management Subsystem (GIPV) ....................................... 146
7.1.7. ATM-SACTA server information subsystem (SIS) .................................................... 147
7.1.8. Information server and recorder subsystem (GSI) .................................................. 148
7.1.9. Support subsystem (SAPO)...................................................................................... 148
7.1.10. Dynamic Simulation Subsystem (SSD) ................................................................... 150
CHAPTER 8. WORKING POSITIONS ....................................................... 151

8.1. GENERAL INFORMATION ............................................................................................... 151
8.1.1. UCS overview .......................................................................................................... 153
8.2. EQUIPMENT FOUND SPECIFICALLY IN TWR ................................................................... 157
CHAPTER 9. MULTILATERTION ............................................................. 159

9.1. INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................. 159
9.2. PRINCIPLES OF MULTILATERATION ................................................................................ 160
9.3. USE OF MULTILATERATION ............................................................................................ 162
9.4. ADS-B AND MULTILATERATION ..................................................................................... 170
CHAPTER 10. SURVEILLANCE DATA PROCESSING ................................. 173

10.1. SURVEILLANCE DATA NETWORKING ............................................................................ 173
10.2. WORKING PRINCIPLES OF SURVEILLANCE DATA NETWORKING .................................. 174
CHAPTER 11. FUTURE EQUIPMENT ...................................................... 175

11.1. NEW DEVELOPMENTS .................................................................................................. 175
11.2. NEW PROBLEMS, NEW TECHNOLOGY.......................................................................... 175
11.3. SESAR AND NEXTGEN ................................................................................................... 176
11.4. BETTER FOR PASSENGERS ............................................................................................ 177
11.5. SOME EXAMPLES .......................................................................................................... 178

1. INTRODUCTION
Throughout history mankind’s desire to fly has always been present. As far back as 400
B.C., the Ancient Greek scholar Archytas of Tarentum built a bird-shaped wooden
device capable of flying up to a height of 180 meters, which he baptised with the name
‘The Pigeon’ (Greek: Περιστέρα "Peristera").
It was during the XVIII century, thanks to the development of the hot-air balloon and
the airship, and during the XIX century, with the development of the first heavier-than-
air device, that the basis of all scientific studies and research was laid down to allow XX
century aviation to develop.
During the XX century, the aeroplane went from being an adventure for just a few to
becoming a highly important military weapon during World War I at first and, later on,
the main means of commercial transport of our time, due to numerous advances
carried out in aviation as a consequence of war.
On February 8th 1919, Henri Farman carried 11 people from Paris to London on his
F.60 Goliath. This was the first commercial flight between these two cities. From this
moment aviation has undergone outstanding development.
With increasing traffic it became necessary to have coordinated control, which

resulted in the birth of the air traffic control service.

With a wheelbarrow on which he mounted a beach sunshade in the summer, a chair,

his lunch, a notebook and a pair of flags, Archie William League (1907-1986) is
considered to be the first air traffic controller. He was hired by the city of Saint Louis to
direct the increasing traffic in St. Louis Lambert Field.
The development of radio was of great importance to aviation, allowing

communications between the pilot and people on the ground. It was first used to
transmit weather conditions and subsequently position, thanks to the development of
radio goniometry.
Air traffic control was carried out based on time. Each aircraft had a very precise take
off time and fixed passing times.
The development of radar at the beginning of the 1940’s provided great progress. It
was first used by the military and would later be applied to commercial aviation. Radar

control allows air traffic controllers to direct a flying aircraft and to be able to fulfil the
basic safety premise: maintain the distance between aircraft.
The air traffic controller uses voice communications in order to exchange messages
with pilots (G/A communications) and ATC and airport units related to his activity
(ground-to-ground communication). A series of radio and telephone communication
resources are assigned to each control position. These resources may vary depending
on the workload, time of day and season of the year. As a result, the management of
these resources is an important activity in the ATC field.
All ATC units include a voice communications management system (VCS) that has been
developed for the control and management of communications resources and for the
configuration and monitoring of communications.
As with communication systems, surveillance systems grew in importance and in

complexity over time. In this manual the student will learn about the main equipment
and systems that are used in ATC for communication and surveillance.
MAIN COMPONENTS OF AN ATC SYSTEM
The main components of an ATC system, as mentioned briefly above, are

communication and surveillance equipment and programmes. The main objective is to
give the air traffic controller the tools with which to monitor and to direct air traffic to
ensure a safe and orderly flow. When it comes to surveillance, as we will see in various
parts of this manual, the air traffic controller, when using a modern system, receives
synthesized information some of which comes from surveillance equipment (what
various systems are capturing from aircraft in flight or on the ground) and from flight
planning processing systems (the flight plans which are filed by airspace users which

are then processed to provide richer information about the surveillance data received).
In modern systems these sub-parts are integrated together to give the controller one
harmonised view. In addition, since aviation is global, these systems need to talk and
interoperate with other similar systems in different units, centres and even countries.
The more communication there is between systems, the more reliable and complete
the information is. This then enhances safety and efficiency across the whole air traffic
network.
SUMMARY
The main Items of ATC Equipment are:
 Communication equipment
 Surveillance Equipment
 Flight Planning Processing Equipment
 Presentation equipment for all information elements
The remaining part of this manual will describe this equipment in more detail.

2. RADIO
The concept of radio is a general term that is applied to the use of electromagnetic
waves.
2.1. RADIO THEORY

By radio we understand any telecommunication device that uses the properties of
electromagnetic wave propagation, whose frequency ranges from low kHz to high GHz.
It is mainly used for radio broadcasting and television, but it is also used in telephone
systems and wireless telegraphy, in satellite communications and in remote control
applications.
In order to develop the theory on which radio broadcasting is based, it is necessary to

revise the basic concepts that we will see in the following sections.
2.1.1. FREQUENCY
We may define frequency as follows: Frequency is the measurement of the number of

times that a repeated event occurs per unit of time.

Frequency
Another definition for frequency: The number of oscillations or cycles per unit of time.
Acoustical frequency is usually expressed in units of Hertz (Hz) where one Hz is equal
to one cycle per second.
2.1.2. PERIOD
The time required to complete one cycle. It is denoted by the letter T and measured in
seconds. Period is linked to frequency F by the following equation:

Period

2.1.3. WAVELENGTH
The distance, in the direction of propagation, between two successive points of an
electromagnetic waveform, from the point at which the variable magnitude presents
certain characteristics (i.e. positive maximum) to the next immediate point at which
the magnitude again presents the same characteristics.
It is denoted by the symbol and measured in meters. Wavelength is linked to

frequency F by the following equation.
c being the propagation speed in clearance (light speed = 300 000 km/s).
Wavelength
It is important to note that wavelength and period decrease as frequency increases.

2.1.4. ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
The picture shows a part of the frequency spectrum used for conventional radio
broadcasting in general and, particularly, bands where ground/air communications are
used for aeronautical services.
Frequency bands
The following table shows spectrum classification according to frequency magnitude

(F) and wavelength (λ):
BAND DESIGNATION FREQUENCY MARGIN WAVELENGTH (λ)

VLF (Very Low Frequency) 0 to 30 kHz 100 km to 10 km
LF (Low Frequency) 30 kHz to 300 kHz 10000 m to 1000 m
MF (Medium Frequency) 300 kHz to 3000 kHz 1000 m to 100 m
HF (High Frequency) 3 MHz to 30 MHz 100 m to 10 m
VHF (Very High Frequency) 30 MHz to 300 MHz 10 m to 1 m
UHF (Ultra High Frequency) 300 MHz to 3000 MHz 1 m to 0.1 m
SHF (Super High Frequency) 3 GHz to 30 GHz 0.1 m to 0.01 m
EHF (Extremely High Frequency) 30 GHz to 3000 GHz 0.01 m to 0.001 mm

2.1.5. PRINCIPLES OF RADIO COMMUNICATIONS
Radiotelephony communications, in general, consist of the issuance of oral messages

between a source and target unit. Messages to be issued are located within the
audible frequency spectrum (audio frequencies). These values are located at the
lowest part of the available sound spectrum. Therefore, the wavelength associated to
these frequencies is very high (in kilometres).
COMPONENTS
In order to issue a voice message (or music) a transmitter is required, the elemental
block diagram of which is shown in the following picture.
Elemental transmitter
Microphone: its objective is to transform air vibrations (produced by the human voice)
that affect its membrane, into electric current in a determined way, frequency and
amplitude. This signal will be the electric response to the sound produced by the
emitter, and will leave the microphone with a very low level of energy.
Low frequency amplifier: its objective is to amplify the audio frequency signal from
the microphone up to the desired limits in order to be transmitted over long distances.

Transmission line: it is a physical link between the amplifier (equipment) and the
feeding point of the radiant element of the system.
Antenna: it is an essential device in the system. Its objective is to transform electric

energy from the amplifier into electromagnetic energy moving through space in order
to achieve communication with a speaker in a remote location.
The dimensions of an antenna have to be considered in accordance with the

wavelength to be transmitted or received. For an antenna to be efficient, its length
shall be a multiple or sub multiple of the wavelength.
We will develop the theory of two types of antennas:
═ Antennas of a fourth of a wavelength (λ/4).

═ Antennas of half a wavelength (λ/2).
These two types of antennas will be explained further on in this chapter.
In order for the transfer of electric energy to electromagnetic energy to be optimum, it

is necessary for the antenna length (L) to have a determined relationship with the
wavelength of the emitted frequencies (λ).
The described equipment presents the following inconveniences:
═ The signals that have to be transmitted have such a low frequency value that
we would require very high power amplifier output, and even so, the coverage
achieved would not satisfy communication needs over long distances.
═ The physical dimension of the radiant element (antenna) is so large
(kilometres) that due to space economy and requirements, its construction
would be impossible.
As an example of point 2, we will calculate the wavelength for a transmitted frequency

of 3000 Hz (3 kHz)
By the following equation we know that the relationship between frequency and
wavelength is given by:
(m/s) c = light speed = 300 000 km/s and

(Hz) F = frequency = 3 000 Hz (3 kHz)

Wavelength will be equal to:
This is a very high wavelength value for the signal radiated so the radiant element
(antenna) that we require shall have dimensions that will depend on the type of
antenna used. If, for example, we use an antenna of a fourth of a wavelength (see next
section), the physical dimensions of the antenna shall be the following:
If we use a half a wavelength antenna, the physical dimensions of the antenna shall be
the following:
In the following sections we shall analyze the means and procedures used in the
transmission and reception of radio signals for communication between remote
points.
 Antennas of fourth a wavelength (λ/4)
As mentioned earlier, for radio transmissions to happen, the system needs antennas.
There are two types of antennas, one of which is a fourth of a wavelength and the
other is half of a wavelength. These two types are described below.
These types of antennas present a flow diagram such as the one shown in the
following picture. The distribution of the flow is the following:
═ At the “isolated” point of the antenna, the flow value is null (I=0).
═ At the “non-isolated” point of the antenna, the flow value is maximum (I = max.
value).
The antenna shall always be “fed” through the maximum intensity point, that is to say,
through the “non-isolated” point. This means that electric energy from the amplifier,
through the transmission line, is connected to the antenna at that point.

Antenna of fourth a wavelength (flow diagram)
It is necessary to stress that the distribution of flow in this type of antennas contains a
null value (or minimum) and increases until reaching a maximum value. In the
following picture we can see that the progression from “null” to “maximum”, in a
complete cycle of the signal is equivalent to a fourth part of the total wavelength of
this cycle. This is the reason why these types of radiant elements are called antennas
of a fourth of a wavelength.
Wavelength and λ/4.

 Half wavelength antennas (λ/2)
This type of antennas present a flow diagram such as the following:
Wavelength antenna (flow diagram)
The distribution of the flow is the following:
═ At “isolated” points of the antenna the value of the flow is null (I = 0).
═ At “non-isolated” points of the antenna the value of the flow is maximum (I =
maximum value).
This case may be considered as two fourth wavelength antennas linked by the non-
isolated point.
As the antennas must always be fed through the maximum intensity point, that is to
say, through the non-isolated point, in this case electrical energy from the amplifier
through the transmission line is connected to the antenna at the middle point.
The coverage of a signal that divides a null (or minimum) value passes through its
maximum amplitude value and ends, once again, in a null (or minimum) value. It
corresponds to half of a complete cycle of the signal. This is the reason why these
types of radiant elements are called half wavelength, or λ/2, antennas.

POLARISATION
As has previously been described, the objective of an antenna (in transmission) is to

transform electrical energy from the amplifier into electromagnetic energy sent
through the air. This energy is associated to a front of electromagnetic waves that
consist of:
═ An electrical field (E) whose orientation is identical to that of the position of the
radiant element.
═ A magnetic field (H) whose orientation is perpendicular to that of the electrical
field.
The polarisation of an antenna is defined by the orientation of the electrical field (E) in
space.
In this sense, we shall distinguish between two types of basic polarisations:
Vertical polarisation: in this case the radiant element is installed vertically and its
associated wave front has the configuration shown in the following picture.
Vertical polarization
The electrical field (E) has a vertical orientation (like that of the radiant element) and
the magnetic field (H) is perpendicular to the electrical field so its orientation will be
horizontal.
As we can see in the previous picture, the receiving antenna is located in the same
position as the emitter antenna. This information is very important in order to ensure
the maximum energy transfer between the emitter point and the receiving point. This

means that when vertical polarization is used in both antennas, emitter and receiver,
they shall be arranged in a vertical position. The following picture shows two examples
of antennas with vertical polarization used in ground/air communications for
aeronautical services.
Antennas for vertical polarization
Horizontal polarisation: in this case the radiant element is installed in a horizontal

position and its associated wave front has the configuration shown in the following
picture.
The electrical field (E) has a horizontal orientation (as that of the radiant element) and
the magnetic field (H) is perpendicular to the electrical field. Therefore, its orientation
will be vertical.
As has been described in the previous case, the receiving antenna is installed in the
same position as the emitter with the aim of ensuring the maximum energy transfer
between the emitter point and the receiving point.
Horizontal polarisation

The following picture shows two examples of antennas with horizontal polarisation
used in television.
Antennas with horizontal polarization
MODULATION
We will describe everything seen up to now in the following way:
═ Transmitted audio frequency signals do not have enough range, even when
high power amplifiers are used.
═ The radiant elements which would need to be installed would be extremely big
and expensive and their manufacture and installation is thought to be non-
viable.
In order to solve the aforementioned problems we turn to transmission on higher

frequencies, which from now on will be known as radio frequencies, with this we will
achieve the following advantages:
═ Radio frequency signals have a sufficient range to cover communication

objectives over long distances without the need of using very high power
amplifiers.
═ Radiant elements used have reduced physical dimensions. Therefore, their
generation and installation is very economical.
However, we must not forget that the objective of all communication is to exchange
messages and these messages are contained in a very low frequency band, more
specifically in the audio frequency band. The radio frequency signal that we want to
emit does not contain any information.

In order to solve the communication problem we turn to the MODULATION process,

which consists of “linking” the audio frequency signal (containing the information) to
the radio frequency signal which provides the diffusion. Therefore, two types of signals
shall be used in the whole modulation process:
═ A very low frequency signal (audio frequency) which contains the information
we want to diffuse. This signal is known as the MODULATOR.
═ A very high frequency signal (radio frequency) which does not contain any
information, but that will facilitate its diffusion (emission) and reception
between considerably separated geographical points. This signal is known as
the CARRIER.
To modulate means to vary any of the characteristics (amplitude, phase or frequency)

of the carrier according to the signal to be transmitted.
Depending on the procedure used for the “linking” of the modulator and carrier
signals, modulation may be divided into three types:
═ Amplitude modulation (AM).

═ Frequency modulation (FM).
═ Phase modulation.
The two first types of modulation, which were defined previously (AM and FM), shall
be described in the following sections.
Modulation components

 Amplitude modulation (am)
The amplitude modulation procedure consists of varying the amplitude of the carrier
signal according to the modulator signal (audio or information to be transmitted) as
shown in the following picture.
Amplitude modulation
In ground/air aeronautical communications amplitude modulation is used for the

exchange of messages between the ground station and the aircraft station.
The relationship between values taken by amplitude variations of the carrier signal
modulated provide the data of an important parameter in this type of emissions and
this is known as the modulation index.
Amplitude modulation. Modulation index

The previous picture shows the appearance of an amplitude modulated signal. We can
also see how these variations go through a maximum value (Amax) and a minimum
value (Amin) The modulation index is given by the expression:
Generally, the modulation index is expressed as a percentage (%) so its value shall be
determined using the following expression:
ICAO determines that the modulation percentage for aeronautical communications

must be higher than 85%.
 Frequency modulation (fm)
Frequency modulation (FM) is another method used to modify a carrier signal with the
aim of transmitting information at a distance. In this type of modulation, the instant
frequency of the carrier signal varies depending on the rhythm of the modulator signal;
the amplitude of the carrier signal remains constant, as is shown in the following
picture. Frequency variations of the carrier signal are proportional to the amplitude of
the modulator signal, which is known as frequency deviation. In the process of
frequency modulation, the maximum frequency deviation corresponding to the
maximum modulator signal amplitude is 75 kHz.
Frequency modulation

With an FM emission, we achieve a high fidelity as the audio bandwidth is between

100 Hz and 18 000 Hz. Therefore, it produces a higher occupation of the radio electric
spectrum. For commercial FM radio broadcasting, the carrier signal is emitted in a
band between 88 and 108 Mhz.
The reception area covered by a FM transmitter, limited by the frequency used and by
the radio horizon is always delivered at almost optimal capacity. The horizon limit does
not apply to AM emissions; however, FM has the advantage of reducing the effect of
interference and background noise, allowing a higher quality transmission than that of
AM. In addition, it allows the transmission of a higher bandwidth, up to 18 kHz.
In AM emissions, if the signal received by the antenna is faint, we may perceive

atmospheric background noise and interference produced by electric atmospheric
phenomena. The advantage offered by frequency modulation is that once tuned and
sufficiently amplified, the quality is high and any amplitude variation disappears
completely as well as most radio electric interference. This amplitude limitation of the
carrier signal does not affect the transmitted information, as this information is
located in frequency variations instead of amplitude variations of the carrier signal.
Through the use of a discriminating circuit in the receiver, we extract audio
information (modulator), turning frequency variations into an audible signal once
sufficiently amplified.
LATERAL BANDS AND BANDWIDTH
Amplitude modulation has two disadvantages to be taken into account:
═ It occupies a bandwidth in the radio electric spectrum which has double the
bandwidth of the signals to be transmitted. The audio signal to be transmitted
(modulator) is between 100 Hz and 4.5 kHz so the occupied bandwidth will be 9
kHz. In commercial AM radio broadcasting there is a safety margin of 1 kHz in
order to ensure lack of interference with adjacent radio stations.
═ Almost 75% of energy broadcasted does not contain any information.
The spectrum of an amplitude modulation signal is shown in the following picture:

Spectrum of an AM signal
The value of the carrier signal frequency is represented by Fp and its amplitude by the
size of the vector that represents it.
If the RF signal is not subject to the modulation process, this vector would be the only
one to appear in the spectrum. When the radio frequency signal is modulated in
amplitude with a modulator signal (audio frequency), two vectors appear in the
spectrum, each of them located to each side of the carrier vector. The magnitude of
these vectors represents the amplitude of the modulator signal and its position over
the horizontal axis represents the frequency value of each. These vectors are known as
Lateral Bands and when assuming frequency values above and below those of the
carrier signal they receive the name of Upper sideband (USB) and Lower Sideband
(LSB).
If a station emits a carrier signal of 1000 kHz modulated with a modulator signal of
5000 Hz (5 kHz), the resulting spectrum will be the following.
Spectrum of an AM signal

The carrier vector is located over the value that represents its frequency (1000 kHz)
with a proportional magnitude to that of the transmitted amplitude (without
modulation).
The vector that represents the USB is located at the point of the spectrum with a value
of Fp + fm (1000 kHz + 5 kHz = 1005 kHz) with a magnitude proportional to that of the
maximum amplitude of the modulation signal.
The vector that represents the LSB is located at the point of the spectrum with a value
of Fp – fm (1000 kHz – 5 kHz = 995 kHz) with a magnitude proportional to that of the
maximum amplitude of the modulation signal.
The bandwidth is determined by double the value of the maximum frequency of the
modulation signal. In the previous example, the value of the bandwidth is 10 kHz.
 Single sideband (SSB)
As in the case of the example in the previous section, the carrier signal is modulated
with an audio signal covering the 300-3000 Hz band, the Lower Sideband shall be
between 997 and 999.7 kHz while the Upper Sideband shall occupy the margin
between 1000.3 and 10003 kHz. If the two signals are radiated, a channel from 997 to
1003 kHz is occupied, which represents a bandwidth of 6 kilohertz, double the
maximum value of the modulation signal.
The information to be transmitted may be found in either of the sidebands (USB and
LSB). As has been previously stated, the bandwidth occupied by the spectrum is
defined by the value of both sidebands.
As the information is contained in both sidebands, the bandwidth may be reduced by

emitting a single sideband. In professional communication equipment, reducing the
bandwidth by half, which is strictly necessary, and transmitting only the energy that
contains information, means that much higher communication ranges can be reached
using the same amount of power. Modulation that takes advantage of this property
known as single sideband (SSB) can be located in either of the two available sidebands.
Depending on which of them is used, they are known as upper sideband (USB) or lower
sideband (LSB)

2.1.6. DESCRIPTION OF EQUIPMENT FOR RADIO

COMMUNICATIONS
TRANSMITTER
The following picture shows the elemental block diagram of a transmitter in amplitude
modulation.
Block diagram of an AM transmitter
The equipment includes the following elements:
Microphone, Low frequency amplifier, Transmission line, Antenna: (previously

described)
And in addition to these:
Local oscillator: its objective is to generate the radio frequency signal that will be used
as the Carrier. It is a signal with a constant amplitude and frequency, and shall also be
applied to the modulator.
Modulator: its objective is to generate the radio frequency signal with amplitude
variations depending on the form and frequency of the modulation signal. From the
modulator output we obtain a low level AM signal.
RF amplifier (power): the AM signal from the modulator is amplified in this unit up to
the required power values for its transmission according to the desired range.

RECEIVER
The next picture shows the elemental block diagram of receiver equipment for
amplitude modulation.
Block diagram of an AM receiver
The receiver equipment is made up of the following basic elements:
In addition to the Antenna, Low Frequency Amplifier and Transmission line which have
already been described, this system includes:
Low frequency amplifier: its objective is to amplify the audio frequency signal from
the microphone up to the desired limits in order to be transmitted over long distances.
RF amplifier and synchronizer: the signal from the antenna has the following
characteristics:
═ Its energy level is very low as one of the properties of electromagnetic waves is
to lose energy as it covers travelling distance.
═ It is a signal formed by all RF carrier frequencies in the antenna (as many
frequencies as are being emitted within their range).
Therefore, the objective of this unit shall be to:
═ Amplify the entry signal up to an appropriate level for its subsequent

treatment. If the energy level of the entry signal is excessively low only the

noise in the signal will be amplified. This fact defines one of the important
parameters of a receiver: the sensitivity.
═ Tune the desired signal with the aim of refusing (eliminating) those whose
frequency we do not want to receive. This fact defines another of the
important parameters of a receiver: selectivity.
This parameter is closely related to the concept of bandwidth as it determines the

separation of RF channels (carrier) in order to avoid interference between adjacent
channels.
A receiver receives RF signals from all emitters within whose effective range the it is
found. Through the tuner we eliminate all signals whose frequency is different from
that which we want to receive (tune) in such a way that in the following stages the
receiver will only process the signal previously tuned.
Local oscillator: its objective is to generate a frequency signal whose value varies with
the action of the tuner. The objective of this signal is to mix with that of the tuned
signal to achieve an Intermediate Frequency (IF).
Mixer: in this unit signals from the tuner/RF amplifier are mixed with the local
oscillator. With the mixer output, we obtain a signal of lower frequency than that
tuned, which is called the INTERMEDIATE FREQUENCY (IF). In all AM receivers the
value of the IF is constant and equal to 455 kHz (in commercial radio broadcasting).
The value of the IF in FM receivers is 10.7 kHz. The signal from the mixer has the same
amplitude variations as the originally tuned RF signal.
The reason for generating this intermediate frequency is based on the demodulator or
detector stage (deletion of the carrier) and it is designed to obtain an optimum result
at a determined and fixed frequency which must be lower than RF signals from the
transmitter equipment.
IF amplifier: in this unit the signal from the mixer is amplified up to the required value
for its treatment in the demodulation stage.
Demodulator: the objective of this unit is to delete the RF carrier and obtain the result
of amplitude variations. We should remember that amplitude variations of the carrier
signal (envelope) represent the original low frequency signal (which contains the audio
information)
Speaker: its objective is the opposite to that of the microphone. Current variations
applied to the speaker make the membrane associated to it vibrate with an amplitude
and frequency proportional to the source signal. The vibration of this signal produces

air vibrations that reproduce the human voice, or music, generated in the emission
source.
2.1.7. PROPAGATION
Electromagnetic waves, like light or sound waves, have a linear propagation and show
the same reflection, refraction, echoes, shadow and interference phenomena. In
addition to the natural propagation of electromagnetic waves, two additional
phenomena are produced which improve the coverage and propagation. These
phenomena are the reflection of frequency waves lower than 30 megahertz by the
Earth’s ionosphere, and a surface wave, which is propagated along the Earth’s surface.
In order for a transmitter to obtain better coverage, antennas are installed in high
areas, trying to avoid mountains or obstacles that may leave inhabited areas in the
shadow. What may constitute an obstacle will depend on its position as well as the
dimension and the wavelength of the propagated wave. Additionally, in the case of low
frequencies, diffraction phenomena may light up areas which are not located within
sight of the antenna. In general, higher frequencies are more directional due to the
higher opacity of obstacles.
Effects of propagation

2.1.8. RADIO HORIZON
Since the Earth has a curved surface, and since waves bend slightly because of
refraction, as the distance between the transmitter and the receiver increases, the risk
that the wave does not reach the receiver increases
The Radio horizon is theoretical because it does not take into account the unevenness
of terrain and the means of propagation.
Radio horizon
In this picture we can see a source of emission at point P, at a height h over the surface
of the Earth and the curved propagation path due to the effect of the refraction index.
The distance to the horizon from a ground station or aircraft station is determined by
the following formula:
d: distance to the radio horizon in (NM or km)

h: height of the emitter antenna in the ground station and/or
height of the aircraft (in m)
k: constant which depends on the effective Earth radius which is
4/3 of the real radius
k = 2.22 when h is expressed in meters and d in nautical miles
k = 4.12 when h is expressed in meters and d in nautical miles

Exercise: Calculating the electromagnetic range:
Next, we are going to look at an example of radio magnetic range, calculating radio
magnetic range in the following operational conditions:
The ground communication station is located at an altitude of 20 m. Transmitter

antennas are installed on metal towers of 15 m. The aircraft flights at an altitude of
5000 m.
Radio electrical range
1. We determine the distance to the radio horizon from the ground station: the height
of the antennas shall be equal to that of the station (20 m plus that of the metal tower
that supports them (15 m). Therefore, the hp value is 35 m. In these conditions we
apply the following expression:
2. We determine the distance to the radio horizon from the aircraft, whose flight
altitude is 5000 m, applying the following expression:
The total range shall be:

IONOSPHERE
The ionosphere is a zone of the atmosphere located at a high altitude (from

approximately 50 km onwards). It is composed of an important number of free
electrons and positive ions.
This creates ionic density variations that affect the propagation of radio waves
The main causes that determine the ionization of the layers of the ionosphere are due
to the sun’s ultraviolet radiation, sunspots and cosmic rays,. These phenomena are
usually cyclic, repeating according to the rotation of the Earth around its own axis
(rotation) and around the sun (translation).
 Layers of the ionosphere
The vertical structure of the ionosphere includes four layers or regions. These layers
are not static but are rather in continuous movement. The density of the electrons of
each layer varies with the time of day and the season of the year. As a consequence of
changes and movements in the ionosphere, fading effects are produced in addition to
periods of silence in the receivers, as we can see in the following picture.
Ionosphere (day)
D layer: This layer is located between 50 and 100 km of altitude. Its degree of
ionization is reduced and its effect on the propagation of radio waves is minimum,
producing a light diffraction effect. It is only present during daylight as its formation
and behaviour depend on the intensity of the sun’s radiation. It disappears at sunset.

E layer: This layer is located between 100 and 150 km of altitude. It is known as the
Heaviside layer and its altitude varies according to the season. Its degree of ionization
is highest at midday and practically disappears at night. In addition to producing a
diffraction effect, it presents a great power of radio wave reflection. During the day it
can return Earth waves of up to 20 MHz at distances of approximately 2700 km.
F layer: This layer begins at an altitude of 150 km and is divided into two other layers;
F1 and F2. The F1 layer presents a great power of radio wave, while layer F2 has a
great power of reflection. These layers are in continuous upward movement. But at
night, F2 descends and is located below layer F1, as we can see in the following
picture.
Ionosphere (night)
 Fading
Waves of frequencies lower than 30 megahertz are curved or reflected by the

ionosphere. Therefore, a remote receiver may receive two signals: a direct one, and
another one which is the result of a wave reflected by the ionosphere The sum of both
waves may be additive (when they are in phase) or destructive when they are opposite
in phase. The paths of both propagations may vary depending on temperature changes
and other propagation conditions, something which is shown in periodic variations of
the signal received and which is known as fading. Anyone who has received a remote
emission in half or short wave may have observed how the signal cyclically oscillates
between fading to a minimum and then increasing to a maximum.

2.1.9. HF COMMUNICATIONS
High Frequency (HF) radio transmission is the only non-satellite communication system
capable of establishing a direct link between aircraft and ground station, or between
ground stations, at distances above that of the radio horizon. This characteristic makes
HF communications very useful when direct links between aircraft and ground are
required over oceans and in mountainous areas.
The characteristics of a HF system are described in chapter 3 of section II and

appendix C of ICAO Annex 10 “AERONAUTICAL COMMUNICATIONS”, and are summed
up in the following table.
Radio frequency range 2.8 to 22 MHz

Sideband Upper (USB)
Audio frequencies 300 to 2700 Hz
Operation mode Simplex
Rescue frequencies 3023 and 5680 KHz
Range Long distances
Propagation Varies daily and according to seasons. Operation frequencies are
selected depending on the activity of the ionosphere.
2.1.10. VHF COMMUNICATIONS
In aeronautical communications, VHF communications are used to establish

communications in both directions between aircraft and stations or positions on the
surface of the Earth. They are also known as Ground/Air communications (see section
2.3.2.)
The characteristics of a VHF system are described in ICAO Annex 10, “AERONAUTICAL
TELECOMMUNICATIONS”. Characteristics required for G/A communications for
frequencies of more than 30 MHz are summed up in the following table.
Radio frequency range 117.975 to 136 MHz for Commercial Aviation.
136 to 143 MHz for Military Aviation.

Operation mode Single channel simplex (*).
Channel separation 25 KHz and 8.33 KHz.

Polarization Vertical.
Power The effective radiated power should provide a minimum field intensity
of 75 microvolt/m (-109 dBw/m2) within an operational range of the
installation, according to the propagation in the free airspace.
Modulation >85%

2.2. RADIO COMMUNICATIONS
2.2.1. RADIOTELEPHONY – RADIO CHANNELS
Within the frequency spectrum available, the ITU (International Telecommunications

Union) has established a zone whose frequencies shall be used for radio
communication and aeronautical radio navigation services.
The following picture shows graphically the distribution of radio navigation and
aeronautical radio communication services.
Allocation of services
The division of the spectrum located on the left of the graphic shows the band
allocated to commercial FM radio broadcasting, which is between 88 and 108 MHz.
This band is not used for aeronautical purposes. It is only shown for reference as it is
widely used.

As was recommended by the ITU, the use of the 117.975 to 144 MHz band shall be
exclusively used by Aeronautical Mobile Services. The frequencies indicated were
allocated to the following services:
National and International Aeronautical Mobile Services

From 118 to 121.4 MHz
Intermediate allocations shall be determined by regional agreement. National
agreements shall be solved by consultations between the interested administrations
so that there is not any interference in communications.
Examples:
Aerodrome control frequency: 118.1 MHz
Airport APP frequency: 119.7 MHz
Emergency frequency (civil)
121.5 MHz
The nearest assignable frequencies, on both sides, shall be 121.40 and 121.60.
Military emergency frequency
243.0 MHz
Ground communications (taxi) in aerodromes
From 121.6 to 121.975 MHz
Reserved for ground movements, checks prior to the flight, ATS clearances and
connected functions.
Examples:
Airport taxi frequency (1): 121.7 MHz
Airport taxi frequency (2): 121.9 MHz
National Aeronautical Mobile Services
From 122 to 123.05 MHz
Reserved for ACC (APP)
Auxiliary Service of the Search and Rescue Service (SAR)
123.1 MHz
National Aeronautical Mobile Services
From 123.15 to 135.975 MHz
Reserved for ACC (Route)
Aeronautical Mobile Services for military tactical use
From 136 to 143.975 MHz

2.2.2. METHOD OF OFF-FREQUENCY CARRIERS TO AVOID

INTERFERENCE
When a single VHF channel Ground/Air service has to be provided to a wide area, it is
sometimes possible to satisfy such a requirement with a single land station, using high
power transmitter equipment, high sensitivity receiver equipment and high gain
antennas. However, this solution is only valid when the area to be covered is not
excessively wide and its conformation is appropriate, as the high gain of the antenna
generally implies directivity in the horizontal plane. In addition to all this, the high
power of the transmitter equipment and the high sensitivity of the receiver equipment
make them sophisticated and expensive.
An alternative, and more flexible, solution is the employment of two or more land
stations functioning simultaneously on the same VHF channel, allocated to the area or
ATC sector where G/A coverage is required and using the concept of “Off-frequency
carriers”, standardized by ICAO in Volume III of its Annex 10 “Aeronautical
Telecommunications”.
In operation with offset frequencies, the service area is covered by two or more land
stations that work on the same radio channel but with slightly different carrier
frequencies in the transmission process.
The operation with off-frequency carriers is based on the “capture effect”; the receiver
only takes into consideration the most intense of the received carriers within the pass-
band.
In the descending link, Air/Ground, only one carrier is used which responds to the
central frequency of the allocated radio channel. Therefore, in operation with offset
frequencies the diversification of carriers is only applied to ground transmitters (never
to receivers). Communication receiver equipment shall always be tuned on the central
frequency of the channel, which is the transmission frequency of the aircraft’s on-
board equipment.
ICAO Annex 10 establishes in section 2.2.1.1.1. of the second part of Volume III that:
“the stability of individual carriers of an offset carrier system shall be such as to
prevent first-order heterodyne frequencies of less than 4 kHz and, additionally, the
maximum frequency excursion of the outer carrier frequencies from the assigned
carrier frequency shall not exceed 8 kHz. Offset carrier systems for 8.33 kHz channel
spacing shall be limited to two-carrier systems using a carrier offset of plus and minus
2.5 kHz”

═ Two carrier system
Frequencies: Fc – 5 kHz; Fc + 5 kHz.
═ System of three carriers
Frequencies: Fc – 7.3 kHz: Fc + 7.3 kHz.
═ Four carrier system
Frequencies: Fc – 7.5 kHz; Fc – 2.5 kHz.

Fc + 2.5 kHz: Fc + 7.5 kHz.
═ Five carrier system
Frequencies: Fc – 8 kHz; Fc – 4 kHz: Fc.

Fc + 4 kHz; Fc + 8 kHz.
Summing up, the use of a system of offset carrier frequencies achieves the increase in
range of Ground/Air communication with operational advantages such as the
possibility for an aircraft to cross the Spanish airspace entirely using a single radio
channel.
Example
Let us take an example to illustrate the use of off-frequency carriers:
If an aircraft overflies Spanish airspace through airway UG-23 of the Upper Information
Region (UIR) within the Zamora sector, as shown in the diagram below, it may be
controlled from the Madrid ACC. The communications will be done using off-frequency
carriers.

Increase of coverage with offset frequencies
Frequencies allocated to the sector are the following:
═ 132.550 MHz
═ 136.525 MHz
═ 285.100 MHz
From its entry into Spanish airspace (PATEL point) the aircraft is under radar control
and in communication, via Ground/Air communication, with Madrid ACC (Torrejón de
Ardoz) and vice versa.
It is evident that from the emission centre located in the vicinities of the ACC
(Paracuellos del Jarama) sufficient coverage is not provided for Ground/Air
communications between the ACC and the aircraft (and vice versa). In order to solve
this inconvenience there are communication stations in strategic locations to cover the
control sector.

For the gate signal to the transmitter there are link channels, these links are made up
of:
═ Telephone circuit.
═ Own or shared microwave link network.
The aircraft will receive the signal proceeding from the station which is nearest to it.
In these circumstances the on-board receiver selects the higher level signal (due to the
capture effect) in the ground/air link.
If it is the aircraft initiating the communication, the nearest receiver (Zamora in this
case) is in charge of sending the Rx audio signals in addition to the appropriate
signalling tone to the Madrid ACC.
The following picture shows the arrangement of the equipment in the Cáceres
Communication Centre.
Cáceres communication centre

2.2.3. 8.33 KHZ CHANNEL SPACING
The existing congestion in the required VHF frequencies spectrum for ground/air
communication services has forced us to reduce the 25 kHz spacing to 8.33 kHz. This
change in the allocation of frequencies has increased the number of available channels
in the aeronautical VHF communication band, which has allowed the creation of new
control sectors and contributed to the increase of air traffic management capacity.
The ICAO Regional Supplementary Procedures (SUPPS) (Doc.7030/4) for the EUR
Region included the obligatory nature of installing communication equipment with the
capacity for 8.33 kHz spacing between channels in those aircraft operating in the
European upper airspace. In 8.33 kHz sectors the use of radio equipment with a
spacing of 25 kHz shall not be allowed. According to current legislation (JAR/OPS for
commercial aviation from 1st April 1995) aircraft shall be equipped with a minimum of
two compatible radio sets with 8.33 kHz spacing. The 121.5 MHz emergency frequency
shall not be affected by this measure.
Since the 31st of October 2002 a great number of countries from the EUR Region,
including Spain, have participated in the horizontal expansion of the 8.33 kHz channel
spacing above FL245. Therefore, applicable exemptions from that date have been
withdrawn.
2.2.4. FUTURE: AERONAUTICAL RADIO BROADCASTING SERVICE

WITHIN CNS-ATM CONCEPT
The technical means currently used for Ground/Air communications are generally VHF
communications, except in those used where it is not possible to establish “line-of-
site” coverage. In this case we tend to use HF communications.
The future CNS system intends that HF shall only be used in the Polar regions. In zones
with a possibility of establishing line-of-site coverage VHF communications shall
continue to be used, both for voice and data links. The Aeronautical Mobile Satellite
Service (AMSS) shall be included, both for voice and data. Mode S (note, Mode S will be
described in the chapter covering Radar) radar shall also be used for Ground/Air data
link.

Within the CNS-ATM concept, the most notable aspects in aeronautical radio
broadcasting service are the following:
═ Satellite voice and data communication capacity.

═ VHF frequencies shall remain in use for audio and data communications in
continental zones and terminal areas (TMA).
═ Data link through Mode-S SSR used for ATS objectives in high-density air traffic
airspace.
═ ATN, aeronautical telecommunication network, ensuring digital data exchange
between end users, both in Ground/Air and Ground/Ground communications.
2.3. VHF (VDF) OR UHF (UDF) DIRECTION FINDER

The direction finder is a radiodeterminiation system which determines a position, or
obtains information relative to a position, through the radio magnetic wave
propagation properties.
2.3.1. GENERAL
Radiodetermination is the oldest technique used in the localization of electromagnetic

wave emission. It is a technique based on the consideration of electric and magnetic
fields associated to the front of signal waves, which are transversal to the direction of
wave propagation (see section 2.2.1.3.), in such a way that the points with the same
phase in these fields are contained in a perpendicular plane to that of the propagation
signal. Therefore, determining two points with the same phase in its electromagnetic
fields, the direction of the origin of the signal is calculated.
A direction finder (DF) is not a direct navigation system but a support system for ATC,
which allows the recovery of missing aircraft, equipped with a communication system,
by means of localization and guidance, providing the crew with orientation data. When
communications are performed over the VHF band, the system is called VDF. In the
case of using communications in the UHF band, the system is known as UDF band.

2.3.2. MODERN DIRECTION FINDER
In its simplest form, a current direction finder is made up of a procedural radio receiver
and an antenna designed with marked directional properties, as is shown in the
picture.
R&S AP030 antenna
Ground equipment uses the properties of the antenna to determine the direction in
which the aircraft is located. Modern antennas are based on the Doppler effect to
determine the orientation of the source of the emission.
The following picture shows the composition of a modern direction finder system for
VHF and UHF (VDF/UDF). It is made up of an antenna, VHF/UHF receiver equipment
and a processor with a data display device.
Direction finder equipment

Most airport control towers are provided with this radiodetermination system. The
antenna of the direction finder is installed on the roof of the cab (TWR cabin), where
we can also install communication antennas (generally of the reception and
emergency emitter systems).
In the cab itself, and as a complement to the control position consoles, there is a desk
containing the receiving equipment and the display system, such as the one shown in
the following picture.
ENSA direction finder
2.3.3. OPERATING CAPACITY OF THE SYSTEM
As we have indicated in the previous section, the direction finder allows identification
of the position of an aircraft through localization and guidance. The simplest system is
that shown in the following picture.
Direction finder stations may work individually or in groups of two or more stations
under the direction of a main station.
A station working alone will only determine the direction of an aircraft in reference to
it.
When locating an aircraft, the following procedure shall be followed:
═ The controller requests a message transmission (it is generally a number count)

from the aircraft which wants to be located.
═ The pilot transmits the message on the established VHF or UHF frequency.

═ During the emission of the message (activated PTT) the screen of the ground
equipment shows a track indicating the direction of the emitter source.
Unique system
With the information about the location of the emitter source, the controller provides
the pilot with information on the track to be followed to the base aerodrome.
It is necessary to stress that this system only provides location information. It does not
provide distance information.
From this point onwards a series of codes are used, each determining a navigation
quality to fly from or to:
QTE (degrees)
or
TRUE BEARING (degrees)
QTE stands for the true bearing that the aircraft must follow, without wind, to go to
the direction finding station.

QUJ (degrees)
or
TRUE HEADING TO THE STATION (degrees)
QUJ stands for the true heading of the aircraft.
QDR (degrees)
or
MAGNETIC BEARING (degrees)
QDR stands for the magnetic bearing that the aircraft must follow, without wind, to go
to the station.
QDM (degrees)
or
MAGNETIC HEADING TO THE STATION (degrees)
QDM stands for the magnetic heading that the aircraft must follow to go to the
station.
When the direction finding stations work as a group or network to determine the
aircraft’s position, the bearings taken by each station must be sent immediately to the
station which has the direction finding network under its control, to be able to
determine the position of the aircraft.

The station that has the network under its control must give the aircraft its position,
when requested, via any of the following methods:
QTF (reference point)

or
POSITION (reference point)
QTF stands for the position in connection with a reference point or in latitude and
longitude.
QTE (degrees) FROM (direction finding station or point) QGE (distance)

or
TRUE BEARING (degrees) FROM (direction finding station or point) DISTANCE
(distance)
QTE stand for the true bearing of the aircraft in connection with the direction finding
station or another specified point. QGE stands for the distance from the direction
finding station or point.

QDM (degrees) TO (station or point) QGE (distance)

or
MAGNETIC HEADING (degrees) TO (station or point) DISTANCE (distance)
QDM stands for the magnetic heading that it must follow, without wind, to go to the
direction finding station or another specified point.
REQUEST (QTE, QDM, QTF)

or
REQUEST (True bearing, Magnetic heading, Position)
To request a true bearing, magnetic heading or position, the aircraft will call the direction
finding station on the assigned frequency and specify the desired service key, by means of a
suitable phrase or Q signal.
2.3.4. AIRBORNE DIRECTION FINDER
The aircraft incorporates complementary equipment, known as ADF (Automatic

Direction-finding Equipment) used to determine the position of the aircraft in respect
to a non-directional beacon (NDB), in such a way that the system aids the pilot in
knowing his position at all times when using this instrument.
Airborne ADF equipment
In practice, when a NDB station is tuned, the pointer of the ADF shall always point in
the direction of the emitter source. This way, the pilot may manoeuvre to fly to the
tuned ground station.

3. OTHER COMMUNICATION
SYSTEMS
3.1. ATC COMMUNICATIONS
3.1.1. VOICE COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEM (VCS)
For ATC communications we use Voice Communications Management Systems (VCS)

which enable operators to access the different transmission means, described below.
Other than the Air/Ground communications described above, an ATC system relies on
Ground/Ground communications. These are subdivided into those where one needs to
make a previous call (Telephony), giving access to lines and elements of the following
types:
═ Public network analogue lines RTB, subscriber side.

═ PABX switchboard analogue lines, subscriber side.
═ Analogue lines with EUR-R2 band type signalling.
═ RDSI type digital lines in basic access (in subsequent versions).
And those without previous call: Hot lines.
Apart from these there also exist:
═ 4-wire analogue lines with in-band signalling.

═ Internal communications between operators, with or without previous call.
OPERATION MODES
The following part describes the global voice communication systems that can be used
in an ATC unit:
There are three types of operation modes over the control position of a VCS: the
default or normal mode, the executive-assistant mode, and the training mode.

TWR Controller position
Default or normal mode: also known as integrated mode. This operation mode is
designed for one person, exclusively, to perform all control functions from the
position. This implies that from any one of the two connection modules to the micro
telephone we may operate without any restriction. The hierarchy between hot line
subsystems, radio and telephony, is integrated on the position, both at audio sending
level and at key pressing level.
Executive controller – Planner controller mode (Executive – Assistant): also known as

dispersed mode. It is an operation mode where the hierarchy between hotline and
radio subsystem, in respect to the telephony subsystem is broken. When a shared
workload is required, the position is dispersed so that a second controller may use the
telephone subsystem, without being limited by the use of radio and/or hotline. This
second controller is in charge of the telephone subsystem; he must connect to the
position through the micro telephone connection module, not designated until now,
but generally located at the right side of the console. In this operation mode, the
telephony keys are always attended, and the audio of telephone conversations are
always addressed to the aforementioned connection module.
Training mode (Student – Instructor): this mode is analogue to that of the normal
mode. The student is plugged into to the executive micro telephone connector and the
instructor to the assistant connector. The specific characteristic of this mode is that the
instructor has PTT priority over the student.

RADIO OPERATION
The objective of radio operation is to facilitate radio communications (VHF and UHF)
between the operator position and aircraft.
In order to achieve this objective, each operator position includes a number of

designated radio channels which can be controlled from an operation board. In the
following picture we can see a control and radio channel selection board. Depending
on the type of board, these positions are paged or not. For each designated channel,
the operator has one of the following information and control elements:
═ An 8-digit alphanumeric display for the identification of the allocated frequency

on each channel, as well as indication of speaker or headphone reception of
the appropriate channel.
═ A RX Allocation command, through which the operator includes the involved
channel in the mixture of radio reception. With the display elements of this
command, the system reports the following states of the channel:
═ Reception allocation state.
═ SQUELCH (Present reception on the channel).
═ A TX allocation command, through which an associated channel is included in
the global transmission operation of the radio subsystem. When this is
activated the RX allocation is selected automatically unless it has not been
previously allocated.
Control and radio channel management board, button type

TELEPHONE OPERATION
The aim of this telephone operation is to make audio links with internal and external
positions possible, with the previous calling protocol typical in telephony. In order to
achieve this objective, each operator position has a number of allocated telephone
lines controlled from an operation board. In the following picture you can see a control
board and selection of telephone lines and “presser” type hotlines.
A VCS must support the following types of telephone links:
═ Internal Links. Those established between system operators.

═ External Links. Those established with external users to the system through
lines that can be of the following types:
═ Local Battery type Lines (LB).
═ Central Battery type Lines (CB).
═ Red PABX Lines or External, Subscriber side (AB).
═ Network Access Lines ATS-R2.
═ Telephone Reception. In all cases, audio reception is always through
headphones. At any given time, a user can have more than one call initiated
(outgoing AD or AI), although only one of them may be in conversation, the rest
should be on hold. The only exception to this rule is the operation of
CONFERENCE.
═ Direct Access (DA). In the field of VCS telephony operation, a direct access
position is considered that which one can access, both to make a call and to
receive it by just one touch.
═ Indirect Access (IA). All other access to telephone resources is considered
indirect access. On that basis, indirect access can be carried out through
scheduled Agendas (Pages A/I), or by dialling a specific number in the
established numbering plan system.
═ Numbering Plan. When VCS can access the global telephone dialling, the
system doesn’t pre-select a resource on which to execute the operation. The
system has a defined set of telephone networks (all the telephone lines or
resources) to which the user has access globally by prefixes (the first digit
dialled). As an example of this, in an VCS the following networks could be
defined:
═ Internal Telephony. Accessed by dialling "1" + " Internal operator ID
(2 digits, 01-99)".
═ ATS Network Access (R2, QSIG, Dedicated Lines, etc.). Accessed via
the prefix «3» + «Destination ID ». The destination ID may have
multiple formats.
═ Public Network Access (Subscriber Side). Accessed via the prefix «4»
+ «Destination ID», the «Destination ID» being a variable format.

═ Private Network Access (PABX Subscriber Side). Accessed via the

prefix «5» + «Destination ID», the «Destination ID» being a variable
format.
To carry out the above tasks, each operator position has a number of joint panel keys
and telephone hot lines, from which these functions operate.
The (TFT or electromechanical) panel keys assigned to the operation of telephony are
organized into pages. The first or main page contains the elements of Direct Access
and the rest make up an agenda of indirect access positions. Figure 3.4. shows the
keyboard layout for the management of radio channels and telephone lines in a TFT
terminal presentation.
HOTLINE OPERATION
The purpose of the operation of a hotline telephone is to enable audio links with
internal or external positions, without pre-call.
A VCS must support two types of hotline links:
═ Internal Links. They establish LC communications among system operators.

═ External Links. They establish communications with collateral links connected
by external lines, in which the ATS-LCEN protocol is implemented.
Hotline communication has the following characteristics:
═ The audio transmission subsystem hotline has priority over the transmission by
radio or telephone subsystem.
═ The Reception of audio in the hotline subsystem is always through the LC
speaker.

═ An LC operation on a collateral fails when the latter is in busy situation. This

situation takes place when the destination operator’s LC subsystem is busy
(with another operator or external line) in reception or transmission.
Each operator position has a number of telephone joint panel keys and hotlines, from
which hotline functions operate. The panel keys (TFT o electromechanical), assigned to
hotline operation, are not numbered.
3.2. SELCAL
SELCAL is a system that allows selective calling of individual aircraft, on radiotelephony
channels that link a ground radio station with the aircraft. It is an effective
complement to voice communication.
With this system, R/T calls to the aircraft are replaced by the transmission of tones
encoded by the radiotelephone channels. A single selective call consists of a
combination of four pre-selected audio tones, whose transmission requires
approximately 3 seconds. The tones are generated in a coder located in the
aeronautical station and are received at a decoder connected to the output of the on-
board receiver. When the encoded tone (SELCAL code) is received, the call system at
the pilot's position goes off with repeated signal lights, bells or both.
RADIOFREQUENCIES
SELCAL must be used in stations properly equipped to make ground-air selective calling
on HF and VHF frequency bands. HF transmission is carried out using the SSB
technique (Single Side Band).
TRANSMITTED CODE
All transmitted code consists of two consecutive tone pulses. Each pulse contains two
tones transmitted simultaneously.
The SELCAL code must be included in the flight plan presented at the relevant air
traffic services unit.

The tones that make up the transmitted codes consist of different combinations of
tones shown in the table below and are designated by colour and letter.
3.3. CONTROLLER PILOT DATA LINK COMMUNICATIONS

(CPDLC)
The use of voice communications in air operations is currently facing increasing
problems, such as congestion in the use of frequencies.
One way to overcome these limitations is the use of Ground/Air Data Link Services,
which reduce the exchange of voice messages.
Within the data-link system, depending on the type of message, we find the ATC-type
systems group, which includes the messages exchanged with control centres. Within
this type of messages, we have the CPDLC (Controller-Pilot Data Link Communication),
which are text messages exchanged between pilot and controller.
By means of CPDLC, pilots and controllers can communicate in real time via written
messages, with predefined and standardized formats to ensure concise, clear and brief
information. In this way, the pilot and controller can read the exchanged messages on-
screen, thus facilitating their understanding, avoiding ambiguities and increasing the
effectiveness of communications.
CPDLC is done by mutual agreement between the pilot and the controller and is used
for routine communications during the en-route phase, where time is not a critical
factor, relegating voice communications for emergency situations or unusual
communications. CPDLC is, therefore, an additional system to, and does not intend to
replace, voice communications.
Some of the CPDLC applications are as follows:
═ ACM (ATC Communications Management): for the management of repetitive

frequency changes.
═ ACL (ATC Clearances): to provide standard approvals.
═ AMC (ATC Microphone Check): to facilitate communication in case of frequency
lock.
═ DYNAV (Dynamic Route Availability): to facilitate changes in route based on the
availability of airspace.
═ D-ATIS (Data link automatic Terminal Information Service): the pilot receives
updates on the conditions of an aerodrome terminal area.

Among the main features of CPDLC is the use of "LACK” messages (Logical
Acknowledgment), similar to an acknowledgment of receipt, so that the sender (pilot
or controller) receives confirmation of successful reception of the sent message.
Another feature of CPDLC messages is the use of Timers, so that if the message
received is not answered within a predefined timeframe, an error message is
automatically generated.
Overall, it is expected that the time saved in voice communications allows traffic
capacity to increase and improvements in operational safety, eliminating problems of
interpretation, etc.
3.4. COMMUNICATIONS ADDRESSING and REPORTING

SYSTEM (ACARS)
DESCRIPTION
Aircraft Communications Addressing and Reporting System (ACARS) is a digital data

link system for the transmission of short, relatively simple messages between aircraft
and ground stations via radio or satellite. The protocol, which was designed by ARINC
to replace their VHF voice service and deployed in 1978, uses telex formats. At first it
relied exclusively on VHF channels but more recently, alternative means of data
transmission have been added which have greatly enhanced its geographical coverage.
In fact, SITA later augmented their worldwide ground data network by adding radio
stations to provide ACARS service. Over the next 20 years, ACARS will be superseded
by the Aeronautical Telecommunications Network (ATN) protocol for Air Traffic
Control communications and by the Internet Protocol for airline communications.
There has also been a rapid trend towards the integration of aircraft systems with the
ACARS link. Both have led to rapid growth in its use as an operational communications
tool.
Modern ACARS equipment now includes the facility for automatic as well as manual
initiation of messaging. ARINC guidelines have been defined for all the various avionic
components of ACARS.

HISTORY OF ACARS
Prior to the introduction of datalink, all communications between the aircraft (i.e., the
flight crew) and personnel on the ground was performed using voice communications.
These communications used either VHF or HF voice radios, which was further
augmented with SATCOM in the early 1990s. In many cases, the voice-relayed
information involves dedicated radio operators and digital messages sent to an airline
teletype system or its successor systems.
DATALINK MESSAGE TYPES
ACARS messages may be of three types based upon their content:
═ Air Traffic Control (ATC).

═ Aeronautical Operational Control (AOC).
═ Airline Administrative Control (AAC).
ATC messages are used to communicate between the aircraft and Air Traffic Control.
These messages are defined in ARINC Standard 623. ATC messages are used by aircraft
crew to request clearances, and by ground controllers to provide those clearances.
They are often used to deliver Pre-Departure, Datalink ATIS and en-route Oceanic
Clearances.
AOC and AAC messages are used to communicate between the aircraft and its base.
These messages are either standardized according ARINC Standard 633 or defined by
the users, but must meet at least the guidelines of ARINC standard 618. Any message
content is possible including such examples as:
 upload to the aircraft of final load and trim sheets;
 download fuel consumption;
 download engine performance data;
 download aircraft position;
 upload of weather or NOTAM information;
 download from the aircraft of status, position, eta, and any diversion;
 download of spot weather observations from aircraft sensors:
 download of technical performance data including automatically triggered
exceedance or abnormal aircraft system status information, and
 'housekeeping' information such as catering uplift requirements, special passenger
advice and ETA.
Free Text messaging is also possible.

THE ACARS SYSTEM
When ACARS was first developed as an ATN component, it was modeled on the
existing Telex System. As a consequence, the system architecture is based on three
main components:
The Aircraft Equipment

ACARS equipment onboard an aircraft is called the Management Unit (MU) or, in the
case of newer versions with more functionality, the Communications Management
Unit (CMU). This functions as a router for all data transmitted or received externally,
and, in more advanced systems internally too. The ACARS MU/CMU may be able to
automatically select the most efficient air-ground transmission method if a choice is
available. A flight deck printer will be provided and a cabin crew terminal may also be
available. Flight Crew access to the ACARS system is usually via a CDU which, in more
advanced systems, can be used to access up to seven different systems such as
the FMS, besides the MU/CMU. Each system connected to the CDU generates its own
display pages and accepts keyboard input when selected. Some EFBs may be used as a
substitute for access via the CDU.
The Service Provider

A Datalink Service Provider (DSP) is responsible for the movement of messages via
radio link, usually to/from its own ground routing system. ACARS messages are
transmitted using one of three possible data link methods:
 VHF or VDL (VHF Data Link) which is line-of-sight limited

 SATCOM which is not available in polar regions
 HF or HFDL (HF Data Link) which has been added especially for polar region
communications
The main primary DSPs are ARINC and SITA. Until quite recently, each part of the world
was covered by a single DSP but competitive offerings are now increasingly available.
The Ground Processing System

Ground System provision is the responsibility of either a participating ANSP or an
Aircraft Operator. Aircraft Operators often contract out the function to either DSP or
to a separate service provider. Messages from aircraft, especially automatically
generated ones, can be pre-configured according to message type so that they are
automatically delivered to the appropriate recipient just as ground-originated
messages can be configured to reach the correct aircraft.



4. RADAR
4.1. INTRODUCTION: SURVEILLANCE CONCEPT IN ATS

In general and throughout the history of Air Navigation, several definitions of the term
"surveillance" have been used, which have evolved in complexity and content as the ATM (Air
Traffic Management) system itself has matured and grown over the years.
Compiling the same, it can be said that there are basically three definitions that are used to
explain what the term "SURVEILLANCE" means in the ATM context. In any case, finding a
simple and complete definition is quite difficult, and in fact the three definitions that are
usually handled are somewhat incomplete and complementary at the same time.
The earliest definition, which corresponds to an era in which the air traffic management
system developed basic functionalities, reflects only some of the purposes to users of current
surveillance, which nevertheless remain valid:
“Surveillance is a mean of acquiring an aircraft’s position so that a controller can

Mantain separation minima”.
From an ATC (Air Traffic Control) point of view, the controller needs to have an accurate and
reliable picture of the aircraft location in order to be able to safely and reliably provide aircraft
spacings (in many cases close to or equal to minimum separations Operations).
As the air traffic management system has evolved, the information covered by the surveillance
function and its area of application has increased at the same time, as reflected by a more
recent definition:
“Surveillance comprises the technological means of providing positional information

and other essential data, including weather information, of both the air and airport
surface situation to the ATM system”.
A wide range of technological possibilities can be used to provide an accurate picture of ATM
surveillance in general, including not only the controller but also other functions of the ATM
system, many of which serve as support to facilitate the work of the controller itself, such as
conflict alert (STCA - Short Term Confict Alert), etc. In particular the needs, in terms of
precision, information updating rate, content and granularity of the information, are not the
same for the different types of operation: route, TMA, surface movement, etc.

At present and clearly influenced by the growing sophistication of the system itself, and its
future evolution are handled definitions in which the function of surveillance becomes a tool
or input for other functions of the same:
“The surveillance functionallity established an air situation picture provided to data

processing functions”.
4.2. GENERAL INFORMATION
4.2.1. DEFINITION OF RADAR
RADAR is an electronic system by which one can detect the presence of objects or
surfaces, and also determine their exact position and movement, thanks to the
property that they have to reflect, in whole or in part, electromagnetic waves.
Radar is, therefore, a radio-system based on the comparison between reference

signals and the radio signals reflected, or retransmitted, from the position to be
determined.
The word RADAR is an acronym for Radio Detection And Ranging.
The appearance of the radar concept is a logical development of the work on radio
airwaves. Everyone is aware that electromagnetic radiation can be transmitted in a
straight line, as well as the ability of many bodies to reflect or absorb these emissions.
This property was discovered, when it was observed that even a flock of birds was able
to distort the reception of emissions from navigational beacons. From these
observations, scientists developed radar.
4.2.2. TYPES OF RADAR
From the point of view of the "intervention" of the target to be detected by the radar
system, we can establish a first division:
 Passive systems: are those in which the target to detect is "not involved" in the
process. The target will be detected anyway. In this type of radar we can find
pulse primary radar systems used in aerial surveillance and air traffic control.
When the detection is performed without the active cooperation of the target
it is called primary radar (PSR: Primary Surveillance Radar)

 Active systems: are those in which the target to detect is "actively engaged" in
the process. The mobile equipment, whose presence and characteristics are to
be detected, "responds" actively to the "questioning" of the ground equipment.
The onboard equipment is called a "transponder" and if it is not activated it is
not detected and hence the mobile object will not be "detected." In this
particular type of radar we find the secondary radars used in air traffic control.
We call secondary radar (SSR: Secondary Surveillance Radar) when the target is
actively involved,
PASSIVE: the target to detect does not intervene
ACTIVE: intervention from the target to detect is needed
CW (continuous wave)
PRIMARY CW-FM (altimetry)
Pulse radar (used in ATC) Doppler
SSR (used in Civil Aviation)
SECONDARY Monopulse (MSSR)
(used in Civil Aviation)
4.2.3. RADAR FUNCTIONS
The following table summarizes the main functions of radar applications.
SURVEILLANCE Route. - 200 NM. Band L

Terminal. - 60 NM. Band S
Airport, Surface Movement Radar (SMR). – 10 NM. Band X
Navigation. – 48 NM. Band X
PAR Precision Approach Radar
METEREOLOGY 20 NM. Band X
ALTIMETRY Altitude measure
G.C.A. Integrated by an Area Surveillance Radar (ASR) and a Precision
Approach Radar (PAR) (Military Use)

4.2.4. RADAR BANDS
The diagram shows the bands used in the radar system. In this diagram we can see
that each band is defined by one or more letters and determines the frequency range
(GHz) and wavelength (cm) of the same.
METEOROLOGY OLD
LONG RANGE MIDDLE RANGE
NEW
In ATC surveillance long-range radar control operating in the L-band (1 to 2 GHz) is

used for en route and medium-range radars operating in S band (2 to 4 GHz) are used
for approach control (TMA).
4.3. PRIMARY RADAR

4.3.1. OPERATING PRINCIPLE
The operating principle of a primary radar (PSR) is based on:
═ The radar equipment emits pulses of radio frequency (RF) at regular intervals
(PULSE RADAR).
═ RF pulses emitted by the radar are reflected when they hit obstacles and part
of the reflected energy is received by the radar antenna (RADAR ECHO).
═ The radar equipment measures the time elapsed between the emission of
radar pulse and reception of radar echo (t).
═ With the previous data (time), it determines the distance of the object (R).
═ The azimuth of the detected object (q) is determined with respect to the
antenna position at the time of issuing and receiving the radar pulse return.

Its use permits us to:
═ Display traffic directly over a radar screen.

═ Materialize targets through bright spots.
═ Know the relative positions of targets.
═ Identify risks of collision.
═ Streamline air traffic.
═ Identify stormy areas and mountain areas.
4.3.2. BLOCK DIAGRAM OF PRIMARY RADAR
The block diagram of the minimum elements needed for pulse radar is shown in the
diagram below:
The basic elements that make up the pulses radar are:
═ Synchronizer.
═ Transmitter.
═ Receiver.
═ Duplexer.
═ Antenna.
═ Display or presentation system.
The purpose of each element is described in the following paragraphs.

SYNCHRONIZER
This unit generates sync pulses. These pulses are sent to the transmitter and the
processor of the display unit with the following objectives:
═ Energize the transmitter for the radar pulse.

═ Serve as a time reference (t = 0) for the measurement of time between the
pulse output and receiving the radar echo.
At the transmitter, the arrival of the sync pulse causes the emission of a radar pulse,
which the transmitter itself has generated.
In the processor unit of the presentation system the arrival of the sync pulse is taken
as time origin (t 0) to calculate the distance.
TRANSMITTER
This unit generates radar pulses internally, forming in duration (t), frequency (F) and
power (W)
Every time it gets a sync pulse a radar pulse is sent to the duplexer.
The radar pulse is repeated at each arrival of a sync pulse. The number of pulses
emitted in unit of time is an important radar parameter and is known as the Pulse
Repetition Period (PRF)
DUPLEXER
For the transmission of radar pulses and receiving of echoes using a single antenna, it
is necessary to enable an access path from the transmitter to the antenna for the pulse
emission and a path to the receiver for echo processing. While transmitting the pulse
radar echoes cannot be received. Once the pulse has been issued, and until the next
issue, it is enabled via the receptor so all the returns can be received and processed.
The purpose of the duplexer is to switch the antenna system between transmitting and
receiving radar pulse echoes.
The duplexer switches the output of the transmitter to the antenna during the time of
radar pulse duration (t).

Once the pulse is emitted, the antenna duplexer switches to the receiving circuit to
capture the radar returns which are received during the time between two consecutive
pulses.
ANTENNA
The pulse radar antenna is a single element that both transmits radar pulses and
receives the radar echoes.
The radar pulse is emitted at the PRF frequency and the time duration of the radar
pulse itself (t).
The radar echoes are received in the time between one radar pulse and the next.
RECEIVER
Receives the radar echoes and forwards these to the presentation equipment.
It calculates the time elapsed between the radar pulse being emitted and the radar
return (t) being received.
The information produced by the receiver contains all the received echoes. This
information is called "raw video".

PROCESSOR AND DISPLAY
This is the component (radar screen) for the presentation of the detected target.
The target is presented in the azimuth (θ) corresponding to the position of the antenna
at the time of issuing the radar pulse and receiving the radar returns.
The distance from the centre of the screen (which represents the location of the radar
system antenna "antenna") is determined from the time calculated in the receiver
processor (t)
The information on the position of the antenna is produced by the ACPs (Azimuth
Counter Pulses) and ARPs (Antenna Revolution Pulses) generated. Each time the
antenna passes through the reference azimuth (magnetic north) ONE (1) ARP is
generated and is taken as the source to determine the azimuth of the target by
generating ACP 4096 pulses.
In a complete turn the antenna generates the 4096 ACPs. The processor counts the
number of ACPs generated from the antenna through the reference azimuth (presence
of ARP) until it receives echoes from the detected target. Using a simple formula, the
azimuth of the target is determined.
If ACP 4096 corresponds to the 360 º azimuth, the number N of ACPs generated until
the appearance of the echo will correspond to an azimuth (θ) equal to:
Example: To determine the azimuth in which a target will be presented if its radar
echoes were received after the generation of 1024 ACPs.
The video processor produces messages or 'plots' that define the position of a target
corresponding to azimuth and distance information along with other information, such
as, the size of the object based on the sync pulses, the raw video, ARPs and ACPs.
The output of the radar data processor consists of radar tracks (or radar blips) that are
sent to the display consoles.

4.3.3. CANCELLATION OF FIXED TARGETS
If the system does not have fixed targets cancellation the presentation shown on the
radar screen would be a "stain" as a result of continued presentation of all the radar
blips received from all mobile and fixed targets (land, buildings, etc) that exist within
the system coverage area. In these circumstances it is difficult to distinguish both
targets. The following figure shows examples of "without cancellation" and "with
cancellation" of fixed targets.
All monitoring systems currently incorporate a cancellation unit in order to eliminate

fixed targets.
The previous figure shows a summary sequence of stationary and moving targets, their
treatment in the canceller and the result coming out of it in each case.
Cancellation residues are the result of the treatment of fixed targets; they will not be
presented on the radar screen.

4.4. SECONDARY RADAR
4.4.1. INTRODUCTION
During the Second World War, due to the need to distinguish the planes which were
friends or enemies among all those flying over the Channel, an identification system
called IFF (Identification, Friend or Foe) was developed, This was used with equipment
that allied aircraft had on board (code name "Parrot") and emitted coded signals.
Secondary Surveillance Radar (SSR) is the civilian development of the military IFF
system.
Secondary Surveillance Radar is an active system because it requires the intervention

of the target under surveillance.
4.4.2. OPERATING PRINCIPLE
The operating principle of a secondary radar (SSR) is based on:
═ The ground radar equipment emits a sequence of pulses which are spaced in
time (PULSE INTERROGATION). The different separation times of the
interrogation pulses define the MODES OF INTERROGATION.
═ The interrogation pulses emitted by the ground equipment are received
onboard the aircraft by a piece of equipment called a TRANSPONDER.
═ The transponder times the separation of the interrogation pulses and
determines the MODE OF INTERROGATION.
═ Transponder code data for aircraft identification together with altitude from
barometric altimeter are processed and a pulse train is generated and sent to
the ground equipment. The train of pulses sent by the transponder to the
ground equipment is called ANSWERS.
═ The ground equipment gets the answers transmitted from the transponder and
measures the time between the issuance of the interrogation pulses and the
reception of the response pulses. Thus, distance (R), at which the aircraft is
from the ground station, is calculated.
Ground equipment decodes the information contained in the pulse response and
processes it for presentation.

Interrogation pulses Response pulses frequency:

frequency: 1030 Mhz 1030 Mhz
RESPONSE PULSES
INTERROGATION PULSES
IDENTIFICATION
ALTITUDE
Barometric Altimeter
GROUND EQUIPMENT ONBOARD EQUIPMENT
The azimuth of the detected object (θ) is determined with respect to the antenna
position at the time of issuing the interrogation pulse and of receiving the response
pulse.
Its use will:
═ Display traffic directly on a radar or other (computer terminal, TFT, etc…)

screen.
═ Materialize targets by size and dimensions with icons generated by computer
processing (synthetic video).
═ Associate a label that includes information from the aircraft sent in response
pulses (identification, altitude, speed, etc…) to each target.
═ Determine the relative positions of targets.
═ Identify risks of collision.
═ Streamline air traffic.
The fact that it is an active system, as a result of the cooperation of the element to be
detected, has four important effects:
═ No high energy peaks as in the case of PSR. It uses about 1 kilowatt (KW).
═ The receiver does not need to be highly sensitive.
═ You can exchange information between ground equipment (interrogator) and
on-board equipment (transponders).

═ The difference between the carrier frequencies of the interrogation and

response signals avoids the presence of signals from unwanted passive targets.
This last point eliminates the need for devices to cancel fixed or mobile targets.
The counterpart of the above advantages is the requirement that the mobile
equipment actively cooperate in the process, so that the non-cooperation of on-board
equipment results in no target detection. For this reason, this type of radar is only used
in non-hostile scenarios, such as in Civil Air Traffic Control.
P1 and P3 are the interrogation pulses. The time 't' of separation between P1 and P3
defines the interrogation mode.
The P2 pulse is "always" emitted 2 μs behind P1 in order to suppress the answers on

the side lobes of the antenna’s radiation pattern (DDR).
The duration of all pulses is 0.8 μs.
The carrier frequency contained in the interrogation pulses is 1030 MHz
The interrogation mode is defined by the time interval between pulses P1 and P3. The
SSR interrogation modes are shown in the table below.
MODE “t” APLICATION/REQUESTED DATA

1 3 µS Military use
2 5 µS Military use
3/A 8 µS Identification
B 17 µS Civil
C 21 µS Altitude
D 25 µS Civil

Modes 1, 2 and 3 are reserved for military use. Modes A, B, C and D are used for civil
aircraft interrogations.
SSR for civil use interrogates in Mode A / C, that is, "always" requests identification
and altitude data. Generically called A / C Radar, this does not mean that only the
previous data is requested. It is common that the information requested also include
speed data in a third interrogation mode.
There are two interrogation sequences in mode A / C:
═ 1:1 Sequence: The SSR sends an interrogation in mode A and then sends a
Mode C interrogation sequence consecutively.
═ 1:2 Sequence: The SSR sends an interrogation in mode A and then sends TWO
(2) Mode C interrogations.
4.4.3. SSR ANTENNA
Secondary radar is generally associated with a primary radar. When this happens the
SSR antenna is installed on the PSR as shown in the picture.
To be synchronized, both antennas rotate at the same speed. The azimuth of the
targets from the PSR and SSR agree on the submission process.

4.4.4. INFORMATION PROVIDED BY THE SSR
The following figure shows a radar screen capture from an ATC centre:
The radar system can "draw" all data from the environment to be controlled that are
considered appropriate from an operational point of view,. Thus, for example, the
following can be represented:
═ Distance circles (range rings in the figure above).

═ Geographic limits (e.g. the sea, the outline of an island, etc.).
═ Limits of the FIR, flight sectors, etc.
═ Airways.
═ Mandatory or compulsory reporting fixes (way points).
═ Navaids (VOR, NDB, etc…).
═ Airports.
The setting drawn with the previous data can be considered as "fixed" to control the
area affected.
The variable component in the system is represented by an aircraft subjected to

control and surveillance. This is represented by a symbol and is associated with a
"label", with data related to parameters provided by the SSR as answers to the
interrogations issued from the ground equipment.

The figure below shows the information given on an aircraft.
Such information includes:
═ Aircraft symbol (in this example represented by a square).

═ Label associated with the aircraft. The label includes data identification code
and altitude.
═ Vector plot. Indicates the expected direction for the next round of antenna.
LABEL
IDENTIFICATION
ALTITUDE EXPECTED
DIRECTION
Track AIRCRAFT
History
═ Track History which provides information on the speed relative to other,

surrounding aircraft. A long trail with separated points indicates high speed (jet
plane). A short trail with very close points represents low speed (turboprop).
In the figure above shows the data from two aircraft. The one on the left represents an
Iberia ATR 72 turboprop, with identification code IB0159 and flight altitude of18,000
feet.
The one on the right represents a Spanair A320 jet plane, with flight identification
JK4201 and 33,000 feet altitude.

4.4.5. ID CODE CORRELATION
The data processed in the radar station passes through one last processing system to
optimize the information that comes with the labels before its presentation on
controller consoles.
Control centres have computers in which data is entered from flights that each
company has planned to and from airports in the ACC under that unit and its airspace
of responsibility. This is the Flight Plan Processing System.
As an example let us take an Iberia flight departing from Madrid-Barajas Airport at

08:20 AM with destination Seville Airport (IB0159). This flight is assigned an SSR
identification code of 6341.
This code, and other data describing the flight, will be confirmed by the air traffic
controller when the pilot requests permission to start up. The pilots will input the four
digits into the transponder.
When interrogated by radar, the transponder responds with a train of pulses which
contains the selected SSR code.
The ground equipment then generates the necessary information from the aircraft
position in distance (ρ) and azimuth (θ), altitude, the SSR code itself and potential
conflict warning.
This data is sent to control centres and to link SSR identification code to company
code, the processor performs a search similar to that shown in the example below.

The code sent by the extractor from the radar is 6341. In the process the system looks
for the equivalent correlation of this code with the one assigned by the company flight
schedule among all those contained in the database. When it finds the SSR code, it
replaces it with the company code (IB0159 in the example) and this data, once
processed, is sent to the display system for placement in the label associated with the
radar target.
4.5. USE OF RADAR

In the following part we will see in more detail how radar technology is used in ATC.
We will see the characteristics of PSR and SSR used in ATC, how they are used, and the
use of the surface monitoring radar.

4.5.1. PSR/SSR IN ATC
Within CNS, surveillance systems are the cornerstone of the technology that supports
real-time information on the position of aircraft
In the late 1950s, ICAO standardized a version focused on Civil Aviation ATC activities:
SSR. Thus, as mentioned above, air traffic control can use two radar techniques: PSR
and SSR.
The possibility of failure in the transponder, disabling SSR detection, has determined
the use of PSR and SSR overlay for long. Since transponders are increasingly reliable,
PSR has gradually been withdrawn, at least for en-route flight phases.
Approach Control in terminal areas is still using information from the two pieces of
equipment (PSR and SSR), both installed together on the appropriate radar stations.
The following table shows the ATC scenario used by each type of radar.
Type of Radar Scenario

Short range Primary and Secondary (PSR+SSR) Approach (TMA)
Long range Secondary (SSR) Route
SMR (Surface Movement Radar), primary Airport
A radar unit usually operates as part of the main ATS unit and provides radar service to
aircraft to the highest degree of accuracy possible, to meet operational requirements.
Many factors, such as radar coverage, controller workload and equipment capabilities,
may affect the level of service provided.
Radar control service is provided to a maximum distance of 254 NM from the station.
This service is provided to aircraft flying within this airspace and may include:
═ Radar separation of traffic for departures, arrivals and en-route.

═ Radar monitoring traffic departing, arriving and which is en route to provide
information regarding any significant deviations from normal flight path.
═ Radar vectoring when required.
═ Assistance to aircraft in emergency.
═ Assistance to aircraft.
═ Information and warning about the position of other aircraft that are deemed
to constitute a hazard.
═ Information to assist aircraft navigation.
═ Information on observed weather conditions.

4.5.2. CHARACTERISTICS OF PRIMARY radar USED IN ATC
The following table summarizes the most significant features of primary radar.
Features Specification
Used Techniques Radio telemetry and scanning beam
Depends on the power, the receptor
Range sensitivity and the pulse repetition
frequency (PRF)
Modulation Pulses
L band (within 1 and 2 GHz) and S band
PSR route
(within 2 and 4 GHz)
PSR approach S band (within 2 and 4 GHz)
Carrier
SMR X band (within 8 and 12,5 GHz)
PSR route Within 2 and 3 µs
Pulses duration PSR approach Within 0,75 and 1,5 µs
SMR Less than 1 µs
PSR route Less than 700 pulses per second
Pulse Repetition Frequency PSR approach Within 700 and 1500 pps
SMR > 2000 pps
PSR route Within 6 and 12 r.p.m.
Antenna revolutions (RPM) PSR approach Within 12 and 15 r.p.m.
SMR Within 30 and 75 r.p.m.
4.5.3. SECONDARY RADAR USED IN ATC
As mentioned earlier, SSR makes ATC work easier than PSR by:
═ Improving the identification of aircraft by attaching key enabling recognition.

═ Using different frequencies, SSR can discern between aircraft and atmospheric
phenomena and other reflections.
═ Aircraft echoes are identified at a greater distance (approximately up to about
120 NM from the radar).
═ The keys of the SSR can be used to indicate special situations such as
communication failure, emergency, and unlawful interference.
SSR code allocation is made by air traffic control in accordance with international
agreements on air navigation. However, there are some keys with a specific meaning:
═ 7500 unlawful interference. It is used to notify the aircraft is in a situation of

unlawful interference.
═ 7600 communications failure. Once you are confident that the receiver has a
fault this key is selected to report that and that the aircraft will continue to fly
according to established procedures.

═ 7700 emergency. Unless otherwise specified by ATC, this is the key to be

selected in the transponder to indicate that the aircraft is in an emergency.
The use of these keys is limited to real situations as described. Other special keys are:
═ 2000. Controlled flight without code assigned by ATC.

═ 7000. Uncontrolled flight without code assigned by ATC.
These keys are used in Spanish airspace by aircraft that are about to enter the Madrid,
Barcelona or the Canary Islands FIR / UIR and have not been assigned a code by ATC.
The following table summarizes the most significant features of the secondary radar.
Features Specification
Radio telemetry and scanning
Used Techniques
beam
Depends on the power, the
Range receptor sensitivity and the pulse
repetition frequency (PRF)
Modulation Pulses
Interrogation 1030 MHz
Carrier frequency
Response 1090 MHz
Interrogation 0,8µs
Pulses duration
Response 0,8µs
2 pulses separated 8µs (Mode A)
Interrogation
Pulses separation
2 pulses separated 21µs (Mode C)
Response > 2000 pps
SSR route Within 6 and 12 r.p.m.
Antenna revolutions
SSR approach Within 12 and 15 r.p.m.

4.5.4. LIMITATIONS OF SSR
Typical problems of secondary radar can be summarized as follows:
═ Lack of detection of aircraft (the result of response losses).

═ Decoding errors:
═ Response interference errors.
═ Multipath errors.
═ Weaknesses inherent in the system (by increasing traffic which requires more
identification codes).
═ Other problems, such as the greater accuracy in position and resolution in flight
levels.
4.5.5. SURFACE MOVEMENT RADAR (SMR)
This basically consists of a primary pulse radar whose operation has been described in
the previous section, but with the features shown in the following table:
Parameter Value
Carrier frequency: X band (within 8 and 12,5 GHz)
Pulses Repetition Frequency (PRF): > 2000 p.p.s
Pulse Wide: < 1µs
Antenna rotation speed: Within 30 75 r.p.m.
As a result of higher operating frequency, the surface radar antenna has smaller
dimensions than the PSR. It resembles an SSR antenna but smaller. The appearance of
a surface radar antenna is shown in the figure below.

This type of radar is based on weather radars (X band) but adapted for the
presentation of an airport environment as shown in the figure below.
The image shows the ground view of Madrid-Barajas Airport in which the configuration
of runways, taxiways, aircraft parking areas and location of the new North TWR can be
seen.
To see the traffic moving on the airport manoeuvring area, it is necessary to change
the scale (zoom) display on the monitor or monitors dedicated to that purpose.
4.5.6. SIGNAL PROCESSING
The raw video can be processed and treated to achieve a more controller-friendly
presentation. The modern surface movement control supports scenario generation
and mobile labels associated with filing. The final result looks more like that of the SSR
than a PSR.
The result of this presentation is shown in the figure below: the surface surveillance
radar Tenerife Norte Airport.

4.6. MODE S
4.6.1. GENERAL INFORMATION
SSR Mode S is a further development of Mode A / C, with which it is compatible. It is a

system that shares surveillance and communications functions for air traffic control.
One feature that differentiates Mode S from Mode A/C is that each aircraft is assigned
a unique address code. The advantage of this is that the interrogations are routed to a
particular aircraft and the responses do not produce ambiguous identifications. This
feature allows the inclusion of messages on the data link to and from the aircraft.
Data loss problems are eliminated. This fact is of great importance due to the
continuous increase in traffic.
One can automatically indicate the length of the wake turbulence of an aircraft in the
ATC display device to thereby help optimize the rate of landing operations at airports.

The number of codes that Mode A/C provides is 4.096, shared between civil and
military use (theoretically codes between 0000 and 7777). Mode S provides 16 million
codes, allowing each aircraft to have its own identification tag.
The functions exercised by the transponders in Mode A/C are integrated into Mode S
transponders.
Mode S uses a carrier frequency of 1030 MHz (interrogation) and 1090 MHz
(response), as well as conventional SSR pulses.
4.6.2. MODE S APPLICATIONS
Mode S applications in air traffic services are:
═ General call in Mode S (only). Used to get answers for the identification of
Mode S transponders.
═ Broadcasting. Used to transmit information to all Mode S transponders. You do
not get answers.
═ Selective Call. It is used for surveillance of certain Mode S transponders and
communication with them. For each interrogation you get a response only from
the transponder that has answered a unique question.
═ Intermodal. Intermodal operation includes interrogation and its recognition by
Mode S transponders. Within the intermodal operation two subdivisions are
established:
═ General call in Modes A/C/S, to get answers for the surveillance of
Modes A/C transponders and for the acquisition of Mode S
transponders.
═ General call in Modes A/C, to get answers for surveillance of
transponders in Mode A/C. The Mode S transponders do not respond
to this call.

SATELLITE BASED
5. SURVEILLANCE AND
AUTOMATIC DEPENDENT
SURVEILLANCE
Apart from radar, which is ground based, there is another way by which surveillance
can be provided. Even though currently surveillance in large parts of the world is
predominately done through radar, other methods and technologies are rapidly
coming into use. One of these is satellite-based surveillance.
5.1. THE GLOBAL NAVIGATION SATELLITE SYSTEM (GNSS)

This is a navigation and positioning system based on information provided by a
constellation of satellites to a receiver, fixed or mobile. Currently there are two
systems that meet the characteristics of GNSS, these are the NAVSTAR GPS system in
the U.S.A. and the Russian GLONASS system.
GALILEO is an initiative launched by the European Union and the European Space
Agency (ESA) to deploy a worldwide constellation by 2015.
China, Japan and India are planning to deploy other GNSS constellations.

5.1.1. BASIC WORKING PRINCIPLES OF POSITIONING SYSTEMS
GNSS ARCHITECTURE
The architecture of a satellite navigation system consists of three components:
═ Space segment
═ Control or Ground segment
═ User segment, which in turn consists of multiple pieces of user equipment
The space segment is made up of the satellites, collectively known as a constellation,

which broadcast signals to both the control segment and the users. Some authors use
the term space vehicle (SV) instead of satellite. GPS, GLONASS, and Galileo satellites
are distributed between a number of medium Earth orbits (MEO), inclined at roughly
60° to the equator with around two orbits per day. Compared to geostationary orbits,
these orbits give better signal geometry for positioning and better coverage in Polar
Regions.
The ground track of a satellite is the locus of points directly below the satellite on the
surface of the Earth. The interval over which it repeats is the lowest common multiple
of the Earth’s rotation period and satellite orbit period.
The signals broadcast by the satellites incorporate both ranging codes and navigation
data messages. The ranging codes enable the user equipment to determine the time at
which the received signals were transmitted, while a data message includes timing
parameters and information about the satellite orbits. A number of atomic clocks
aboard each satellite maintain a stable time reference.
The control segment, or ground segment, consists of a network of monitor stations,

one or more control stations and a number of uplink stations. The monitor stations
obtain ranging measurements from the satellites and send these to the control
station(s). The monitor stations are at precisely surveyed locations and have
synchronized clocks, enabling their ranging measurements to be used to determine the
satellite orbits and calibrate the satellite clocks. Radar and laser tracking
measurements may also be used.
The control stations calculate the navigation data message for each satellite and
determine whether any manoeuvres must be performed. This information is then
transmitted to the space segment by the uplink stations. Most satellite manoeuvres
are small, infrequent corrections, known as station keeping, which are used to
maintain the satellites in their correct orbits.

However, major relocations are performed in the event of satellite failure, with the
failed satellite moved to a different orbit and a new satellite moved in to take its place.
Satellites are not moved from one orbital plane to another.
GPS, GLONASS, and Galileo each maintain an independent control segment.
GNSS user equipment is commonly described as GPS, GLONASS, Galileo, and GNSS
receivers, as appropriate. However, the receiver forms only part of each set of user
equipment. The antenna converts the incoming GNSS radio signals into electrical
signals. These are input into the receiver, which demodulates the signals using a clock
to provide a time reference. The ranging processor uses acquisition and tracking
algorithms and the receiver outputs to determine the range from the antenna to each
of the satellites used. It also controls the receiver and decodes the navigation
messages. Finally, the navigation processor uses the ranging measurements to
compute a position, velocity, and time (PVT) solution.
GNSS architecture
5.1.2. GPS
GPS SYSTEM OVERVIEW
The Global Positioning System, or GPS, is a satellite system based on radio signals
emitted by a constellation of 21 active satellites in orbit around the Earth at an altitude
of approximately 20,000 km. The system enables the calculation of three-dimensional
coordinates that can be used for navigation by using appropriate methods to

determine accurate measurements of mobile objects equipped with receivers that

capture the signals emitted by satellites.
GPS was developed by the American Department of Defense (DoD) in order to obtain
the real-time position of a point anywhere on earth. This military technology has been
offered for free use in civilian applications since 1980. Since then, various
organizations have adopted GPS as the basis for a civil navigation satellite system
known as "Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS)".
USE IN NAVIGATION
The original idea of GPS is to be able to know the observer's position at any time of day
in a reference system created for this purpose. This is known as absolute positioning.
The calculation of the receiver’s position is made from knowledge of the coordinates
of the satellites that are on the horizon and the distances measured to at least four
satellites with a spatial intersection.

Both the satellite space segment and the user segment receivers are equipped with
highly accurate clocks for measuring time and, thus, determine the distance between
satellite and receiver. GPS satellites carry atomic clocks that provide precise timing
information. However, due to the failure to create a perfect clock, both clocks installed
in satellites and those installed in the receiver will have errors that will affect the
calculation of the measured distance.
Because the time interval is calculated from two different clocks with different errors,
we use the term pseudo-distances to refer to the measured distances. Determining
absolute coordinates causes a number of problems, which are detailed below.
═ In addition to clock errors, consider that the pseudo-range measurements from

the satellite signal changes its velocity when passing through atmospheric
layers of different density, which introduces another error in the position.
═ It should be remembered that the accuracy of the observation position is
determined from knowledge of the coordinates of the satellites. For this
reason, the distance measurement is also affected by changes in the orbits of
satellites.
For these reasons, the accuracy in determining absolute coordinates with respect to
the reference system is between 100 and 150 m in a system of three coordinates.
To achieve a high degree of accuracy, the information from at least four satellites is
needed. This is shown in the figure above.
GPS ARCHITECTURE
The GPS architecture consists of three classic satellite system segments (see figure
below):
═ Space segment: the constellation of satellites.

═ Control Segment monitors and controls the entire system.
═ User Segment.
Below there is a brief description of each of these mentioned segments.

 Space Segment Navstar (USA)
Initially, the final constellation of GPS satellites was established at 21 satellites plus
three active spare satellites, placed in nearly circular orbits at an altitude of
approximately 26,263 km and a sidereal period of 12 hours. Today, the number of GPS
satellites is twenty-seven.
The satellites are arranged in six orbital planes with an inclination of 55 degrees with
respect to the Equator and with 4 equally spaced satellites in each orbital plane. The
separation of the planes of the orbits is 60 ° in right ascension.

 Space segment GLONASS (Russia)
The GLONASS constellation also consists of 24 satellites but with a different spatial
distribution. They are distributed over three orbital planes with 8 satellites per orbital
plane, as shown in the figure, and an orbital radius of 19,100 km.
The orbital inclination of each plane is 64.8 ° to the Equator. The orbital plane
separation is 120 ° in right ascension.
 Control Segment
This segment consists of a network of stations to control and give feedback to the
system of satellites. This is achieved through constant monitoring of the satellites from
a series of stations conveniently located around the Earth.
There is a master control station, currently located in Colorado Springs (USA). In this
station the information is collected from monitoring stations, and with these data, we
calculate the satellite orbits and clock corrections provided.
There are five monitoring stations, which are located in:
═ Hawaii.
═ Colorado Springs.
═ Ascension Island in the South Atlantic Ocean.

═ Diego Garcia Island in the Indian Ocean.

═ Kwajalein in the Pacific Ocean.
These stations are equipped with caesium clocks and P code receivers constantly
monitoring all satellites above the horizon, updating data items, navigation messages
and clock corrections from the satellites. The corrections to the orbits and clocks are
fed back to the satellites via ground control stations.
As can be seen in the previous figure, the stations are strategically located near the
equatorial plane.
 User Segment
This segment is composed of different types of receivers that exist in the market and
individual users of the system. Over time, new applications have been found in the
system, so you need to design and develop equipment with certain characteristics to
suit the different users’ needs.
The type of receiver to use depends on the type of observations and the availability of
codes. GPS receivers can be classified according to their characteristics as follows:
═ Code C / A.
═ Code C / A L1 carrier phase.
═ Code C / A carrier phases L1 L2.
═ Code C / A code P carrier phases L1, L2.

Another classification of receptors is the kind of users:
═ Military receivers.
═ Civil receivers.
═ Navigation receivers.
═ Geodetic receivers.
GPS SIGNAL COMPONENTS
 GPS carrier
Each satellite is equipped with an oscillator that generates a fundamental frequency f 0

with a stability in the order of 10-13, and value:
f0 = 10.23 MHz
From this, a two-carrier signal is generated called L1 and L2 by the integer

multiplication of f0 as follows:
Carrier = L1 = 1575.42 MHz
Carrier = L2 = 1227.60 MHz
 GPS codes
To read the clocks, two codes are used. Both are characterized by the fact that they
contain a pseudo random noise (PRN) that is specific to each satellite. The use of PRN
allows all satellites on the same plane to have the same carrier frequency signal level
near the surface of the earth, which is below that of atmospheric noise.
C / A code:
The first code is the code called C / A (Coarse Acquisition) or readily available. It is
generated with a frequency equal to f0/10 and modulates the L1 carrier.
C / A code: 1.023 MHz for = L1

The code C / A has the following characteristics:
═ Quick Access Code.

═ Accessible to any GPS user.
═ It is particular to each satellite.
═ It provides accurate position medium data (SPS).
═ Fast positioning.
═ The position error can reach hundreds of meters.
P Code:
The second is called P code (or code precision/accuracy) generated by a frequency

equal to f0. The L1 and L2 carrier signals are modulated with code P.
P Code: f010 = 10.23 MHz L1 and L2.
The P code has the following characteristics:
═ Precision Code (Protected).

═ Code protected and restricted Access.
═ Code difficult to acquire. Access is achieved through the C / A code.
═ Provides position data with high accuracy (PPS).
═ The position error can be from 1 to 3 m.
POSITION DEGRADATION
As discussed in the previous section, GPS was developed by the American Department
of Defense (DoD) for use in military missions.
Use of the system for navigation and positioning is simple and inexpensive so that any
user can access it with the simple use of a GPS receiver suitable to their needs.
In the event of conflict, the DoD has the ability to "downgrade" the system so that the
signal emitted by the satellites includes "errors" in the message that can "only" be
countered by authorized users. The errors introduced by the system result in a lack of
precision of the data obtained in the process of reception.
There are two ways to degrade the signal from GPS satellites. The first is called
Selective Availability (SA), and the other called Anti-Spoofing (A-S). The aim of both is
to deny users proper use of the system.

 Selective Availability
This degradation of the system can be achieved in two ways. The first is achieved by
manipulating the ephemeris data (method e) and the second by destabilizing the
satellite clocks (method d). Both methods affect the pseudo-range measurement.
 Anti-Spoofing
This method of signal degradation is to encrypt the P code called using the protected
code Y. Only authorized users have access to the P code when A-S is activated.
DGPS
As stated in the previous section, the system can be degraded at will as determined by
the DoD. Under these conditions the position errors provided by the system are large
so that its reliability is reduced, especially in cases where the data is used for
navigation purposes.
Civilian receivers’ manufacturers have developed a system in order to achieve a similar

accuracy to that provided for military purposes. This system is called Differential GPS
or DGPS.
In order to do this, you must pair the GPS receiver with another receiver. This
"supplement" captures signals from a network of stations located in coastal stations
whose coordinates have been defined with high precision. The use of the DGPS system
is especially useful in ship docking manoeuvres with low visibility.
Within what is known as DGPS, there are two systems that provide even greater
precision, WADGPS and AUGPS.
WADGPS (Wide Area DGPS) is an improvement on the traditional DGPS. This system
tries to eliminate dependence on user error regarding the distance to the reference
station by measuring the ionospheric delay and the pseudo ranges to all satellites in
view. The major drawback of this system is all the processing that has to be done by
the receiver to use this data as well as being capable of receiving a signal from a
geostationary satellite that is part of another constellation different from the GPS. The
error varies from 2-3 meters.
Augmented GPS (AUGPS) comprises the use of the system monitoring stations,
WADGPS system master stations, geostationary satellites to broadcast differential
corrections and any other method that helps improve reliability and precision for
delicate tasks, such as those performed by barometric altimeters in aircraft.

5.1.3. GLONASS (GLOBAL ORBITING NAVIGATION SATELLITE

SYSTEM)
The satellite system GLONASS is intended to provide an unlimited number of nautical,

air, space, and ground users with navigation data and precise time signals at any given
moment and at any given point on Earth and the near-Earth space environment.
The GLONASS system is composed of four main elements:
═ Orbital constellation of GLONASS satellites

═ Ground Control Segment
═ Rocket-space complex
═ Users
The Orbital Constellation of the fully deployed system is composed of 24 GLONASS

satellites orbiting in three orbital planes. The operational orbit parameters are:
═ Altitude 19,100km
═ Inclination 64,8 degrees
═ Period 11 hours 15 minutes
The orbital planes are spaced at 120 degrees in longitude. There are eight satellites in
each plane, which are evenly spaced at 45 degrees in phase. Moreover, the planes
themselves are phase-shifted 15 degrees with respect to each other.
Such an orbital configuration enables continuous and global coverage of the Earth’s
surface and near-Earth airspace, as well as an optimal spatial location of the satellites
that increases position determination accuracy.
The Ground Control Segment provides GLONASS satellite control. It is composed of the
System Control Centre (SCC), located in the Moscow Area, and several Telemetry,
Tracking and Control stations (TT&C) distributed throughout the Russian territory.
GCS performs the following tasks:
═ Monitoring the orbital constellation’s normal operation

═ Continuous adjustment of satellite orbit parameters
═ Generation and uploading of time-tagged programs, control commands, and
special information
For normal operation of the navigation satellite system, it is very important to

synchronize all the processes taking place during system operation. That is to say,
these processes shall take place on a single time scale. To satisfy this requirement, the

Synchronization System contains a Central Synchronizer – a stationary ultra-stable

hydrogen frequency standard, which is used as the basis for the GLONASS time scale
generation. All onboard time scales are synchronized with the system time scale. The
Central Synchronizer is synchronized with the State Time and Frequency Reference,
located in C. Mendeleev (Moscow Area).
Deployment and maintenance of the orbital constellation is provided by two space-

rocket systems: one based on the “Proton” launcher and one based on the “Soyuz”
launcher.
Each space-rocket system includes:
═ A launcher system
═ A booster system
═ A satellite system
OPERATION
GLONASS is a system similar to the US GPS network. GLONASS satellites work in much
the same way as the US NAVSTAR, including flying nearly 12,000 miles above the Earth
and transmitting on two frequencies in the 1,200-1,600 MHz range.
The GLONASS constellation orbits Earth at an altitude of about 11,868 miles

(19,100km), slightly lower than the US GPS satellites.
Each satellite completes a trip around Earth every 11 hours 15 minutes. They are
spaced in orbit so a user on the ground can see at least five satellites at any time.
GLONASS satellites transmit precision (SP) and high precision (HP) signals at a
frequency around 1.6 GHz.
The system offers a standard positioning and timing service giving horizontal position
accuracy to within 180 feet (55 meters) and vertical position to within 230 feet (70
meters) based on measurements from four satellite signals.
There are very few inexpensive GLONASS-only receivers for consumers on the market.
However, commercial GPS receivers are often capable of receiving both NAVSTAR and
GLONASS data.
This GLONASS system provides accuracy that is better than GPS with SA (selective
availability) on and worse than GPS with SA off.

5.1.4. GALILEO
Galileo is the European satellite navigation system, planned to start operations by

2015. It will include a global constellation of thirty satellites, distributed over three
planes in Medium Earth Orbit (MEO).
The availability of an additional satellite constellation and additional GNSS signals

offers significant benefits to aviation in terms of improved performance and
robustness, which may enable the withdrawal of much of the current ground-based
navigation infrastructure. These benefits include, amongst others, resistance to
unintentional interference, greater availability of satellites, resistance to control
segment failures, improved availability and continuity.
Galileo is an initiative which has arisen to develop a civil global navigation satellite
system to provide Europe with some independence from the current systems, such as
GPS or GLONASS.
OPERATION
Galileo works in a similar way to its competitors; based on a satellite constellation

orbiting the Earth. The heart of the system consists of atomic clocks of extreme
precision that are on board satellites and which provide a precise time reference so
that the receiver measures the time that the signal takes to arrive from the satellite (in
1 second it covers 300,000,000 meters).
If we measure the distance to three satellites we can deduce the position of the
receiver from the knowledge of the satellites’ positions, which are controlled at all
times by control stations for system tracking. In practice, a fourth satellite is required
to correct the clock synchronization errors.
Galileo is, therefore, a Global Positioning System that allows the user to determine his
position in space and time with great precision. In other words, it allows determination
of a point’s coordinates on the ground and the precise moment at which the location is
determined. This is the basis of any navigation system.
Galileo’s spatial component is made up of 30 satellites distributed in three orbital

planes of 23,600 km height and 55° inclination, a design that improves its coverage at
extreme latitudes (near to the poles) compared to current systems. The system is
complemented by a series of ground stations in charge of monitoring and managing
the constellation, as well as providing services of added value such as integrity data,
search and rescue services and even commercial information.

Galileo provides coverage to a great number of users, each of them demands certain
features: for example, a person walking in the countryside does not need the same
availability demands as an aircraft or a ship that is navigating towards its destination.
In order to satisfy these varied needs, Galileo offers various levels of service,
established in a preliminary way in June 2001, which can be grouped in two categories:
═ A basic level of free access for applications of general interest, with similar
features to those offered by the GPS system
═ Restricted access levels for commercial and professional applications, with a
wider range of features, providing services of added value
GALILEO ARCHITECTURE
The global component of the Galileo system is composed of the space segment
(satellite constellation) and the terrain segment associated to the constellation.
The satellite constellation is the spine of the system. Although to determine position
and the moment or real time in which a mobile object is located 4 satellites are
required, system features improve as the number of visible satellites captured by the
receiver increases. Therefore, although different types of orbits and constellations
were considered (24 satellites in orbits of medium height and 8 geostationary
satellites), finally a MEO constellation (Medium Earth Orbit) of 30 satellites was
chosen.
Studies have shown that constellations based on MEO satellites allow greater
homogeneity, both in precision and in availability, and improve the behaviour for high
latitudes (Northern Europe zones) in the event of failure of some of the satellites
whereas the hybrid constellation composed of MEO and GEO satellites suffered a
considerable loss of features when one of the GEO satellites failed.
27 satellites from the 30 in the constellation, distributed in three orbital planes, are
operative while the other 3 will remain in reserve to enter into operation in case of the
failure of one of the operative satellites. Therefore, there will be one reserve satellite
per orbital plane.
The orbital planes will have an inclination of 56° (direct orbits). This high inclination will
allow coverage of high quality at extreme latitudes (up to 75°).
The orbits of all satellites are circles at a height of 23,600km above the Earth’s surface
(semi-axis of 29,900km and orbital periods slightly greater than 14 hours).

The payload of each satellite (< 100kg) is composed of navigation equipment, as well
as a transponder for search and rescue services. Nowadays, the possibility of including
a payment load dedicated to navigation communication services is being studied.
Galileo satellites are medium-sized satellites, with an orbit weight of approximately

650Kg and with a power subsystem capable of generating 1.5Kw. Satellite mass,
geometry and dimensions will allow the optimisation of the constellation deployment
by means of multiple launches, i.e., the possibility that a single launcher is capable of
placing satellites in the same orbital plane in a single launch. Therefore, the choice of
launcher will depend on optimum load capacity or satellite number, reliability and cost
and guarantees.
5.1.5. AUGMENTATION SYSTEMS
A first step to combat the limitations and deficiencies of existing GPS and GLONASS
systems was the development of "augmentation systems", known as GNSS-1, which
include increased performance for GPS and GLONASS by including additional data from
other, independent systems. This section will include augmentation systems in
development.
As defined by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), those systems that
provide performance-enhancement with signals from geostationary satellites are
called <<spatial augmentation systems>>.
These satellites are stationary over a given geographical area, sending a signal to that
area which corrects the errors of the GPS or GLONASS satellites, thus increasing the
performance of the "original."

AUGMENTATION TYPES
ICAO considers three possible types of augmentation for GNSS, which are reflected in
the SARPs (Standards And Recommended Practices):
 SBAS (Satellite Based Augmentation System)
ICAO defines them as "augmentations systems of wide coverage in which the user
receives the augmentation information via a transmitter on board a satellite."
SBAS augmentation signals provide the following four services:
═ Additional satellites to GPS and GLONASS: The goal is to increase the number of
navigation satellites available to users, and therefore improve the navigation
performance from the point of view of accuracy, continuity and availability.
═ GNSS-1 satellite status: Information concerning the performance status and
signal quality from all GNSS-1 satellites (including GPS and/or GLONASS
satellites together with additional SBAS). Through this service, navigation
performance is improved from the standpoint of integrity, as it gives GPS and
GLONASS an operation monitoring function that they currently lack.
═ Basic differential corrections: Corrections to ephemeris errors (satellite
position) and synchronization of the clocks on board satellites in GNSS-1, which
are applied by users to the distance measurements obtained from the different
satellites. The goal is to greatly improve navigation performance from the
standpoint of accuracy.
═ Accurate differential corrections: Corrections to propagation errors
experienced by signals from the satellites due to ionospheric refraction. These
corrections are applied by users to the distance measurements obtained from
the different satellites. Like its predecessor, the service is also intended to
improve navigation performance from the standpoint of accuracy.
According to the GNSS-SARPs, if an SBAS system is able to provide these four services,
the set that includes GPS and/or GLONASS plus SBAS augmentation would be valid as a

navigation system for en-route, terminal area and approach, including precision
approach in Category I, flight phases.
Currently there are three global SBAS systems implementation initiatives:
═ EGNOS (European Geostationary Navigation Overlay Service) in Europe.

═ WAAS (Wide Area Augmentation System) in the USA.
═ MSAS (MTSAT Satellite Based Augmentation System) in Japan.
The three systems, although regional and independently developed, will provide
similar services and will be compatible with each other through the adoption of the
ICAO SARPs as basic specifications in all cases. By combined and interoperable use of
these systems and future extensions thereof, it is expected that a uniform service
providing navigation with global coverage will be reached.
 GBAS (Ground Based Augmentation System)
Defined by ICAO as <<augmentation systems in which the user receives augmentation

information via a transmitter located on earth>>.
Transmission of the augmentation information, unlike that provided by SBAS systems,

is local, and done through a communications channel on the VHF band.
According to the SARPs, a GNSS navigation system composed of GPS and/or GLONASS
and GBAS augmentation would be able to support all departure procedures, approach,
landing (up to Category III) and surface operations within a coverage area of
approximately 20-30 NM around the transmitter.

 ABAS (Aircraft Based Augmentation System)
Defined by ICAO as <<augmentation systems that improve and/or integrate the

information obtained from GNSS elements with information available on board the
aircraft>>.
ABAS functions can be performed in several different ways. The simplest technique is
the use of RAIM (Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring), which provides the GPS
or GLONASS receiver with a basic function for monitoring integrity. The use of GPS +
RAIM is now fairly widespread in Civil Aviation as the primary means of navigation for
oceanic/remote flight and as a supplementary means for en-route, terminal area and
NPA (Non Precision Approach) flight.
5.1.6. EGNOS PROGRAM
The EGNOS (European Geostationary Navigation Overlay Service) programme is the

European contribution to the first generation of GNSS, called GNSS-1. Its development
and commissioning in 2004 allows demand to be met, not only for civil aviation needs,
but also for all modes of transport (maritime, terrestrial) and other value-added
applications.
The joint use of GPS, GLONASS and EGNOS will overcome the technical and
institutional problems GPS and GLONASS have for use in civil aviation, while providing,
at the same time, a homogeneous navigation service in the whole ECAC (European Civil
Aviation Conference) area.

5.2. THE AERONAUTICAL MOBILE SATELLITE SERVICE

(AMSS)
The aeronautical mobile-satellite service (AMSS) will overcome the limitations of
traditional communications systems and provides:
═ Worldwide coverage for unlimited altitude and blind areas, including remote
and oceanic regions except the extreme polar regions. This limitation is
imposed by the satellite constellation distribution of the various existing
systems
═ Exchange of digital data between aircraft systems and ground in order to fully
realize the automation capabilities of both
═ Provides the following services:
═ Security Services
═ Air Traffic Control (ATC).
═ Aeronautical operational control (AOC).
═ Non-security services
═ Aeronautical administrative communications (AAC).
═ Passenger aeronautical communications (APC).
The constellation of satellites that is used for aeronautical mobile-satellite service

(AMSS) is called INMARSAT.
5.2.1. INMARSAT SYSTEM INTRODUCTION
INMARSAT (INternational MARitime SATellite Organization) was born from an idea that
originated in the International Maritime Organization (IMO) in 1966. It was founded in
1979 as a cooperative to operate a global system for mobile satellite communications.
It was initially established to improve maritime communications in order to increase
safety at sea. Currently, in addition to providing telephony and data transmission to
ships and offshore platforms, it also provides services to the aviation community and
on land. From the 26 countries that participated in its constitution (including Spain) it
has grown to today's 79 member countries.
Today it has become the only provider of global mobile communications for
commercial, emergency and security applications, and used on land, at sea and in the
air.

The Satellite Communications Corporation (COMSAT) has established the use of the
INMARSAT space segment for use in aeronautical voice and data communications,
based on ground stations covering ocean regions.
The system consists of three main components:
═ Space segment.
═ The ground stations (GES).
═ Mobile stations (AES).
5.2.2. INMARSAT SPACE SEGMENT
INMARSAT satellites are in geostationary orbits (at a height of 35,786 km) around the
Earth. Each satellite covers a third of the surface and is strategically located over one
of the four ocean regions where the Earth's surface is divided. The following figure
shows the network of the INMARSAT satellite constellation.
5.2.3. INMARSAT GROUND SEGMENT
For each region, INMARSAT has the following elements:
═ Satellites.
═ The station network controller (ECR).

═ The fixed ground stations (ETF).

═ The Mobile Earth Stations (MES) terminals.
The ECR is responsible for managing the subnet, with features such as the allocation of
satellite channels to calls, freeing those channels after communications, traffic control,
databases of licensed terminals maintenance and monitoring the flow of information
to ensure that calls are made correctly and that the ETF will not fail. There is an ECR for
each service area.
In the maritime domain they are also called CES (Coast Earth Stations). INMARSAT
satellites act as a communications link between the terminals and the ETF, which are
what connect the INMARSAT network with the different national and international
telecommunications departments, such as the Public Switched Telephone Network,
RDSI, telex, Internet, etc. These stations are usually owned by the signatories, who are
appointed by government organizations from each country to work and invest in
INMARSAT. The signatories are responsible for the commercial exploitation of the
stations.
Each ground station is designed to support one or more specific standards but it
should be noted that given the technical proximity between the INMARSAT -B and
INMARSAT -M, all ready to service stations can support both INMARSAT -B and
INMARSAT -M.
There are more than 40 ground stations distributed throughout the coverage area.
The ETM are mobile user terminals. The following figure shows the appearance of a
mobile satellite telephone communication.

5.2.4. INMARSAT SERVICES
Through INMARSAT, users can enjoy basic communication services on a global basis
(table below):
═ Telephony.
═ Telex.
═ Fax.
═ Data transmission at various speeds.
Along with these services there is a series of applications that facilitate communication
needs in areas where the installation of a telephone network is not possible or
feasible. These applications are among others are (table below):
═ Distress alert.
═ Remote medical assistance.
═ Slow-scan TV.
═ Caller groups (point-multipoint).
═ Polling.
═ Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition.
═ Email (project IWMT).
═ Internet connection.
5.2.5. INMARSAT AERO
INMARSAT-Aero arose to incorporate the services offered by the organization for both
general and commercial passenger transport aviation. These services include
telephone, fax and data communications for passengers as well as advanced
communications, operational, administrative and air traffic control.
The satellite link solves the problems inherent in radio communication, such as the
need for direct vision and the quality variable.
Within this standard we must distinguish between three systems used:
═ Aero-C, which is the version of INMARSAT-C applied to aircraft, with low speed
and a store-and-forward method for the transmission of text or short
messages.
═ Aero-L, which provides low-speed communications (600/1200 bit/s) for
applications in real-time transmission of data with operational and
administrative purposes.

═ Aero-H, which provides high-speed communications (10.5 kb/s) channels used

for voice, fax and passenger data transfer, as well as for administrative
applications and aircraft control.
The main features of the Aero-C system are identical to those of their counterpart
INMARSAT-C; two-way communications up to 600 bit/s of messages using the store-
and-forward method. In fact, Aero-C even uses the same earth stations as INMARSAT-
C, the two systems being fully compatible. The most important difference is that it is
provided with automatic Doppler compensation for subsonic speeds, and can integrate
a GPS system using the same antenna.
Applications:
═ Updates time and flight plans.

═ Submission of flight plans.
═ Information on position in flight.
═ Business communications.
═ Personal communications.
The Aero-L system has been introduced to meet the need of aircraft operators to have
a reliable data link for the crew and passengers. Through this system public or private
packet switched networks can be accessed using a ground station that supports this
type of service.
The main features of this service are:
═ Two-way communications in real time to 600/1200 bit/s.

═ Interfaces with X.25/PSTN/PSDN established international networks.
═ Compatible with ISO 8208 internet standard.
═ Service offered from 86 degrees north to 86 degrees south up to cruise
altitude.
═ Complies with ICAO safety and air traffic control requirements.
Applications:
═ Real time checking of engine and cover status.

═ Requests for maintenance and fuel.
═ Point-multipoint Data Transmission.
═ Service information and personnel organisation.
The Aero-H system provides multi-channel telephone communication with voice

encryption capability, fax to 4.8 kb/s, high speed data communications (up to 10.5

kb/s). It supports both circuit and packet switching. In circuit switching, the user can
establish a path to the destination using the desired protocol, while the packet
switched service is based on the ISO 8208 Internet standard. Furthermore, the
terminals are capable of operating interactively with terrestrial X.25 networks. Like the
Aero-L system, it meets ICAO safety and air traffic control requirements.
Applications:
═ Real-time engine and cover status checks.

═ Requests for maintenance and fuel.
═ Data Transmission point-multipoint.
═ Service information and personnel organisation.
═ Interactive services for passengers.
Communications with the Aero-L system with spot beams are done with generation
INMARSAT-3 satellites, which allow smaller, less expensive terminals (with 6dBi
antennas), making it ideal for short- and medium-distance operators. This service
offers 4.8 kbps for packet switched data (although it also provides the option of
switching circuits), 2.4 kb/s to 4.8 kbps fax and voice with the new voice coding
algorithm AMBE (Advanced Multi-Band Excitation) developed by DVSI (Digital Voice
Systems Inc), which will reduce the bandwidth of a channel from 17.5 kHz to 5 kHz.
Voice services, fax and circuit switched data are only available through INMARSAT-3,
while the packet switching data service works globally.
Applications:
═ Dissemination of news and weather forecasts.

═ Point-multipoint Data Transmission.
═ Interactive services for passengers.
5.2.6. THE INMARSAT NETWORK
INMARSAT has four operating regions, each with its own access code for telephone
and telex. Similarly, each terminal has a unique identification number, which is like a
telephone number.

Communication via the INMARSAT satellite network is established between any

landline and mobile terminal or between two mobile terminals via the selected fixed
earth station (ETF). For this to occur four operating links at the following frequencies
are necessary:
═ ETF-satellite link, C-band to 6 GHz.

═ Satellite-mobile link, L band at 1.5 GHz.
═ Mobile-satellite link, L-band to 1.6 GHz.
═ Satellite-ETF link, C-band to 4 GHz.
5.2.7. COMMUNICATION CHANNELS
Currently, INMARSAT has channels for data transmission speeds of 300 b/s and 9600
b/s. The channels defined for use in aeronautical services depend on the development
and implementation of data levels in data packets mode.
The P-channel, multiplexed by time division, is used to link ground/air. The R channel,
synchronized multiple access, is designed for transmission of air-ground short
messages. The T-channel, multiplexed by time division, is used for longer air-ground
messages. Finally, the C channel, common circuit mode, provides mainly voice
communications.

5.3. AUTOMATIC DEPENDENT SURVEILLANCE (ADS)
5.3.1. ADS CONCEPT
ADS (Automatic Dependent Surveillance) is a surveillance technique in which the target

determines its position by itself (avionics) and communicates it to the ground systems
and other aircraft via datalink.
ADS technology provides:
═ Aircraft identification.
═ The position of the aircraft in four dimensions (three spatial plus time
measurement).
═ Additional information, such as flight intention, altitude, speed, etc.
ADS has two fundamental defining characteristics: it is automatic, that means it does
not need the intervention of the pilot; data are sent to a control station, and it is
dependent, because the information needed is generated in the aircraft itself, i.e. it
depends on on-board systems.
Inside the aircraft, ADS technology requires a system of collecting and processing
navigation data and a data link and, on the ground, a station that receives the ADS
information so it can be used by data processing and surveillance systems.

This system is essential to provide surveillance in oceanic areas, deserts and jungles,
where there is virtually no conventional radar cover. Similarly, thanks to air-air
communication of identification, position and additional on-board (e.g. intention of
flight) data, surveillance is improved in areas currently covered by radar.
5.3.2. ADS TYPES
ADS has been broken down into two techniques that are based on the same principles:
ADS BROADCAST (ADS-B)
This is the transmission, through data link, of certain on-board parameters from an
aircraft to land and to other aircraft (ground to ground and air to air), at frequent and
regular intervals.
It is characterized by:
═ Data in ADS-B are periodically sent and broadcast by the aircraft.

═ The main feature of ADS-B is that it allows air/ground, and also air/air data
transmission.
═ Air/air data transmission allows the representation of surrounding traffic on a
screen inside the aircraft, the CDTI (Cockpit Display of Traffic Information).
ADS CONTRACT (ADS-C)
This involves the transmission of certain data from the aircraft to a ground station. It is
also known as addressed ADS (ADS-A).
Its features are:
═ Data transmission only when there is a contract with a fixed ground station,
several separate contracts with several ground stations can be established.
═ The ground station determines the frequency and the parameters of
transmissions.
═ There are four types of contracts: periodic, on demand, for a specific event and
emergency.

5.3.3. ADS OBJECTIVE
The aim of this system is to be capable of providing real-time flight data, from the
aircraft to other aircraft and to ATC services, at any stage of flight, surpassing the
current limits of surveillance radar systems coverage.
Aircraft positioning is carried out through a data capture system, air-space, particularly
through GNSS, currently embodied by NAVSTAR GPS, and, to a lesser extent, by
GLONASS. In the near future the GALILEO system will be used as GNSS.
With regard to en-route navigation, the current systems now provide details
unmatched by any other system. The use of GNSS constellations allows the use of a
single reference positioning system (currently WGS-84).
If the aircraft location fix will be done with comparable accuracy better than that
provided by radar, the monitoring function can be carried out, in addition to radar, by
the transmission of location information through an air-ground data acquisition
system. In general, this system will support the transmission of information that can be
classified as follows:
Independent (sent by radar link)

Dependent (generated onboard and transmitted via
Surveillance Information satellite, VHF or S mode radar)
Surface traffic (sent by radar or VHF)
Non-Surveillance Information Using S mode, satellite and VHF)
Automatic Dependent Surveillance (ADS) is designed for operations in areas where SSR
coverage is not available.

There is ADS information of two types:
═ Updated position information (P).

═ Updated short-notice aircraft intent information (F).
Transmission is through the air-ground data acquisition system through three physical
channels:
═ Mode S data link.

═ Satellite Data Link.
═ VHF Data Link.
5.3.4. ADS-B
Air-air ADS (ADS-B) will allow an aircraft to be aware of the traffic that surrounds it
through the display unit on board called CDTI (Cockpit Display Traffic Information) as
shown in the figure below.
The ADS-B message contains the following information: heading, altitude,

purpose/intentions, callsign, speed, distance and aircraft wake turbulence.
The figure below shows an example of information provided by the CDTI:



6. AUTOMATION IN ATS

The term automation can be defined as <<automatic job execution of industrial,
scientific and administrative tasks without intermediary human intervention>>.
This concept applied to the complex world that is the Air Navigation System (ANS, or
SNA in Spanish) today, leads to the logical reasoning that an appropriate level of
automation of air traffic services tasks and processes, making the controllers tasks
easier, have a positive impact on safety and on levels of air traffic capacity and fluidity.
6.2. AERONAUTICAL FIXED SERVICE (AFS)

Networks organised under the auspices of the ICAO are classified into the Aeronautical
Fixed and the Aeronautical Mobile services. Both services (Fixed and Mobile) are
provided by voice and data networks and circuits, including:
═ The Aeronautical Fixed Telecommunication Network (AFTN).

═ The Common ICAO Data Interchange Network (CIDIN).
═ The Air Traffic Services (ATS) Message Handling System (AMHS).
═ The dedicated networks of ATS providers.
═ The OPMET (Operational METeorological information) circuits and centres.
═ The ATS speech networks and circuits.
═ The ATS computer-to-computer data networks and circuits.
═ The Satellite Distribution System for information relating to air navigation
(SADIS).
AFTN, CIDIN and AMHS are the most important of the items mentioned above.
For the provision of Air Traffic Services, extensive worldwide data interchange in
different functional areas between human operators and computer applications is
necessary. Networks are planned, implemented, financed and operated on a co-

operative basis by ICAO States who need to co-ordinate intensively in order to provide
the required services.
6.2.1. AERONAUTICAL FIXED TELECOMMUNICATION NETWORK

(AFTN)
Most data message interchanges in the AFS is performed by the Aeronautical Fixed
Telecommunications Network, AFTN. This a message-handling network running
according to ICAO Standards documented in Annex 10 to the ICAO Convention. With a
history dating back to the 1950s, it was in fact the world’s first large-scale message-
handling system. It was conceived according to the special needs of its users but also
restricted by the technology available then. This network is structured around a nodal
topology. Today, several hundred nodes located in virtually every country of the world
exchange messages on links of different types and speeds using “store-and-forward”
procedures.
The European part of the AFTN forms an important component of this worldwide
network. It handles a large volume of message traffic originating and/or terminating in
Europe but also considerable transit traffic. There is one or more AFTN nodes in every
European country (see following picture).

6.2.2. COMMON ICAO DATA INTERCHANGE NETWORK (CIDIN)
The importance of data communications in the aeronautical environment and the

reliance on the AFTN is major and continues to increase. Unfortunately, the technology
on which the AFTN is based (its speeds, capacity, protocols) has been obsolete for
many years. In order to create a technological upgrade, the Common ICAO Data
Interchange Network (CIDIN) was conceived in the 1980s to replace the AFTN core.
While the services provided by the AFTN and its procedures remain in place as a user
application of the CIDIN, and on the periphery of the networks for compatibility
reasons, data transmission within the CIDIN network use higher capacity techniques
and better quality of service, such as X.25 and ISO OSI layering for CIDIN protocols.
In Europe most nodes which are part of the AFTN, approximately 40 in number, also
have CIDIN capability. They were generally deployed in the 1990s. The CIDIN can,
therefore, be considered to be a data transport network which supports the AFTN.
6.2.3. AIR TRAFFIC SERVICES (ATS) MESSAGE HANDLING SYSTEM

(AMHS)
Whilst the goal of CIDIN was to upgrade the outdated AFTN, CIDIN technology is now
itself nearing obsolescence: X.25 equipment and protocols upon which CIDIN is based
will soon be phased out, and new messaging requirements are emerging that cannot
be met by these networks. Both AFTN and CIDIN need to be replaced by more modern
technology. The ICAO has denoted the ATS Message Handling System (AMHS) to meet
this requirement. The AMHS is an integral part of the CNS/ATM Concept, and it is
associated with the Aeronautical Telecommunication Network (ATN) environment. The
AMHS is defined by the ICAO ATN SARPs and Manuals as the implementation of
proven MHS/X.400 communications standards for the purpose of exchanging ATS
messages over the ATN Internet in a store-and-forward mode.
The deployment of the AMHS has been started by European Air Navigation Service
Providers. The European AMHS makes use of TCP/IP network infrastructure, in line
with the recent evolution of the ATN concept for ground communications.
In addition to being the replacement for AFTN/CIDIN technology, the AMHS also
provides increased functionality, supporting more ATS message exchanges than those
traditionally conveyed by the AFTN and/or CIDIN. This includes, for example, the
capability to exchange binary data messages or to secure message exchange by
authentication. The old AFTN limit of a 1,800 character maximum message length (in
text) will, of course, be also removed.

6.2.4. CO-EXISTENCE BETWEEN ATS MESSAGING TECHNOLOGIES
The AFTN, CIDIN and AMHS together form an integrated, heterogeneous data
messaging environment, which is collectively referred to as “ATS Messaging”. Because
of the distributed nature of these networks, and their co-operative way of operating,
evolution has to be progressive from one technology to another. A “Big Bang” change
is not applicable in the AFS. During the transition from AFTN/CIDIN to AMHS, messages
will be exchanged seamlessly between users of all networks. The end-to-end
communication path between a source and a destination may involve any combination
of path segments within the three networks.
Spanish AFTN/CIDIN/AMHS System Topology

6.2.5. ICAO LOCATION INDICATORS
An important element of the aeronautical fixed service that has transcended this area
to become commonplace in aviation is the ICAO location indicators.
As textually defined by ICAO <<four-letter location indicators shall be formulated and

assigned to identify those geographical locations at which there is situated a station
forming part of the AFS>>.
The ICAO location indicator is, therefore, a key group of 4 letters that is assigned to a
geographical location.
Although initially ICAO location indicators were set to indicate the geographical
locations where there is an aeronautical fixed station, as noted above, the use of
location indicators has transcended the particular use of aeronautical fixed
communications and they are currently used as simple geographical designations. So
at this time there are many indicators of places that do not have an aeronautical fixed
station.
The first letter of a location indicator identifies the routing area of the aeronautical
fixed service into which the world is divided, as shown in the figure below. A routing
area can consist of a single state.
The second letter will be assigned to the state or territory, within which the place is
located. When a state is a routing area itself, it is the first letter that identifies the state
or territory.
For the third and fourth letters, the state concerned shall allocate the letters as
desired, avoiding the use of a combination NN in this group of letters. When a state is
by itself a routing area this point applies to the second, third and fourth letters.
An ICAO location indicator is not in itself a destination indicator or an indicator of an

AFTN message sender. To this end, the sender or recipient of an AFTN message will
consist of an AFTN address indicator consisting of a four-letter ICAO location plus a 4-
letter suffix as set out in ICAO Doc 8585 (Designators for Aircraft Operating Agencies,
Aeronautical Authorities and Services).

ICAO Routing Areas

6.3. ONLINE DATA INTERCHANGE
6.3.1. ONLINE DATA INTERCHANGE: FLIGHT PLAN INFORMATION

FLOWS
For flights receiving ATC service, in which several control centres are involved, the
OLDI (Online Data Interchange) was established in order to make the transfer between
those control centres is as safe as possible and with the least amount of coordination
(to avoid verbal coordination). The "Standard Document for Online Data Interchange
(OLDI)", published by Eurocontrol, describes the messages, content and functionality
associated to each message and the way to ensure security in communications. This
document and its predecessors determine standard coordination procedures
applicable to Eurocontrol member countries.
When coordination is done by phone, times and workloads increase significantly, thus
decreasing the amount of aircraft transferred.
OLDI messages include:
ABI: ADVANCED BOUNDARY INFORMATION
An ABI message satisfies the following operational requirements:
═ To prepare the computer systems, notifying well in advance the existence of a

flight with the intention of crossing over from a collateral control centre.
═ To provide computer systems with enough information to make it possible to
create flight plans that were not known, upon coordination and approval by the
receiver control centre.
═ To provide changes and additional information about the flight plan that was
not available at the receiver control centre.
═ To update the basic flight plan data.
═ To assist with correct and quick correlation between flight plans and SSR codes.
═ To assist with correct short-term assessment of the precise traffic load in a
control sector.
In Spain (Aena-SACTA System) the ABI message is sent to the destination control
centre once the flight is activated in our control centre (at the time of activation).

ACT: ACTIVATION MESSAGE
The activation message satisfies the following operational requirements:
═ It replaces telephone coordination in the coordination point (COP) by

automatically sending details of a flight plan from one control centre to the
next.
═ It updates flight plan data in the receiver control centre with the latest
information.
═ It facilitates information use and sharing of flight plan data within the receiver
control centre.
═ It accelerates aircraft identification/SSR code correlation in the receiver control
centre.
═ It informs the transmitter control centre of the correct transmission of
information.
The ACT message is sent about 10 minutes before the time the flight plan estimates
the aircraft will reach the COP.
REV: REVIEW MESSAGE
This message is intended to alert the controller that the data passed through an ACT
message have been modified.
A REV message will be sent when a flight has changed and an ACT message was sent
previously.
The data that generates REV messages are:
═ Changes in planned flight level (PFL).

═ Changes in SSR code.
═ Changes in estimated time over COP when it differs by more than 3 minutes.
═ Change of COP.

PAC: PRELIMINARY ACTIVATION MESSAGE
This message is intended to alert the controller that an inbound flight into the FIR,
originating from an airfield near the boundary will take off soon. Since the airport is
usually very close to the boundary, the ACT message sent arrives too late and
telephone coordination must be used. The PAC message does not replace the later
ACT, it is an advance submission for traffic planning purposes. PAC sending occurs at
the time of pre-activation.
MAC: COORDINATION CANCELLATION MESSAGE
This message communicates to the centre that coordination data sent in a previous
message (ABI, PAC or ACT) is no longer relevant, since something has changed in the
flight plan that cancels prior coordination. Possible causes of MAC are:
═ Change in the route or flight level that causes a change in the coordination
centre, so that the centre recieving the original message now will not be
affected by the flight.
═ Change in the route (landing on the issuing site) or aircraft entering a holding
pattern, so that the traffic will not be transferred or it is not known when the
transfer will take place.
═ Change in flight rules.
In all cases, if the flight is transferred to a different centre, in addition to the MAC sent
to the old collateral centre, an ACT message will be sent to the new one.
OCM: OCEANIC CLEARANCE MESSAGE
OCM are messages for authorization to cross the Atlantic Ocean issued by Shanwick
and Santa Maria control centres upon reception of an ABI message.
The last field contains ATC information followed by information added by the
controller of the centre issuing the authorisation.

LAM: LOGIC ACKNOWLEDGE MESSAGE (OR RESPONSE MESSAGE TO THE RECEPTION

OF A OLDI MESSAGE)
The LAM is the message through which the centre issuing any OLDI message is sure
that the destination centre has received it. The LAM indicates the sending centre ATC
staff as follows:
═ In case of no reception of the LAM message: a notification. In our particular

case this is a beep and a red “T” in the active flights table when you do not
receive the corresponding LAM confirmation of receipt for the OLDI message
sent.
═ In case of reception of the LAM message: an indication. In our particular case
this is a green “L” in the active flights table when the OLDI message was
delivered, recognized and successfully processed by the destination centre.
6.4. CLOSED CIRCUIT INFORMATION SYSTEMS (CCIS)
6.4.1. PRINCIPLES OF CCIS
Closed Circuit (television) Information Systems are a video surveillance technology that
allows operators to monitor and record visual information for a wide variety of
purposes, including surveillance, control and security.
These systems were developed to improve the efficiency of those responsible for
supervision and security. Initially, these facilities were used to deter or detect theft,
and today are used not only for security but also for a lot of other specific purposes
such as education or the fight against antisocial acts.

6.4.2. USE OF CCIS IN ATS
At present it is fairly common to use CCIS in big airport infrastructures where not all
aerodrome locations are visible from the control tower.
In the case of control tower systems, there is a need to define an interface between
the ATC system (SACTA in Spain) and the tower CCIS system.
In the case of the new Barajas Airport, the installation of a CCIS became necessary to
solve the automatic assignment of cameras, both field and stream, to positions
depending on the operational configuration (according to the allocation
responsibilities to the different positions).
To this end, the CCIS has some management equipment that is connected to the
VICTOR network and is responsible for receiving the sectorisation order (carried out
from the position of operational supervision or PSO SACTA) and making it effective
over the CCIS, setting up the new configuration of cameras.
Additionally, from these management consoles, it is also possible to set a camera on a

manual position assignment.
The CCIS subsystem equipment is connected to VICTOR (Visualización Integrada de

Control de Torre.) system networks to establish the exchange of information and also,
the final presentation of TV cameras on the tower positions is used by the VICTOR
application VICTOR, using for this purposes video-mixer equipment Superview which
receives video signals from 4 from CCIS subsystem.
6.5. SYSTEMS USED IN THE AUTOMATIC DISSEMINATION

OF INFORMATION
6.5.1. VHF BROADCASTS
The main objective of the broadcasts is to provide aircraft in flight with information for
their safety in the en-route flight phase as well as arrival and departure operations.
There are basically three types of broadcasts:
═ HF broadcasting for the Operational Flight Information Service (OFIS), also

available over VHF.

═ Terminal Area broadcasting, or ATIS (Automatic Terminal Information System)

in VHF.
═ Meteorological information broadcasting for aircrafts in flight, or VOLMET. Also
available over VHF.
In Spain only the last two services are provided (ATIS and VOLMET)
Broadcasting of the flight information service, when carried out, should include
messages containing integrated information about operational and meteorological
elements selected for and adapted to the different flight phases.
6.5.2. WORKING PRINCIPLES OF BROADCASTING SYSTEMS
The provision of regular and updated information is produced by continuous and

repetitive broadcasts throughout the day or during a particular part of it.
Currently these services, both VOLMET as ATIS, are automated.
To meet the commitment that Spain has with ICAO regarding broadcasts, the VOLMET
automated system (SAV) was designed.
This is an application that automatically receives the meteorological information from

the MOTNE (Meteo Operational Transmission Network for Europe) and AFTN
(Aeronautical Fixed Telecommunications Network) networks and later broadcasts it to
aircraft in flight through voice synthesizers.
Similarly, and also on Aena’s initiative, the ATIS system was developed.
In both cases the working principle is quite similar: the system receives information
from several sources, data is treated producing some "messages" or "reports" that are
transferred to the voice synthesizer units connected to broadcasting systems
(broadcasting centres) to be emitted through aeronautical frequencies.
Nowadays in Spain, the SAV is considered as a centralized system for air navigation.

6.5.3. VOLMET BROADCASTING
VOLMET broadcasts contain present weather reports (METAR/SPECI) for a group of

aerodromes as well as parts for the trend/tendency (TREND), if available. The
aerodromes for which reports and forecasts in VOLMET broadcasts are to be included,
the order of transmission and hours of broadcasting, should be determined by regional
air navigation agreements.
In Spain there are six VOLMET broadcasts covering the entire national territory, as well
as international adjoining or collateral areas belonging to the South of France, Portugal
and North Africa. These areas belong to the alternative routes outlined by ICAO whose
coverage must be provided with the Spanish VOLMET.
6.5.4. ATIS BROADCASTING
The automatic terminal area information service is a daily broadcast on VHF

frequencies.
These broadcasts shall include:
═ A broadcasting serving arriving aircraft or

═ A broadcasting serving departing aircraft or
═ A broadcast serving both arriving and departing aircraft.
ATIS messages provide pilots with a full range of meteorological and operational
information required for approach, landing and also departure at those aerodromes
where, due to traffic density, it is necessary to reduce the VHF air-ground
communications load.
Its mission is, therefore, to improve the effectiveness of the control service by reducing
the volume of communications on ATC frequencies.
The conventional ATIS (or Voice-ATIS) is broadcast via a frequency in the VHF band
communication channel or through an associated audio VOR channel on the VHF
navigation band. NO ATIS broadcasts are transmitted through the ILS radiotelephone
channels.
In the near future the new D-ATIS (Data Link-ATIS) is planned through which it will be
possible to send this information via data link using the SITA network.

The information broadcast is continuous, repetitive and refers to a single aerodrome,

being updated immediately after a major change. Each ATIS transmission will be
identified by a letter taken from the ICAO spelling alphabet.
Pilots must acknowledge receipt of the letter code upon first contact with the
appropriate services (APP, TWR and GND) for the controller to ensure that the aircraft
has received the latest valid information. If an aircraft acknowledges receipt of an ATIS
broadcast that is no longer current, any information to be updated is transmitted to
the aircraft without delay.
In Spain, the language used in the ATIS broadcast is English. However, where ATIS
broadcasts are available in more than one language, a separate channel should be
used for each language.
The information provided by ATIS can be divided into three (3) sections or blocks:
information provided by the TWR, information provided by the AIS Office and
information provided by the Meteorological Office. Next we will detail the type of
information provided:
═ Identification of the time of issuance and identification letter (alpha, bravo,

charlie, etc).
═ Type of approach provided.
═ Runway in use.
═ Transition level.
═ Significant runway conditions.
═ Information regarding possible delays.
═ Specific ATS instructions.
═ Essential information for operations.
═ Meteorological information:
═ Observation time.
═ Wind direction and speed.
═ Visibility and Runway Visual Range (RVR).
═ Current weather.
═ Clouds and vertical visibility, where applicable.
═ Temperature.
═ Dew point.
═ Altimeter setting (QNH).
═ Trend/tendency type forecasts (TREND).
═ Information on events in aerodrome approach areas.
═ Additional messages or information.
═ End of broadcast.

Note: The information which has been disseminated by NOTAM more than 48 hours in
advance shall not be included in the ATIS message.
When, owing to a rapid change of weather conditions, it is not advisable to include a

weather report on the ATIS broadcast, this circumstance shall be indicated in the
broadcast message. In Spanish ATIS the following sentence will be used:
«Current weather information available on control frequency»


7. SACTA
In the Spain, SACTA (Spanish automated ATC system) harmonises and integrates the
systems of all Spanish route and approach control centres as well as tower units.
In order to achieve this goal of harmonization (a single system adaptable to the

geographical and operational peculiarities of each control centre), the SACTA project
has continued to improve the system performance and has adopted European
regulations and recommendations defined within Eurocontrol scenarios together with
an active participation of AENA personnel.
Characteristics of the system:
═ Modular architecture to facilitate its evolution.

═ High level of availability and reliability, based on equipment redundancy and
incorporation of function protecting methods.
═ Concept of interoperation between Spanish control centre systems.
═ Adaptability of system parameters through an off-line application allowing the
definition of diverse operational environments.
═ Integrated supervision of the system incorporating reconfiguration functions
for the operations room and different processors.
═ Data communications between foreign collateral centres.
═ Integration of data with airport systems in all control and communication
towers of data, addressing the Gate-to-Gate concept.
═ Inclusion of new functionalities defined in the European ATC Harmonisation
and Integration Programme (EATCHIP/EATMP).
All these characteristics make SACTA one of the most adaptable, flexible and advanced
control systems not only in Europe, but in the world.
SACTA is currently installed in five control centres: Madrid ACC, Barcelona ACC, Seville
ACC, Canaries ACC y Palma de Mallorca ACC, in the following TMAs: Galicia, Asturias,
Santander, Bilbao, Saragossa, Madrid, Barcelona, Valencia, Seville, Almeria and the
Canary Islands and also in control towers.

7.1. ARCHITECTURE OF THE SACTA SYSTEM

The SACTA system includes the following subsystems:
 Data Mainframes:
═ Flight Plan Processing Subsystem (TPV) - Tratamientos de Planes de
Vuelo.
═ Meteorological and Aeronautical Information Processing System
(MET/AIS).
═ Multi-dependence Surveillance Data Processing Subsystem (TDVM) -
Tratamiento de Datos Vigilancia Multidependencia.
 Position subsystems:
═ Approach and Route Position Subsystem UCS-FOCUCS.
═ Tower Position Subsystem VICTOR (Visualización Integrada de Control
de Torre).
 Supervision Subsystems:
═ Operational Supervision Subsystem (PSSO).
═ Technical Supervision Subsystem (PSSE).
═ Information Server and Recorder Subsystem (GSI).
 Outside Clients Information Subsystems:
═ Flight Plan Information Management Subsystem (GIPV).
═ ATM-SACTA Information Server Subsystem.
 Support subsystems:
═ Database adaptation manager.
═ Data reduction and analysis program.
 Dynamic Simulation Subsystem.

Architecture of the SACTA III
Now we will describe in more detail a number of these subsystems
7.1.1. MULTI-DEPENDENCE SURVEILLANCE DATA PROCESSING

SUBSYSTEM (TDVM)
This subsystem was previously known as TDR or Radar Data Processor.
The objective of this subsystem is to receive, process and display radar information
obtained from the signal coming from both military and civil radars throughout the
Spanish territory, and in the future, also signals coming from neighbouring countries
such as France and Portugal.
This subsystem is designed as an autonomous TDVM for each control centre. The
architecture of the TDVM is each centre is the following:
═ Monoradar and multiradar processing with double operative/reserve chains.

═ A maximum capacity of 24 radars.

Basic functions of the TDVM are obtained through the exchange of information
between this subsystem and the rest that make up the SACTA system. These functions
are:
═ Development of radar information.

═ Support of radar lines.
═ Acceptance and processing of radar data (filters, transformations, corrections).
═ Monoradar/multiradar automatic monitoring.
═ Creation of meteorological maps through the information provided by radars.
═ Maintenance of flight plan tables through the information provided by the
TLPV.
═ Runway/flight plan correlation.
═ Update of flight plans.
═ FLAT (Flight Added Track), Danger Zone, and minimum altitudes functions.
═ Support of control actions.
═ Information display.
7.1.2. FLIGHT PLAN PROCESSING SUBSYSTEM (TPV)
This subsystem is in charge of the reception, storage, analysis and correction of

received flight plans. It displays this information in tables and generates flight progress
strips for each flight plan, providing information in advance so the distribution and
number of flight plans in each sector can be planned appropriately.
The TPV subsystem is designed with the following architecture:
A central double-chain TPV, one operative and the other in hot stand-by. Several local
double-chain TPVs (one at each control centre), one operative and the other in hot
stand-by.
For each flight plan, this subsystem provides path information in four dimensions,
issuing route information and calculated flight profiles, affected sectors and time
calculation. In addition to all this, it also determines:
For route and flight profile:
= Entry and exit points in SACTA airspace, as well as sectors crossed by the flight,
providing information on flight level and calculated time for the passage of
each reporting point that is overflown.
= Information on the time that compulsory reporting points will be overflown.

= The type of flight progress strips that will be created depending on the place
and time.
The main functions of this subsystem are:
CENTRAL FLIGHT PLAN PROCESSING - TRATAMIENTO CENTRAL DE PLANES DE VUELO

(TCPV):
═ ATFN message processing (flight plan messages received using this network).
═ Processing of repetitive flight plans.
═ Manual and/or automatic flight plan creation and updating.
═ Calculation of profiles, affected TLPVs and crossed sectors.
═ Distribution of flight plans to affected TLPVs and maintenance of coherence
between different TLPVs for the same flight plan.
═ Processing of information requests, creation, modification and/or updating in
flight data positions, in order to process all messages rejected for any reason.
LOCAL FLIGHT PLAN PROCESSING - TRATAMIENTO LOCAL DE PLANES DE VUELO

(TLPV):
═ Manual creation and updating, either local or remote, of flight plans in flight
plan management windows.
═ Flow control.
═ Manual and/or automatic creation and updating of flight plans received from
collateral TCPV and TLPVs.
═ Activation of flight plans, flight profile calculation and printing of flight progress
strips.
═ Allocation of SSR codes and sending of flight plans with SSR codes to the TDVM
for FLAT correlation and monitoring.
═ Updating of dynamic data (QNH, aerodrome parameters, etc.).
7.1.3. METEOROLOGICAL AND AERONAUTICAL INFORMATION

PROCESSING SYSTEM (MET/AIS)
This subsystem is in charge of the reception and processing of meteorological (current

and expected meteorological conditions) and aeronautical (state of navigational aids,
danger zone information and periods of activity, status of aid systems, possible
modifications in aids, presence of temporary obstacles, etc.) information display.

The MET/AIS subsystem is designed with the following architecture:
═ TCMT (TRATAMIENTO CENTRAL MET/AIS) a double-chain central processor,

one operative and the other in hot stand-by.
═ Various TLMT local processors (one at each control centre) each one double-
chain, one operative and the other in hot stand-by.
Its main functions are the following:
TCMT
═ Gathering of MET/AIS information.

═ Recognition, storage and creation of display pages.
═ Processing of information from central specialist positions.
═ Distribution to local processors according to geographical criteria.
═ Specific processing for pages on navigational aids and on special areas when
reaching a NOTAM.
═ Cartographic support.
TLMT
═ Reception and sending of information from the TCMT and local specialists.
═ Verification of the accuracy of the information.
═ Real-time SMI data capture and presentation.
═ Error correction.
═ Page modification/creation.
═ Attendance to display requests from the UCS.
═ Data transfer from QNH to the TPV and from activity periods from special areas
to the TDVM.
7.1.4. POSITION SUBSYSTEM (UCS-FOCUCS)
The objective of this subsystem is to provide the controller interface for the UCS
(Sector Control Unit). The most outstanding characteristics of the UCS-FOCUCS are the
following:
═ Equalizing and adapting of the use of the executive and planner controller
devices.
═ Provide the planner controller with new tools for planning (visualization of the
expected situation, graphic display of conflict prediction, arrival sequencer).

═ High-resolution, 2K-colour visual display unit (20” x 20”).

═ Visual flight progress data display unit.
═ Radar-OV-MET/AIS information integration.
The UCS-FOCUCS consists of two physically equal positions. The elements which may
make up each of these positions are the following:
 Flight Progress strip printers: there is one unit for both the UCS positions.
 Main screen: the screen on which the geographical display of flights and the
environment, primary video display, and flight plan management functions for
the planner, system time display and position local functions are performed.
 Auxiliary screen: for the display of METAIS information and for the display of
the different position flight plan tables and for the executive controller flight
plan management functions.
 Touch-screen keyboard: to perform some of the position functions. Later on
we will describe the functions performed through this keyboard and the
arrangement of the keys.
 Alphanumeric keyboard: to edit the fields that require alphanumeric values;
some keys or combination of keys have associated functions and according to
that, it will be described it the appropriate section. (QWERTY keyboard).
 Mouse: serves as support for certain functions. It is composed of three buttons,
which will be known in this manual as BI (left button), BC (central button), and
BD (right button). Each one of these buttons has a specific function.
7.1.5. SUPERVISION SUBSYSTEM (SPV)
The supervision subsystem groups together a series of functions to establish and

maintain an appropriate environment for the support of operational flight plan
processing functions and radar data processing, as well as performing the register of
required data for the exploitation and analysis of system behaviour.
It is also in charge of performing monitoring functions, checking the status of the

devices, control processing and configuration of the SACTA HW/SW system.
The main functions of the supervision subsystem are the following:
 Initiation and stop

═ System start-up.
═ Local processor initiation.

═ Control stop of the system.

═ Control of the system database.
 Protection
═ Hardware and software failure detection.
═ Automatic recovery of hardware and software failures.
═ Automatic reconfigurations of the system (chain commutation,
alternative resources).
═ Statistic control of failures.
 Recording of data
═ Interface with the GSI information recording of the subsystem, in order
to recover the backup data tape.
 Online, physical and operative system configuration
═ Equipment availability, logical allocations, radar filters, sectorisation,
alert processing, services provided by the TDVM and TPV, etc.
7.1.6. FLIGHT PLAN INFORMATION MANAGEMENT SUBSYSTEM

(GIPV)
The flight plan information manager is the first interface with the outside clients who
demand flight plan information, serving as a link between the SACTA data and those
outside clients, without interfering in the internal operability of the SACTA system. It is
a way of sending “Flight Plan” data to the outside world, in a safe way: firewall
protected, and with controlled connections.
The objectives of the GIPV are:
═ Standardise flight plan information services for outside users.

═ Separate these flight plan information services from the SACTA system
operational nucleus.
═ Feed the TCPV with the necessary flight plan information.
═ Provide this on-line flight plan information to Interactive Users.
═ Generate rate files.
═ Follow a coherent information distribution policy.
═ Serve as communications front-end with a series of Outside Systems, among
which we can find airports and noise.
═ Establish standard criteria for the configuration, qualification and control of
outside users.
═ Optimise architecture.

This subsystem has the same architecture as the rest of the SACTA subsystems, that is
to say, it works in tandem mode and it will have the same supervision processes as the
rest of the subsystems; its status being monitored and its statistics generated in the PSI
as with the rest of subsystems.
7.1.7. ATM-SACTA SERVER INFORMATION SUBSYSTEM (SIS)
The ATM-SACTA server information subsystem (SIS) has the same outside interface
characteristics for the clients that request radar information, serving as a link between
SACTA data and outside clients, without interfering in the internal operability of the
SACTA system. It sends radar information to the outside world, in a safe way; firewall
protected, and with controlled connections.
The objectives of the SIS are:
═ Standardise radar information services for outside users.

═ Separate these information services from the operational nucleus of the SACTA
system.
═ It will feed from the radar information processed by the TDVM.
═ It will provide this on-line information, with the appropriate filters to
interactive users.
═ It will follow a coherent information distribution policy.
═ Serve as communications front-end with a series of outside systems, among
which we can find airports, Eurocontrol, etc.
═ Establish standard criteria for the configuration, qualification and control of
outside users.
═ Optimise architecture.
Until version 3.3, the multi-radar runway distribution function for outside users was
contained in the TDVM tandem, and the function responsible for performing this
requirement was the DISPI. In version 3.4, a new function, known as DDVE (Outside
Surveillance Data Distributor), has been developed in order to support the functional
requirement. This function has been extracted from the TDVM and will be contained in
the SIS subsystem.
This subsystem has the same functional architecture as the rest of the SACTA
subsystems, that is to say, it will work in tandem mode and will have the same
supervision processes as the rest of subsystems; its status being monitored and its
statistics being generated in the PSI as with the rest of subsystems.

7.1.8. INFORMATION SERVER AND RECORDER SUBSYSTEM (GSI)
The information server and recorder (GSI) is the subsystem in charge of acquiring,
organizing and recording all the information that circulates in the SACTA system on the
appropriate supports; in hard disks and magnetic backup supports, making it available
to those users that require it without affecting the system.
The objectives of the GSI are:
═ To acquire all the information on the SACTA network.

═ To structure and format the acquired information.
═ To make the information saved available to authorized users. As this system
does not have internal clients, its clients are the information exploitation tools
of the support subsystem, internal to the SACTA network.
═ To separate these services from the operational nucleus of the SACTA system.
═ To store all the information on devices that will allow it to be recovered later.
═ To optimise the architecture.
7.1.9. SUPPORT SUBSYSTEM (SAPO)
This support subsystem is basically made up of two main areas, on one hand the
Adaptation database manager (GBDA), and on the other, the Data reduction and
analysis programme (PRAD).
This support subsystem (SAPO) provides off-line services.
We will see all these subsystems in detail.
ADAPTATION DATABASE MANAGER AASE (GBDA)
The function of the adaptation database manager (GBDA) is to allow configuration of

the SACTA system to adapt it to the particularities of the location where it is installed,
allowing the definition of various parameters such as size and environment. In this way
we can set up this system with a series of parameters, known as adaptation data.

DATA REDUCTION AND ANALYSIS PROGRAM (PRAD)
The PRAD is the data reduction and analysis program. It is a support subsystem to the
different subsystems that make up SACTA. It contains several applications for each
subsystem (TDVM, TPV, MET/AIS). It uses information recorded in the GSI, both from
real and simulated traffic.
The main functions of the PRAD are:
 Generation of rates such as GIPV Backup.

 Provision of reports associated with flight plan processing (TPV), such as:
═ flight plan records.
═ flight plan activities.
═ flight plan statistics.
 Provision of reports associated with the activities of radar runways (TDVM)
such as:
═ Radar target records.
═ Mono-radar runway records.
═ Multi-radar runway records.
═ Conflict warning.
═ Danger zone warning.
═ Minima warning.
═ Incident reproduction.
 Provision of reports associated with the status of the system’s operability,
assessing hardware and software failures detected by the supervision
subsystem.
At the same time it provides the computer applications with the information and
allows it to be displayed in a user-friendly manner. This application is known as
PALESTRA.

7.1.10. DYNAMIC SIMULATION SUBSYSTEM (SSD)
This system simulates the ACC environment, both at a flight plan level and as radar
data. Therefore, as it is outside the control environment, it is considered as an outside
system.
The objectives of the SSD are the following:
═ Training controllers to handle the system.

═ Air Traffic Simulations.
═ Situation reproduction.
═ Monitoring of control centre evolution.
═ Testing of the complete system.
═ Provision of different airspace scenarios.
The dynamic simulation subsystem works in the same way as the TLPV and TDVM, also
performing navigation and manoeuvring (pseudo piloting) functions.
It also has technical and operative supervision functions, in order to manage the
system configuration and exercises.

8. WORKING POSITIONS
An ACC Operations room.

The working position or control position forms the HMI (Human-Machine Interface)
and is the tool used by air traffic controllers. The control position is where the various
subsystem results are displayed and where the air traffic controller interacts with the
rest of the ATC system.
Since the objective in this section is to recognize the existing control position
equipment we will use the control position FOCUCS SACTA UCS (Sector Control Unit, in
SACTA terminology) as a model or example.
FOCUCS position front view.
FOCUCS position rear view.

8.1.1. UCS OVERVIEW
The TMA (approach control) and Route (area control) UCS is composed of two
physically equal positions. The main components of these positions are:
 Flight progression strip printer: one for the UCS as a whole.
 Main screen: the screen on which the geographical presentation of flights and
the environment, the primary video presentation, Planner Flight Plan
management functions, and the presentation of the System Time and Local
Position Functions are shown.

 Auxiliary screen (or display): intended for MET/AIS information and the
presentation of different tables for Flight Plan and position Flight Plan
management functions for the executive controller.
 Touch-screen keyboard: allows certain, preconfigured actions to be carried out

so that you have quick access to these functions.

 Alphanumeric keyboard: used to edit the fields that require alphanumeric

values. Also, certain keys or combinations of two keys have specific functions.
 Mouse: associated with mouse functions and supports certain other functions.
 Position computer and UCS computer: these computers are designed to be

high performance, scalable, reliable and flexible without compromising on
economy.
 Terminal server: allows you to connect any serial device to the Ethernet. It is
ideal for console management through servers, hubs and routers. Also used to
connect terminal to database applications.

 Slave clock: connected to the server via LAN.
 Voice Communication System: management of ground-ground and ground-air

voice communications using a touch pad.
 Telephony system: access to public switched telephone network, independent

of the Voice Communications System (SCV). Also called the last resort
telephony system.
 Emergency radio: direct access to radio transmitter centres, as an alternate to

VCS.

 Flight strip bay or flight progress board.
8.2. EQUIPMENT FOUND SPECIFICALLY IN TWR

The mission of a tower is to provide an aerodrome control service in accordance with
existing regulations, ensuring that aircraft landing, taking off and taxiing, do so safely,
orderly and fluently.
In addition to equipment that is similar or equivalent to that previously described for a

generic control position. In a TWR we will also find:
═ Wind Indicator.
═ SMR (Surface Movement Radar presentation). Optional and dependent on the
level of technology and equipment in the TWR.
═ RVR and Altimeter setting indicator.
═ Lighting control panel.
═ Crash alarm.
═ CCIS. Optional and dependent on the level of technology and equipment in the
TWR.
═ Direction-finding (Radiogoniometric) equipment or DFTI (Direction Finder Track
Indicator).
═ Other: signalling lamp, signalling/flare gun, binoculars.


9. MULTILATERTION
9.1. INTRODUCTION
Global air traffic is increasing at an exponential pace. Within the next decade, the amount of
passengers that take to the already crowded skies will double. More passengers mean more
planes. Air travel, however, is already plagued with delays.
Air Navigation Service Providers (ANSPs) are responsible for not only the safe passage of the
ever expanding grid of air traffic, but the efficiency as well. ANSPs have come to the
undeniable realization that radar simply cannot keep up with the growing demand.
In an effort to increase efficiency, streamline operations, minimize infrastructure costs and,

most importantly, improve safety, more and more ANSPs are turning away from traditional
radars and looking toward new technologies: multilateration and ADS-B.
While there is general consensus in the air traffic management industry that ADS-B is the
accepted long-term surveillance solution, wide-scale implementations are more than 15 years
away.
Multilateration addresses these obstacles today.

9.2. PRINCIPLES OF MULTILATERATION

Multilateration is a proven technology that has been in use for many decades. It was
developed for military purposes to accurately locate aircraft — many of which did not wish to
be “seen” — by using a method known as Time Difference of Arrival (TDOA).
Multilateration employs a number of ground stations, which are placed in strategic locations
around an airport, its local terminal area or a wider area that covers the larger surrounding
airspace.
These units listen for “replies,” typically to interrogation signals transmitted from a local SSR or
a multilateration station. Since individual aircraft will be at different distances from each of the
ground stations, their replies will be received by each station at fractionally different times.
Using advanced computer processing techniques, these individual time differences allow an
aircraft’s position to be precisely calculated.
Multilateration requires no additional avionics equipment, as it uses replies from Mode A, C

and S transponders, as well as military IFF and ADS-B transponders. Furthermore, while the
radar and multilateration “targets” on a controller’s screen are identical in appearance, the
very high update rate of the multilateration-derived targets makes them instantly recognizable
by their smooth movement across the screen. A screen displaying multilateration information
can be set to update as fast as every second, compared with the 4 - 12 second position
“jumps” of the radar-derived targets.

MLAT IN ACTION
1) Mode A/C/S Interrogation.

2) Mode A/C/S Reply, ADS-B, IFF.
3) Time Difference of Arrival (TDOA) Processing.
4) Hyperbolic Positioning.
5) Aircraft Position Display.
MLAT ground stations receive replies from all transponder-equipped aircraft,

including legacy radar and ADS-B avionics, and determine aircraft position based on
the time difference of arrival (TDOA) of the replies.
Multilateration, also known as hyperbolic positioning, is the process of locating an object by

accurately computing the time difference of arrival (TDOA) of s signal emitted from that object
to three or more receivers. It also refers to the case of locating a receiver by measuring the
TDOA of a signal transmitted from three or more synchronised transmitters.
Multilateration is commonly used in civil and military surveillance applications to accurately

locate an aircraft, vehicle or stationary emitter by measuring the time difference fo arrival
(TDOA) os a signal from the emitter at three or more receiver sites.

9.3. USE OF MULTILATERATION

Multilateration has introduced a completely new way of thinking about meeting the needs of
ANSPs to upgrade, expand or create new areas of airspace surveillance. In the past, the
requirement to cover a given airspace could only be considered in terms of traditional SSR
performance, where the system’s limitations often called for compromises in coverage, the
need for additional “gap filling” installations or limitations on where aircraft could safely
maneuver. With multilateration, those limitations no longer apply.
Multilateration’s unique ability to be precisely “tailored” to completely meet the coverage

requirements for a wide range of applications has resulted in the elimination of surveillance
gaps. This has been coupled with equivalent — and often superior — performance over SSR
throughout the covered area, at a significantly lower cost.
Furthermore, future surveillance changes that are required to accommodate new approach,
departure or over flight procedures can be readily and inexpensively achieved by the addition
of the system’s small, unmanned and easily installed sensor stations.
This extreme flexibility allows a totally different planning approach to traditional, radar-based
airspace reconfiguration. In a radar environment, the controlling factor in airspace changes has

always been to restrict any desired changes to those that can either remain with the fixed
coverage of the established SSR, or those that will require major investment in relocating the
radar or acquiring additional units.
Multilateration can therefore be seen as not only a tool to increase airspace utilization and
operational efficiency, but as also offering significant economic benefits and flexibility.
Any multilateration ground station can be used for multiple applications. This allows for
greater cost savings and expansion capabilities.
AIRPORT SURFACE
While the multilateration concept was originally developed for military air surveillance
purposes, one of its earliest civil aviation applications was in the monitoring of aircraft
movements on the airport’s surface. Today, multilateration is a vital element of Advanced
Surface Movement Guidance and Control Systems (A-SMGCS), which are currently being
deployed at many of the world’s major airports.

Prior to the introduction of multilateration, airport surface surveillance was performed by

radar — called either Airport Surface Detection Equipment (ASDE) or Surface Movement Radar
(SMR) — with its rapidly rotating antenna typically mounted above the control tower for
optimum view of the airport surface. However, it was quickly realized that the radar’s line of
sight was blocked by the large airport terminal buildings, hangars and other obstacles,
preventing its view of many critical movement areas. Heavy rain was also found to severely
affect SMR performance.
The addition of strategically positioned multilateration stations provides ground controllers

with a clear view of every “hidden” area of the airport surface, with greatly enhanced accuracy
and improved target discrimination, regardless of the weather conditions.
Unlike SMR, multilateration also provides unique identification of all aircraft — and not just a
“blob” — and stops tags from jumping from one target to another as they would get near each
other.
Another benefit is that small squitter devices, with unique identification codes, can be
mounted on surface vehicles and fully integrated into the A-SMGCS.
Multilateration-supported A-SMGCS installations are in very wide use at major airports around
the world, and have made a major contribution to the reduction in runway incursion incidents.
Advanced Surface Movement Guidance and Control Systems (A-SMGCS)
Copenhagen Airport’s A-SMGCS fuses highly accurate position and identification data from
MLAT ground stations and vehicle tracking units with SMR data.
A-SMGCS platforms utilizing multilateration have become the industry standard at the world’s
busiest airports to reduce the increasing risk of runway incursions as operations grow and
surface congestion increases. MLAT expands coverage areas, identifies aircraft, tracks vehicles
and maintains performance in all weather conditions.

Copenhagen Airport’s A-SMGCS
TERMINAL AREA
At a number of airports around the world, lower altitude operations in the terminal area are
restricted by the presence of high terrain, which can block aircraft interrogations from nearby
secondary radars. In turn, this prevents local controllers from monitoring terminal area traffic
below a certain altitude. As a result, such airports experience high diversion rates in
instrument weather conditions.
This was the problem facing authorities at Innsbruck, Austria and Ostrava in the Czech
Republic, for example. At Innsbruck, surrounding mountains forced the minimum decision
altitude (MDA) to be 3,100 feet above the airport. At Ostrava, aircraft were prevented from
descending below 6,000 feet due to local high terrain.

One solution for those airports could have been the installation of one or more secondary
radars at or near the airport. But economic analyses by both ANSPs showed there would be
substantial cost and operational advantages in adopting multilateration surveillance systems.
Not only would multilateration be cheaper in acquisition, installation and maintenance, but it
would provide optimum terminal area coverage and — perhaps equally important — faster
and more accurate tracking down to the airport surface.
WIDE AREA MULTILATERATION (WAM)
As the need for traffic surveillance expands over areas not presently covered by conventional
secondary radar, many ANSPs are taking advantage of the cost benefits of multilateration
versus new radar installations.
In wide area multilateration (WAM), the stations are spread much further apart, at distances
of up to 100 km between each other. Installations in Tasmania and the Czech Republic are
typical, but the same economic imperatives have seen wide area installations planned for
Colorado, The North Sea, Taiwan and East Midlands. In such locations, multilateration provides
superior range over secondary radar, more accurate tracking, significantly lower costs, and
significantly earlier operational readiness following contract award.
On the other hand, multilateration has also been chosen in situations where an existing
“legacy” secondary radar has had to be replaced. In Armenia, for example, cost and
performance analyses showed the clear advantages of multilateration over replacing the
earlier secondary radar, and the wide area solution was chosen.
In addition, in the North Sea, between the UK and northern Europe and Scandinavia, the small,
lightweight and low powered multilateration units will be mounted on offshore drilling
platforms to provide “better than radar” performance down to the surface, in locations where
secondary radar would have been impractical.

PRECISION RUNWAY MONITORING (PRM)
An important application of multilateration is its proven ability to provide greater safety while
significantly increasing landing capacity.
For airports with parallel runways, aircraft fly adjacent paths towards their separately assigned
runways. But at many airports, the runways are too closely spaced for aircraft to safely fly
adjacent to each other under instrument conditions. Aircraft are then “staggered” along each
approach path with significant in-trail spacing between them, greatly reducing airport
throughput, especially during inclement weather conditions.
An early solution was the introduction of a dedicated, very accurate, electronically-scanned

radar called the Precision Runway Monitor (PRM), which allowed adjacent approaches to
runways spaced as close as 3,300 feet apart. However, the system’s acceptance was extremely
limited due to its significant acquisition, installation and maintenance costs.
While e-scan radars were cost-prohibitive, multilateration has now been demonstrated to
meet and exceed radar specifications for precision runway monitoring, at substantially lower
cost. MLAT PRM capacity gains have been reported to be 30 percent or more, especially during
peak periods with adverse weather conditions. Further, environmental pressures and new
zoning legislation are limiting airport expansion and may force new runways to be built within
existing airport boundaries as closely spaced parallels to existing runways to accommodate
rising future demands.
With such immediate and clear economic benefits, multilateration PRM systems are expected
to increase in the future, with systems currently being deployed at Beijing, Kuala Lumpur,
Sydney and Detroit.
Without PRM System
Airports with closely spaced parallels must maintain staggered approaches, which decreases
throughput, especially during peak periods and inclement weather.

With PRM System
Airports with closely spaced parallels can maintain independent approaches, even during
adverse weather conditions, which greatly improves capacity.
HEIGHT MONITORING UNIT (HMU)
As high-altitude jet traffic increased by the 1980’s, aircraft capacity in the upper airspace
became crowded, particularly between 29,000 feet and 41,000 feet — the altitude band
preferred by airlines for fuel economy. However, the lowered air density above 29,000 feet
caused traditional pressure altimeters to be less accurate. While aircraft flying below 29,000
feet could be safely separated vertically by 1,000 feet, aircraft flying above that altitude were
required to maintain vertical spacing of 2,000 feet.
New altimeter technology introduced in the 1990’s produced significant improvements in

altitude measurement and led to the worldwide introduction of Reduced Vertical Separation
Minima (RVSM), which allowed aircraft to be vertically separated by the normal 1,000 feet at
altitudes up to 41,000 feet.
However, while all aircraft intending to operate in RVSM airspace were re-equipped to meet
the new requirement, it was necessary to initially verify and periodically check that the new
equipment installations were operating within stated tolerances.
Multilateration was chosen as the best technique to perform this task and purpose-built
systems were installed and are still operating at various points around the world. The addition
of flight levels at the most fuel efficient — and thus most popular — cruising levels means
traffic flows can be more flexible and offer reduced congestion and fuel consumption.

Mulilateration-based HMU systems have been deployed for RVSM at various

locations around the globe
ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT
Today, many airports require strict adherence to noise abatement procedures. However, noise
complaints from nearby residential areas are a continuing concern to airport operators, and
identifying the aircraft which caused such complaints is often difficult.
One of the early applications of multilateration was to perform this function. The system
records the identification of every arriving and departing aircraft, along with its precise path
over the ground, and can show the exact time it passed over any point on its path. The
recorded data have already been accepted as legal evidence in certain jurisdictions.
As other environmental regulations come into effect, multilateration can provide airport
management with an extremely effective and rapidly accessible source of information on
noise, emissions and other flight operations data.

AIRPORT OPERATIONS AND REVENUE MANAGEMENT
Airports need to constantly measure and analyze aircraft and vehicle movements, as a backup
in any given area on an airport’s surface can create a domino effect that cripples an airport’s
operation.
Multilateration systems provide airline and airport personnel with real-time, shared situational
awareness and tracking that supports Collaborative Decision Making (CDM) for the planning
and scheduling of airport resources to improve gate management and orchestrate ramp
movements.
Typically, airports have relied on airlines or aircraft to self-report their usage of key revenue
generators, such as landing fees, de-icing costs, gate usage, etc. This has undoubtedly led to a
faulted system, as airports have had no system to check accuracy, which has in turn led to lost
revenue.
Multilateration provides flight track and identification data to automatically produce timely
and accurate invoices.
9.4. ADS-B AND MULTILATERATION

In the future ADS-B environment, today’s secondary surveillance radars will essentially be
decommissioned or become backup systems. ANSPs that have announced ADS-B programs,
such as Airservices Australia and the FAA, have also stated their intention to correspondingly
reduce their SSR installations by as much as 50 percent.
Many ANSPs are also considering multilateration as a more economical solution to future
backup requirements, after analyzing the continuing costs of SSR maintenance, power, fuel
and other expenditures.
Another key consideration is that multilateration systems have built-in ADS-B capabilities, with
today’s ground-based multilateration sensors capable of tracking aircraft ADS-B transmissions
as equally effective as those from Modes A, C, S and military IFF transponders.

Four other important considerations also arise. First, an installation of a multilateration

network, to either serve a new area of airspace or to replace a legacy SSR, will be the initial
step towards the eventual transition to ADS-B. This is so because the newly installed network
can immediately track early-equipped ADS-B aircraft.
Second, as the transition to ADS-B draws closer, multilateration sensors can serve as full-
featured ADS-B ground stations at significant cost savings.
Third, the already installed multilateration network can perform both essential ADS-B backup
and validation functions.
Finally, the multilateration system will continue to track non-ADS-B traffic throughout and
beyond the authorities’ lengthy expected transition period, making the service available at
minimal or no additional cost to the ANSP.
Because MLAT is backward compatible with existing SSR transponders and forward compatible with
ADS-B, it provides full fleet coverage today and in the future — independent of the pace of aircraft
equipage.


10. SURVEILLANCE DATA

PROCESSING
10.1. SURVEILLANCE DATA NETWORKING

Nowadays, the monitoring information does not reach the controller directly but is subjected
to complex processing and processing in order to constitute the best possible source of
information. For example, one of the key elements of this process is what is called "tracking",
which basically consists of generating and predicting the trajectory of an aircraft from smaller
blocks of information such as plots or targets derived from a multiplicity of sensors and
monitoring sources.
All of the ATM system functionalities that support the controller (NTZ, AMAN, DMAN, etc.),
such as security alerts (STCA, MTCD, etc.), etc. are included in these monitoring information
processing functions.
Figure shows the place of surveillance within the hierarchy for the provision of air traffic
services.
Under the name of Communications, Navigation and Surveillance (CNS) are grouped the
technical infrastructures on which the air navigation system is supported. These means play a
supportive role and provide basic information that makes possible the day-to-day
development of air traffic management.
Thus, for an aircraft to move safely from one point to another it must maintain continuous
contact with the ground control service through the "communications", and it will use the

navigation systems to know its position at all times and to fly to the desired place or
destination. On the other hand, the ground control service will use the surveillance systems to
have the aircraft located and avoid conflicts between them, verifying that they maintain
adequate separations.
10.2. WORKING PRINCIPLES OF SURVEILLANCE DATA

NETWORKING
On the basis of the above, current ATM systems are already based on what are known as
surveillance data networks, in which the integration of the surveillance information provided
by the different types of sensors available, their transport and finally, Its processing by SDPS
(Surveillance Data Processing Systems).
Figure shows how, within the chain or monitoring function, multiple processing and data
processing operations are performed in order to improve the available information at all times
and achieve an optimal presentation for the controller.
Basically surveillance information will be subjected to a differentiated processing at three

different levels:
 Processing performed at the sensor level at the radar site itself, including signal
processing and plots extraction.
 Transmission of monitoring information from the source or sensor, to the control
center or in the absence of the processing center.
 Processing at the control or data processing center.

11. FUTURE EQUIPMENT
11.1. NEW DEVELOPMENTS

For the near future, the objective is not so much to develop new technologies as to apply and
evolve the existing ones, generalizing and extending their use in large areas, in order to
maximize their performance.
Air traffic Increases in air Decision making

1
3
“control” is now traffic around the in air traffic
focused on air world are management
traffic necessitating a requires both
“management”. paradigm shift in better systems as
the way air traffic well as
is managed streamlined
overall. technology in
order to keep the
pace.
Air traffic “control” is now focused on air traffic “management”.
Increases in air traffic around the world are necessitating a paradigm shift in the way air traffic
is managed overall.
Decision making in air traffic management requires both better systems as well as streamlined
technology in order to keep the pace.
11.2. NEW PROBLEMS, NEW TECHNOLOGY

As the number of flights has grown, air traffic management has (more or less) kept pace,
making flights more predictable, safer and efficient. But this evolution has taken place with the
constraints of a system that hasn’t changed on a fundamental level for decades.

Today, air traffic is expected to double and then triple in Europe and the US. Other parts of the
world are growing much more rapidly and in two decades parts of Asia may have higher traffic
densities than congested Europe – China alone is planning 70 new airports by 2015.
Existing systems can’t cope with the predicted expansion of traffic. Controllers can’t manage
more aircraft than they already do in busy sectors and sectors can’t shrink without increasing
radio traffic due to handovers to and from other sectors. Something has to give.
It’s not just the number of flights that presents challenges. Airlines and customers alike want
to pay less for air traffic control services, which are an additional operating cost on each flight.
Environmental pressure also plays a role – airlines want to reduce fuel costs by using more
direct, fuel-efficient routes, which would reduce CO2 emissions and could reduce aircraft noise
at airports.
Last, as the number of flights increases, airlines (and their passengers) want to see continuous
improvements to safety: three times the air traffic simply can’t mean three times as many
accidents.
11.3. SESAR AND NEXTGEN

SESAR (the Single European Sky ATM Research Programme) in Europe and NextGen in the US
are designed to transform air traffic management and achieve on a continental scale the same
technology-driven efficiencies achieved on a local scale.
SESAR is expected to cut air-traffic management costs to airlines by 50 per cent and
environmental impact by 10 per cent while maintaining the same absolute safety levels (ie no
more accidents even if traffic itself doubles or trebles).
Three technological innovations are central to achieving these ambitious goals:
First, a new type of transponder technology called ADS-B (Automatic Dependent Surveillance –
Broadcast) allows aircraft to transmit their position and trajectory to the ground and other
aircraft, even outside conventional radar coverage.
In Australia, ADS-B is already providing controllers more options for routing aircraft coming in
from Asia because planes don’t need to follow rigid airways from one radio beacon to another.
In the US, a thousand ADS-B base stations will provide continent-wide surveillance. It also lets
aircraft communicate their position to one another, allowing for automatic separation in areas
where air traffic controllers can’t normally see planes, eg in mid-ocean.
The second innovation – improved data links between ground controllers and pilots – will be
essential too. Instead of time-consuming, error-prone radio exchanges about frequency
changes, routings and so on, controllers and pilots will be able to exchange clearances using
CPDLC (Controller Pilot Data Link Communications).
The cockpit itself is host to the third group of changes. Satellite navigation lets planes fly with
ever-greater precision. For example, at some airports, planes fly down approach corridors, to

avoid mountains or reduce noise pollution, that are just 0.1 miles wide. In conjunction with
advanced autopilots and flight management systems, planes can also fly sophisticated 4D
profiles with great accuracy – meaning that they can fly a specific path in three dimensions and
arrive over waypoints at specific times.
From the hushed consoles in centres around the world, air traffic controllers will issue fewer
radio instructions. Today’s stream of routine instructions will be replaced by planning
conversations and data links.
Taken together, extended surveillance cover, streamlined communications and advanced

navigation will give controllers more time for planning and enable them to handle more
aircraft. Air traffic management will increasingly move from a control model to an optimisation
model.
11.4. BETTER FOR PASSENGERS

All these changes will make life better for the travelling public. Flying will become safer,
cheaper and more efficient even as the number of flights increases. Planes will be more likely
to arrive on time and less likely to be held on the ground or stuck in a holding pattern. More
efficient routing and accurate flight paths will cut flight time, reduce cost and cut pollution.
In any other industry, meeting a threefold increase in demand with a dramatic reduction in
cost and a significant increase in safety would be considered a huge triumph. Aviation has
already made major progress and the next 20 years will see even more.

11.5. SOME EXAMPLES

A new ATC system for France
A new air traffic management system being introduced in France integrates advanced flight
data processing system with sophisticated controller displays and management software. The
system, being implemented by Thales, will replace traditional hand-written flight strips
completely with a new electronic system. By using data links and other new technology, it will
reduce controller’s workloads and deliver a future-proof SESAE-compliant-system.
Innovations: putting safety first

Equipment and Systems: Atco Initial Training

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Equipment and Systems: Atco Initial Training

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

ATCO INITIAL TRAINING

© SENASA. Servicios y Estudios para la Navegación Aérea y la Seguridad Aeronáutica, S.M.E.

SENASA ATCO INITIAL TRAINING 2

DOCUMENT CHANGE RECORD

SENASA ATCO INITIAL TRAINING 3

SENASA ATCO INITIAL TRAINING 4

CHAPTER 3. OTHER COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS................................... 55

CHAPTER 4. RADAR ............................................................................... 67

SENASA ATCO INITIAL TRAINING 5

4.2. GENERAL INFORMATION ................................................................................................. 68

CHAPTER 5. SATELLITE BASED SURVEILLANCE AND AUTOMATIC

SENASA ATCO INITIAL TRAINING 6

5.2. THE AERONAUTICAL MOBILE SATELLITE SERVICE (AMSS) ............................................. 110

CHAPTER 6. AUTOMATION IN ATS ....................................................... 123

CHAPTER 7. SACTA .............................................................................. 139

SENASA ATCO INITIAL TRAINING 7

7.1.2. Flight Plan Processing Subsystem (TPV) .................................................................. 142

CHAPTER 8. WORKING POSITIONS ....................................................... 151

CHAPTER 9. MULTILATERTION ............................................................. 159

CHAPTER 10. SURVEILLANCE DATA PROCESSING ................................. 173

CHAPTER 11. FUTURE EQUIPMENT ...................................................... 175

SENASA ATCO INITIAL TRAINING 8

With increasing traffic it became necessary to have coordinated control, which

SENASA ATCO INITIAL TRAINING 9

With a wheelbarrow on which he mounted a beach sunshade in the summer, a chair,

The development of radio was of great importance to aviation, allowing

SENASA ATCO INITIAL TRAINING 10

As with communication systems, surveillance systems grew in importance and in

MAIN COMPONENTS OF AN ATC SYSTEM

The main components of an ATC system, as mentioned briefly above, are

SENASA ATCO INITIAL TRAINING 11

The main Items of ATC Equipment are:

SENASA ATCO INITIAL TRAINING 12

2.1. RADIO THEORY

In order to develop the theory on which radio broadcasting is based, it is necessary to

We may define frequency as follows: Frequency is the measurement of the number of

SENASA ATCO INITIAL TRAINING 13

SENASA ATCO INITIAL TRAINING 14

SENASA ATCO INITIAL TRAINING 15

It is denoted by the symbol and measured in meters. Wavelength is linked to

It is important to note that wavelength and period decrease as frequency increases.

SENASA ATCO INITIAL TRAINING 16

2.1.4. ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

The following table shows spectrum classification according to frequency magnitude

BAND DESIGNATION FREQUENCY MARGIN WAVELENGTH (λ)

SENASA ATCO INITIAL TRAINING 17

2.1.5. PRINCIPLES OF RADIO COMMUNICATIONS

Radiotelephony communications, in general, consist of the issuance of oral messages

SENASA ATCO INITIAL TRAINING 18

Antenna: it is an essential device in the system. Its objective is to transform electric

The dimensions of an antenna have to be considered in accordance with the

We will develop the theory of two types of antennas:

═ Antennas of a fourth of a wavelength (λ/4).

These two types of antennas will be explained further on in this chapter.

In order for the transfer of electric energy to electromagnetic energy to be optimum, it

The described equipment presents the following inconveniences:

As an example of point 2, we will calculate the wavelength for a transmitted frequency

(m/s) c = light speed = 300 000 km/s and

SENASA ATCO INITIAL TRAINING 19

Wavelength will be equal to:

 Antennas of fourth a wavelength (λ/4)

SENASA ATCO INITIAL TRAINING 20

Antenna of fourth a wavelength (flow diagram)