Ājīvika

Ajivika (Sanskrit; IAST: Ājīvika) is one of

the nāstika or "heterodox" schools of
Indian philosophy.[5][6][7][8] Believed to be
founded in the 5th century BCE by
Makkhali Gosāla, it was a Śramaṇa
movement and a major rival of Vedic
religion, early Buddhism, and
Jainism.[5][6][9] Ājīvikas were organized
renunciates who formed discrete
communities.[5][6][10] The precise identity
of the Ājīvikas is not well known, and it is
even unclear if they were a divergent sect
of the Buddhists or the Jains.[11]

Ājīvika

An Ājīvika ascetic in a Gandhara

sculpture of the Mahaparinirvana,
circa 2nd-3rd century CE.[1][2][3]
 On the left: Mahākāśyapa meets an
Ājīvika and learns of the parinirvana[4]

Original scriptures of the Ājīvika school

of philosophy may once have existed, but
these are currently unavailable and
probably lost.[5][6] Their theories are
extracted from mentions of Ājīvikas in
the secondary sources of ancient Indian
literature.[5][6][12] The oldest descriptions
of the Ājīvika fatalists and their founder
Gosāla can be found both in the Buddhist
and Jaina scriptures of ancient
India.[5][6][13] Scholars question whether
Ājīvika philosophy has been fairly and
completely summarized in these
secondary sources, as they were written
by groups (such as the Buddhists and
Jains) competing with and adversarial to
the philosophy and religious practices of
the Ājīvikas.[6][14] It is therefore likely that
much of the information available about
the Ājīvikas is inaccurate to some
degree, and characterizations of them
should be regarded carefully and
critically.[6]

The Ājīvika school is known for its Niyati

("Fate") doctrine of absolute fatalism or
determinism,[6][8][13][15] the premise that
there is no free will, that everything that
has happened, is happening and will
happen is entirely preordained and a
function of cosmic principles.[6][8][12] The
predetermined fate of living beings and
the impossibility to achieve liberation
(moksha) from the eternal cycle of birth,
death, and rebirth was the major
distinctive philosophical and
metaphysical doctrine of their school of
Indian philosophy.[6][13][15] Ājīvikas further
considered the karma doctrine as a
fallacy.[16] Ājīvika metaphysics included a
theory of atoms which was later adapted
in the Vaiśeṣika school, where everything
was composed of atoms, qualities
emerged from aggregates of atoms, but
the aggregation and nature of these
atoms was predetermined by cosmic
laws and forces.[6][17] Ājīvikas were
mostly considered as atheists.[18] They
believed that in every living being is an
ātman—a central premise of Vedic and
Jainism.[19][20][21]

Ājīvika philosophy, otherwise referred to

as Ājīvikism in Western scholarship,[6]
reached the height of its popularity
during the rule of the Mauryan emperor
Bindusara, around the 4th century BCE.
This school of thought thereafter
declined, but survived for nearly 2,000
years through the 13th and 14th
centuries CE in the Southern Indian
states of Karnataka and Tamil
Nadu.[5][7][16][22] The Ājīvika philosophy,
along with the Cārvāka philosophy,
appealed most to the warrior, industrial,
and mercantile classes of ancient Indian
society.[23]

Etymology and meaning

Sanskrit

Ājīvika means "Follower of the Way of

Life".[5] Ajivika (Prakrit: 𑀆𑀚𑀻 𑀯𑀺 𑀓, ājīvika;[24]
Sanskrit: आजीविक, ājīvika) or adivika
(Prakrit: 𑀆𑀤𑀻 𑀯𑀺 𑀓, ādīvika)[25] are both
derived from Sanskrit आजीव (ājīva) which
literally means "livelihood, lifelong, mode
of life".[26][27] The term Ajivika means
"those following special rules with regard
to Iivelihood", sometimes connoting
"religious mendicants" in ancient Sanskrit
and Pali texts.[7][12]

The name Ajivika for an entire philosophy

resonates with its core belief in "no free
will" and complete niyati, literally "inner
order of things, self-command,
predeterminism", leading to the premise
that good simple living is not a means to
salvation or moksha, just a means to true
livelihood, predetermined profession and
way of life.[27][28] The name came to
imply that school of Indian philosophy
which lived a good simple mendicant-like
livelihood for its own sake and as part of
its predeterministic beliefs, rather than
for the sake of after-life or motivated by
any soteriological reasons.[12][27]

Some scholars spell Ajivika as

Ajivaka.[29]
History

Origins

The views of six śra

(based on the Buddhis
Śramaṇa

Pūraṇa Amora
Kassapa punishmen
Makkhali
Niyativāda
Gośāla
suf
(Ājīvika)
Ajita
Ma
Kesakambalī
with
(Lokāyata)
Sas
Pakudha
Matter, pleasure
Kaccāyana
 Nigaṇṭha
Restraint:
Nātaputta
and suffuse
(Jainism)
Sañjaya Agnosticism: "
Belaṭṭhiputta way or otherw
(Ajñana) Sus
Notes: 1. DN 2 (Thanissaro, 1997; (http://www.a
1995, pp. 91-109).
2. DN-a (Ñāṇamoli & Bodhi, 1995, pp. 12
v · t · e (https://en.wikipedia.org/w/inde

Ājīvika philosophy is cited in ancient

texts of Buddhism and Jainism to
Makkhali Gosala, a contemporary of the
Buddha and Mahavira.[27] In Sandaka
Sutta the Ājīvikas are said to recognize
three emancipators: Nanda Vaccha, Kisa
Saṅkicca, and Makkhali Gosāla. Exact
origins of Ājīvika is unknown, but
generally accepted to be the 5th century
BCE.[7]

Primary sources and literature of the

Ājīvikas are lost, or yet to be found.
Everything that is known about Ājīvika
history and its philosophy is from
secondary sources, such as the ancient
and medieval texts of India.[12]
Inconsistent fragments of Ājīvika history
are found mostly in Jain texts such as
the Bhagvati Sutra and Buddhist texts
such as the Samaññaphala Sutta and
Sandaka Sutta, and Buddhaghosa's
commentary on Sammannaphala
Sutta,[27][12] with a few mentions in Hindu
texts such as Vayu Purana.[30][31]

The Ājīvikas reached the height of their

prominence in the late 1st millennium
BCE, then declined, yet continued to exist
in south India until the 14th century CE,
as evidenced by inscriptions found in
southern India.[8][16] Ancient texts of
Buddhism and Jainism mention a city in
the 1st millennium BCE named Savatthi
(Sanskrit Śravasti) as the hub of the
Ājīvikas; it was located near Ayodhya in
what is now the North Indian state of
Uttar Pradesh. In later part of the
common era, inscriptions suggests that
the Ājīvikas had a significant presence in
the South Indian state of Karnataka,
prominently in Kolar district and some
places of Tamil Nadu.[16]

The Ājīvika philosophy spread rapidly in

ancient South Asia, with a Sangha Geham
(community center) for Ājīvikas on the
island now known as Sri Lanka and also
extending into the western state of
Gujarat by the 4th century BCE, the era of
the Maurya Empire.[10]

Classification in Hindu philosophy

Riepe refers to Ājīvikas as a distinct

heterodox school of Indian tradition.[32]
Raju states that "Ājīvikas and Cārvākas
can be called Hindus" and adds that "the
word Hinduism has no definite
meaning".[33] Epigraphical evidence
suggests that emperor Ashoka, in the 3rd
century BCE, considered Ājīvikas to be
more closely related to the schools of
Vedic's than to Buddhists, Jainas or other
Indian schools of thought.[34]

Biography of Makkhali Gosala

Ashoka's Seventh Pillar Edict mentions Ajivikas: "Some Mahamatras were ordered by me to busy themselves with the
affairs of the Samgha. Likewise others were ordered by me to busy themselves also with the Brahmanas (and)

[ ][ ][ ]
Ajivikas" (Line 25).[35][16][36] Photograph of the portion of the 7th Edict, in the Brahmi script on the Ashoka pillar of
Feroz Shah Kotla, New Delhi (3rd century BCE), with "Ājīvikesu" (𑀆𑀚𑀻 𑀯𑀺 𑀓𑁂 𑀲𑀼) inscription.[24]

Makkhali Gosala (Pali; Sanskrit Gośala

Maskariputra, c. 484 BCE) is generally
considered as the founder of the Ājīvika
movement.[8][12] Some sources state that
Gosala was only a leader of a large
Ājīvika congregation of ascetics, but not
the founder of the movement himself.
The Swedish Indologist Jarl Charpentier
and others suggest the Ājīvika tradition
existed in India well before the birth of
Makkhali Gosala, citing a variety of
ancient Indian texts.[28]

Gosala was believed to be born in

Tiruppatur of Tiruchirappalli district in
Tamil Nadu[37] and was the son of
Mankha, a professional mendicant. His
mother was Bhaddā.[38] His name Gosala
"cowshed" refers to his humble
birthplace.

While Bhaddā was pregnant,

she and her husband
Mankhali, the mankha, came
to the village ... of Saravaṇa,
where dwelt a wealthy
householder Gobahula.
Mankhali left his wife and his
luggage ... in Gobahula's
cowshed (gosālā) ... Since he
could find no shelter elsewhere
 the couple continued to live in
a corner of the cowshed, and it
was there that Bhaddā gave
birth to her child."[39]

Gosala is described in ancient texts as a

contemporary of Mahavira, the 24th
Tirthankara of Jainism, and of Gautama
Buddha. The Jain Bhagavati Sutra refers
to him as Gosala Mankhaliputta ("son of
Mankhali"). The text depicts Gosala as
having been a disciple of Mahavira's for a
period of six years, after which the two
had a falling out and parted ways.[27]
According to the Bhagvati Sutra, Makkhali
Gosala met with Mahāvīra again later in
life, but Gosala asserted to Mahavira that
he was not the same person. Makkhali
Gosala referred to the example of a
sesame plant which "had been pulled up,
and had temporarily died, but it had been
replanted and thus reanimated,
becoming once more living, while the
seven pods had developed".[40] Gosāla
declared that the original Gosāla who
was Mahavira's companion once was
dead, and that the soul now inhabiting
the apparent Gosāla in front of him was a
reanimated, completely different
Gosala.[27][41] This argument was
declared a form of sophistry by Mahavira,
and this led to a significant break in the
relations between the two.
Inscriptions and caves

The 3rd century BCE mendicant caves of the Ājīvikas (Barabar, near Gaya, Bihar).[42]

Dedicatory inscription of Ashoka in Visvakarma/Viswamitra cave, Barabar. The word "Ājīvikas" (𑀆𑀤𑀻 𑀯𑀺 𑀓𑁂 𑀳𑀺 ,
Ādīvikehi)[43][44] was later attacked with the burin, at a time when the Brahmi script was still understood, i.e. before the
5th century, but remains decipherable.[45]

Several rock-cut caves belonging to

Ājīvikas are dated to the times of the
Mauryan emperor Ashoka (r. 273 BCE to
232 BCE). These are the oldest surviving
cave temples of ancient India, and are
called the Barabar Caves in Jehanabad
district of Bihar.[46] The Barabar caves
were carved out of granite, has a highly
polished internal cave surfaces, and each
consists of two chambers, the first is a
large rectangular hall, the second is a
small, circular, domed chamber. These
were probably used for meditation.[46]

The Ashokan dedications of several

Barabar Caves to the Ajivikas were
engraved during the 12th year and the
19th year of his reign (about 258 BCE
and 251 BCE respectively, based on a
coronation date of 269 BCE). In several
instances, the word "Ājīvikas" (𑀆𑀤𑀻 𑀯𑀺 𑀓𑁂 𑀳𑀺 ,
Ādīvikehi)[44][43] was later attacked by the
chisel, probably by religious rivals, at a
time when the Brahmi script was still
understood (probably before the 5th
century CE). However, the original
inscriptions being deep, they remain
easily decipherable.[45]
Cave of Sudama, dedicated to the Ajivikas
by Ashoka. Barabar Caves, 3rd century
BCE.

Cave of Visvakarma, dedicated to the

Ajivikas by Ashoka. Barabar Caves, 3rd
century BCE.
Cave of Gopita, dedicated to the Ajivikas by
Dasharatha Maurya. Barabar Caves, 3rd
century BCE.

Caves of Vadathika and Vapiyaka,

dedicated to the Ajivikas by Dasharatha
Maurya. Barabar Caves, 3rd century BCE.
Reliability of sources

Ājīvikas competed with and debated the

scholars of Buddhism, Jainism and
Vedic's. The Ājīvika movement is
primarily known from historical
references left behind in Jain and
Buddhist sources, that may therefore be
hostile to it.[16] It is unknown to what
degree the available non-Ājīvika sources
reflect the actual beliefs and practices of
the Ājīvikas. Most of what is known
about them was recorded in the literature
of rival groups, modern scholars
question the reliability of the secondary
sources, and whether intentional
distortions for dehumanization and
criticism were introduced into the
records.[31][14]

More recent work by scholars suggests

that the Ājīvika were perhaps
misrepresented by Jain and Buddhist
sources.

[Johannes Bronkhorst's] claim

is that, whereas the Jains teach
that one can both stop the
influx of new karma and rid
oneself of old karma through
ascetic practice, Gosāla taught
that one could only stop the
influx of new karma. [...]
Ascetic practice can be
effective in preventing further
karmic influx, which helps to
explain the otherwise
inexplicable fact that the
Ājīvikas did practice
asceticism. [...] [T]he
popularity of the Ājīvika
doctrine in ancient times, such
that it could rival that of both
Jainism and Buddhism, also
make sense if this doctrine was
really not so radically different
from these traditions as its
presentation in Jain and
Buddhist sources suggests.[47]
Paul Dundas states that the Jain and
Buddhist texts cannot be considered
reliable source of Ājīvika history and
philosophy, because "it seems doubtful
whether a doctrine [of Ajivikas] which
genuinely advocated the lack of efficacy
of individual effort could have formed the
basis of a renunciatory path to spiritual
liberation", and that "the suspicion must
be that the Jains and Buddhists
deliberately distorted Ajivika doctrine for
their own polemical purposes".[14] In
contrast, other scholars[27] suggest that
at least the common elements found
about Ājīvikas in Jain and Buddhist
literature may be considered, because
Jainism and Buddhism were two
different, competing and conflicting
philosophies in ancient India.

Philosophy

Tile possibly representing Ajivika ascetics.

Absolute determinism and no free

will

The problems of time and change was

one of the main interests of the Ajivikas.
Their views on this subject may have
been influenced by Vedic sources, such
as the hymn to Kala (Time) in
Atharvaveda.[48] Both Jaina and Buddhist
texts state that Ājīvikas believed in
absolute determinism, absence of free
will, and called this niyati.[8][12] Everything
in human life and universe, according to
Ajivikas, was pre-determined, operating
out of cosmic principles, and true choice
did not exist.[12][49] The Buddhist and
Jaina sources describe them as strict
fatalists, who did not believe in
karma.[8][16] The Ajivikas philosophy held
that all things are preordained, and
therefore religious or ethical practice has
no effect on one's future, and people do
things because cosmic principles make
them do so, and all that will happen or
will exist in future is already
predetermined to be that way. No human
effort could change this niyati and the
karma ethical theory was a fallacy.[16]
James Lochtefeld summarizes this
aspect of Ajivika belief as, "life and the
universe is like a ball of pre-wrapped up
string, which unrolls until it was done and
then goes no further".[8]

Riepe states that the Ajivikas belief in

predeterminism does not mean that they
were pessimistic. Rather, just like
Calvinists belief in predeterminism in
Europe, the Ajivikas were optimists.[50]
The Ajivikas simply did not believe in the
moral force of action, or in merits or
demerits, or in after-life to be affected
because of what one does or does not
do. Actions had immediate effects in
one's current life but without any moral
traces, and both the action and the effect
was predetermined, according to the
Ajivikas.[50]

Makkhali Gosala seems to have

combined the ideas of older schools of
thought into an eclectic doctrine. He
appears to have believed in niyati
(destiny), svabhava (nature), and sangati
(change), and possibly parinama, which
may have prompted other philosophical
schools to label him variously as
ahetuvadin, vainayikavadin, ajnanavadin,
and issarakaranavadin.[51] According to
him all beings undergo development
(parinama). This culminates in the course
of time (samsarasuddhi) in final salvation
to which all beings are destined under
the impact of the factors of niyati
(destiny), bhava (nature), and sangati
(change).[51] As such destiny does not
appear as the only player, but rather
chance or indeterminism plays equal part
in his doctrine. He thus subscribed to
niyativada (fatalism) only in the sense
that he thought that some future events
like salvation for all were strictly
determined.[51]
Ajivikas and theism

Ajivika was an atheistic philosophy.[52] Its

adherents did not presume any deity as
the creator of the universe, or as prime
mover, or that some unseen mystical end
was the final resting place of the
cosmos.[53]

In later texts, the Tamil Nīlakēci, a story of

two divinities, Okkali and Ōkali, relates
the Ājīvikas instructed men in the
scriptures.[54]

Ajivikas believed that in every being there

is a soul (Atman). However, unlike Jains
and various orthodox schools of
Hinduism that held that soul is formless,
Ajivikas asserted that soul has a material
form, one that helps meditation.[55] They
also believed that the soul passes
through many births and ultimately
progresses unto its pre-destined nirvana
(salvation).[56] Basham states, that some
texts suggest evidence of Vaishnavism-
type devotional practices among some
Ajivikas.[57]

Atomism

Ajivikas developed a theory of elements

and atoms similar to the Vaisheshika
school of Vedic's. Everything was
composed of minuscule atoms,
according to Ajivikas, and qualities of
things are derived from aggregates of
atoms, but the aggregation and nature of
these atoms was predetermined by
cosmic forces.[17]

The description of Ajivikas' atomism is

inconsistent between those described in
Buddhist and Vedic texts. According to
three Tamil texts,[50] the Ajivikas held
there exists seven kayas (Sanskrit: काय,
assemblage, collection, elemental
categories): pruthvi-kaya (earth), apo-kaya
(water), tejo-kaya (fire), vayo-kaya (air),
sukha (joy), dukkha (sorrow) and jiva
(life).[17] The first four relate to matter,
the last three non-matter. These
elements are akata (that which is neither
created nor destroyed), vanjha (barren,
that which never multiplies or
reproduces) and have an existence
independent of the other.[17] The
elements, asserts Ajivika theory in the
Tamil text Manimekalai, are made of
paramanu (atoms), where atoms were
defined as that which cannot be further
subdivided, that which cannot penetrate
another atom, that which is neither
created nor destroyed, that which retains
its identity by never growing nor
expanding nor splitting nor changing, yet
that which moves, assembles and
combines to form the perceived.[17][50]
The Tamil text of Ajivikas asserts that
this "coming together of atoms can take
diversity of forms, such as the dense
form of a diamond, or a loose form of a
hollow bamboo". Everything one
perceives, states the atomism theory of
Ajivikas, was mere juxtapositions of
atoms of various types, and the
combinations occur always in fixed ratios
governed by certain cosmic rules,
forming skandha (molecules, building
blocks).[17][50] Atoms, asserted the
Ajivikas, cannot be seen by themselves in
their pure state, but only when they
aggregate and form bhutas (objects).[17]
They further argued that properties and
tendencies are characteristics of the
objects. The Ajivikas then proceeded to
justify their belief in determinism and "no
free will" by stating that everything
experienced – sukha (joy), dukkha
(sorrow) and jiva (life) – is mere function
of atoms operating under cosmic
rules.[17][50]

Riepe states that the details of the

Ajivikas theory of atomism provided the
foundations of later modified atomism
theories found in Jain, Buddhist and
Vedic traditions.[50]
Antinomian ethics

Another doctrine of Ajivikas philosophy,

according to Buddhist texts, was their
antinomian ethics, that is there exist "no
objective moral laws".[23][58]
Buddhaghosa summarizes this view as,
"There is neither cause nor basis for the
sins of living beings and they become
sinful without cause or basis. There is
neither cause nor basis for the purity of
living beings and they become pure
without cause or basis. All beings, all that
have breath, all that are born, all that
have life, are without power, or strength,
or virtue, but are the result of destiny,
chance and nature, and they experience
joy and sorrow in six classes".[23]

Despite this ascribed premise of

antinomian ethics, both Jain and
Buddhist records note that Ājīvikas lived
a simple ascetic life, without clothes and
any material possessions. [8][12]

Tamil literature on Ajivikas suggests that

they practiced Ahimsa (non-violence)
and a vegetarian lifestyle. [59] Arthur
Basham notes that Buddhist and Jaina
texts variously accuse Ajivikas of
immorality, unchastity and worldliness,
but they also acknowledge the confusion
among Buddhists and Jainas when they
observed the simple, ascetic lifestyle of
Ajivikas.[60]

Scriptures
The Ajivikas had a fully elaborate
philosophy, produced by its scholars and
logicians, but those texts are lost. [61]
Their literature evolved over the
centuries, like other traditions of Indian
philosophy, through the medieval era.
The Pali and Prakrit texts of Buddhism
and Jainism suggest that Ajivika theories
were codified, some of which were
quoted in commentaries produced by
Buddhist and Jaina scholars. [61]
The main texts of the Ajivikas included
the ten Purvas (eight Mahanimittas, two
Maggas) and the Onpatu Katir.[61] The
Mahanimittas of Ajivikas, claims
Bhagavati Sutra, was extracted from the
teachings Gosala received from
Mahavira, when he was a disciple.[27]

The belief of Ajivikas in absolute

determinism and influence of cosmic
forces led them to develop extensive
sections in their Mahanimittas texts on
mapping the sun, moon, planets, stars
and their role in astrology and fortune
telling. [62][63]
Influence
Isaeva states that the ideas of Ajivika
influenced Buddhism and various
schools of Vidic. [7] Riepe states an
example of an influential Ajivika theory
was its theory on atomism. [50] Basham
suggests Ajivikas may have possibly
influenced the medieval era doctrines of
Dvaita Vedanta sub-school of Vedic. [64]

Conflict between Ajivikas,

Buddhists and Jains
According to the 2nd century CE text
Ashokavadana, the Mauryan emperor
Bindusara and his chief queen
Shubhadrangi were believers of this
philosophy, which reached its peak of
popularity during this time.
Ashokavadana also mentions that, after
his conversion to Buddhism, Bindusara's
son Ashoka issued an order to kill all the
Ajivikas in Pundravardhana, enraged at a
picture that depicted Gautama Buddha in
a negative light. Around 18,000 followers
of the Ajivika sect were supposedly
executed as a result of this order.[65][66]
The entire story may be
apocryphal.[67][68][69]

An earlier Jaina text, the Bhagavati Sutra,

similarly mentions a debate,
disagreement and then "coming to
blows" between factions led by Mahavira
and by Gosala.[27]

See also
Ajñana
Āstika and nāstika
Atomism
Stoicism
Atheism
Cārvāka
Determinism
Gymnosophists

Notes
1. Balcerowicz, Piotr (2016). "A Religious
Centre and the Art of the Ājīvikas" (http
 s://books.google.com/books?id=nfOPCg
AAQBAJ&pg=PA278) . Early Asceticism in
India: Ājīvikism and Jainism. Routledge
Advances in Jaina Studies (1st ed.).
London and New York: Routledge.
pp. 278–281. ISBN 9781317538530.

2. British Museum catalogue (https://www.b

ritishmuseum.org/research/collection_onl
ine/collection_object_details.aspx?objectI
d=225382&partId=1&museumno=1899%2
C0715.9&page=8)

3. British Museum catalogue (https://www.b

ritishmuseum.org/research/collection_onl
ine/collection_object_details.aspx?objectI
d=225123&partId=1&searchText=Vajra+D
eities&page=1)
4. Marianne Yaldiz, Herbert Härtel, Along the
Ancient Silk Routes: Central Asian Art
from the West Berlin State Museums; an
Exhibition Lent by the Museum Für
Indische Kunst, Staatliche Museen
Preussischer Kulturbesitz, Berlin,
Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1982, p. 78
5. Johnson, W. J. (2009). "Ājīvika" (https://w
ww.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/a
cref/9780198610250.001.0001/acref-978
0198610250-e-99) . A Dictionary of
Hinduism (1st ed.). Oxford and New York:
Oxford University Press.
ISBN 9780191726705. "Ājīvika ('Follower
of the Way of Life'): Name given to
members of a heterodox ascetic order,
apparently founded at the same time as
the Buddhist and Jaina orders, and now
extinct, although active in South India as
late as the 13th century. No first-hand
record survives of Ājīvika doctrines, so
what is known about them is derived
largely from the accounts of their rivals.
According to Jaina sources, the Ājīvika's
founder, Makkhali Gosāla, was for six
years a disciple and companion of the
Jina-to-be, Mahāvīra, until they fell out."
6. Balcerowicz, Piotr (2016). "Determinism,
Ājīvikas, and Jainism" (https://books.goog
le.com/books?id=nfOPCgAAQBAJ&pg=P
A136) . Early Asceticism in India:
Ājīvikism and Jainism. Routledge
Advances in Jaina Studies (1st ed.).
London and New York: Routledge.
pp. 136–174. ISBN 9781317538530. "The
Ājīvikas' doctrinal signature was
indubitably the idea of determinism and
fate, which traditionally incorporated four
elements: the doctrine of destiny (niyati-
vāda), the doctrine of predetermined
concurrence of factors (saṅgati-vāda), the
doctrine of intrinsic nature (svabhāva-
vāda), occasionally also linked to
materialists, and the doctrine of fate
(daiva-vāda), or simply fatalism. The
Ājīvikas' emphasis on fate and
 determinism was so profound that later
sources would consistently refer to them
as niyati-vādins, or 'the propounders of
the doctrine of destiny'."

7. Natalia Isaeva (1993), Shankara and

Indian Philosophy, State University of New
York Press, ISBN 978-0791412817, pages
20-23

8. James Lochtefeld, "Ajivika", The Illustrated

Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 1: A–M,
Rosen Publishing. ISBN 978-0823931798,
page 22

9. Jeffrey D Long (2009), Jainism: An

Introduction, Macmillan, ISBN 978-
1845116255, page 199

10. Basham 1951, pp. 145–146.

11. Fogelin, Lars (2015). An Archaeological
History of Indian Buddhism (https://book
s.google.com/books?id=tRV0BgAAQBAJ
&pg=PA26) . Oxford University Press.
p. 26. ISBN 9780199948222.

12. Basham 1951, Chapter 1.

13. Basham, Arthur L. (1981) [1951]. "Chapter
XII: Niyati" (https://books.google.com/bo
oks?id=BiGQzc5lRGYC&pg=PA224) .
History and Doctrines of the Ājīvikas, a
Vanished Indian Religion. Lala L. S. Jain
Series (1st ed.). Delhi: Motilal
Banarsidass. pp. 224–238.
ISBN 9788120812048. OCLC 633493794
(https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/6334937
94) . "The fundamental principle of Ājīvika
philosophy was Fate, usually called Niyati.
Buddhist and Jaina sources agree that
Gosāla was a rigid determinist, who
exalted Niyati to the status of the motive
factor of the universe and the sole agent
of all phenomenal change. This is quite
clear in our locus classicus, the
Samaññaphala Sutta. Sin and suffering,
attributed by other sects to the laws of
 karma, the result of evil committed in the
previous lives or in the present one, were
declared by Gosāla to be without cause or
basis, other, presumably, than the force of
destiny. Similarly, the escape from evil, the
working off of accumulated evil karma,
was likewise without cause or basis."

14. Paul Dundas (2002), The Jains (The

Library of Religious Beliefs and Practices),
Routledge, ISBN 978-0415266055, pages
28-30
15. Leaman, Oliver, ed. (1999). "Fatalism" (htt
ps://books.google.com/books?id=_4crBg
AAQBAJ&pg=PA80) . Key Concepts in
Eastern Philosophy. Routledge Key Guides
(1st ed.). London and New York:
Routledge. pp. 80–81.
ISBN 9780415173636. "Fatalism. Some
of the teachings of Indian philosophy are
fatalistic. For example, the Ajivika school
argued that fate (nyati) governs both the
cycle of birth and rebirth, and also
individual lives. Suffering is not attributed
to past actions, but just takes place
without any cause or rationale, as does
relief from suffering. There is nothing we
can do to achieve moksha, we just have
to hope that all will go well with us. [...]
But the Ajivikas were committed to
asceticism, and they justified this in terms
 of its practice being just as determined by
fate as anything else."

16. Ajivikas (http://www.philtar.ac.uk/encyclo

pedia/hindu/ascetic/ajiv.html) World
Religions Project, University of Cumbria,
United Kingdom

17. Basham 1951, pp. 262–270.

18. Johannes Quack (2014), The Oxford
Handbook of Atheism (Editors: Stephen
Bullivant, Michael Ruse), Oxford University
Press, ISBN 978-0199644650, page 654

19. Analayo (2004), Satipaṭṭhāna: The Direct

Path to Realization, ISBN 978-
1899579549, pp. 207-208

20. Basham 1951, pp. 240–261.

21. Basham 1951, pp. 270–273.
22. Arthur Basham, Kenneth Zysk (1991), The
Origins and Development of Classical
Hinduism, Oxford University Press,
ISBN 978-0195073492, Chapter 4

23. DM Riepe (1996), Naturalistic Tradition in

Indian Thought, Motilal Banarsidass,
ISBN 978-8120812932, pages 39-40

24. Hultzsch, Eugen (1925). Inscriptions of

Asoka. New Edition by E. Hultzsch (http
s://archive.org/details/InscriptionsOfAsok
a.NewEditionByE.Hultzsch) (in Sanskrit).
p. 132 (https://archive.org/details/Inscript
ionsOfAsoka.NewEditionByE.Hultzsch/pa
ge/n292) .
25. Senart (1876). Inscriptions Of Piyadasi
Tome Second (https://archive.org/details/
InscriptionsOfPiyadasiTomeSecondFrenc
hGoogle) . pp. 209 (https://archive.org/de
tails/InscriptionsOfPiyadasiTomeSecondF
renchGoogle/page/n218) –210.

26. AjIvika (http://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-ko

eln.de/scans/MWScan/tamil/index.html)
Monier Williams Sanskrit English
Dictionary, Cologne Sanskrit Digital
Lexicon, Germany

27. A Hoernle, Encyclopædia of Religion and

Ethics, Volume 1 (https://books.google.co
m/books?id=uiJBAQAAIAAJ&pg=PAPA25
9) , p. PA259, at Google Books, Editor:
James Hastings, Charles Scribner & Sons,
Edinburgh, pages 259-268
28. Jarl Charpentier (July 1913), Ajivika (http
s://www.jstor.org/stable/25189032) , The
Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of
Great Britain and Ireland, Cambridge
University Press, pages 669-674

29. John R. Hinnells (1995), Ajivaka (http://w

ww.blackwellreference.com/public/tocno
de?id=g9780631181392_chunk_g978063
11813922_ss1-32) , A New Dictionary of
Religions, Wiley-Blackwell Reference,
ISBN 978-0631181392

30. Basham 1951, pp. 122–123.

31. The Ajivikas (https://archive.org/stream/a
jivikas00barurich#page/10/mode/2up)
BM Barua, University of Calcutta, pages
10-17
32. D. M. Riepe (1996), Naturalistic Tradition
in Indian Thought, Motilal Banarsidass,
ISBN 978-8120812932, pages 34-46

33. P.T. Raju (1985), Structural Depths of

Indian Thought, State University of New
York Press, ISBN 978-0887061394, page
147

34. Basham 1951, pp. 148–153.

35. Hultzsch, E (1925). Inscriptions of Asoka.
New Edition by E. Hultzsch (https://archiv
e.org/details/InscriptionsOfAsoka.NewEdi
tionByE.Hultzsch) (in Sanskrit). pp. 132
(https://archive.org/details/InscriptionsOf
Asoka.NewEditionByE.Hultzsch/page/n29
2) .
36. The Edicts of King Ashoka (http://www.c
s.colostate.edu/~malaiya/ashoka.html)
Ven. S. Dhammika, Colorado State
University Archive

37. "அய்யனார், ஐயப்பன், ஆசீவகம்! -

பேராசிரியர் க.நெடுஞ்செழியன்
நேர்காணல்" (https://www.commonfolk
s.in/bookreviews/ayyanar-ayyappan-aase
evagam-peraasiriyar-ka-nedunchezhiyan-n
erkaanal) . CommonFolks. Retrieved
19 January 2019.

38. Basham 1951, p. 35.

39. Basham 1951, p. 36.
40. Basham 1951, p. 48.
41. Basham 1951, p. 31.
42. Pia Brancaccio (2014), Cave Architecture
of India, in Encyclopaedia of the History of
Science, Technology, and Medicine in
Non-Western Cultures, Springer, ISBN 978-
94-007-3934-5, pages 1-9

43. "Thus " of the seven caves, two in the

Barabar Hill and three in the Nagarjuni Hill
mention the grant of those caves to the '
Ajivikas ' (Ajivikehi). In three cases the
word Ajivikehi had been deliberately
chiselled off" in Shah, Chimanlal Jaichand
(1932). Jainism in north India, 800 B.C.-
A.D. 526 (https://archive.org/details/dli.cs
l.6533) . Longmans, Green and co.
44. Basham, Arthur Llewellyn (1981). History
and Doctrines of the Ajivikas, a Vanished
Indian Religion (https://books.google.co
m/books?id=BiGQzc5lRGYC&pg=PA157) .
Motilal Banarsidass Publ. p. 157.
ISBN 9788120812048.

45. Aśoka and the Decline of the Mauryas by

Romila Thapar p. 25 (https://books.googl
e.com/books?id=NoAyDwAAQBAJ&pg=P
T25)

46. Entrance to one of the Barabar Hill caves

(http://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/onlineex/
apac/photocoll/e/019pho000001003u00
45a000.html) British Library.

47. Long, Jeffery D (2009). Jainism. New

York: I. B. Tauris. p. 44. ISBN 978-1-84511-
626-2.

48. Jayatilleke 1963, p. 142.

49. DM Riepe (1996), Naturalistic Tradition in
Indian Thought, Motilal Banarsidass,
ISBN 978-8120812932, pages 42-45

50. Dale Riepe (1996), Naturalistic Tradition in

Indian Thought, Motilal Banarsidass,
ISBN 978-8120812932, pages 41-44 with
footnotes

51. Jayatilleke 1963, p. 140-161.

52. Stephen Bullivant and Michael Ruse
(2014), The Oxford Handbook of Atheism,
Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-
0199644650, page 654

53. GR Garg (1992), Encyclopaedia of the

Hindu World, Volume 1, South Asia Books,
ISBN 978-8170223740, page 281

54. Basham 1951, p. 272.

55. Basham 1951, pp. 269–273.
56. Basham 1951, pp. 248–256.
57. Basham 1951, pp. 276–280, 186.
58. Basham 1951, p. 4.
59. Basham 1951, p. 123.
60. Basham 1951, pp. 123–127.
61. Basham 1951, pp. 213–223.
62. Kailash Chand Jain (2010), History of
Jainism: Jainism before and in the age of
Mahāvīra, ISBN 978-8124605486, pages
414-415

63. Basham 1951, pp. 124–127.

64. Basham 1951, pp. 149, 282, 327.
65. John S. Strong (1989). The Legend of
King Aśoka: A Study and Translation of
the Aśokāvadāna (https://books.google.c
om/books?id=Kp9uaQTQ8h8C&pg=PA23
2) . Motilal Banarsidass Publ. p. 232.
ISBN 978-81-208-0616-0. Retrieved
30 October 2012.

66. Beni Madhab Barua (5 May 2010). The

Ajivikas (https://archive.org/details/ajivik
as00barurich) . General Books. pp. 68 (htt
ps://archive.org/details/ajivikas00baruric
h/page/68) –69. ISBN 978-1-152-74433-
2. Retrieved 30 October 2012.
67. Steven L. Danver, ed. (22 December
2010). Popular Controversies in World
History: Investigating History's Intriguing
Questions: Investigating History's
Intriguing Questions (https://books.googl
e.com/books?id=slVobUjdzGMC&pg=RA1
-PA99) . ABC-CLIO. p. 99. ISBN 978-1-
59884-078-0. Retrieved 23 May 2013.

68. Le Phuoc (March 2010). Buddhist

Architecture (https://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=9jb364g4BvoC&pg=PA32) .
Grafikol. p. 32. ISBN 978-0-9844043-0-8.
Retrieved 23 May 2013.
69. Benimadhab Barua (5 May 2010). The
Ajivikas (https://archive.org/details/ajivik
as00barurich) . University of Calcutta.
pp. 68 (https://archive.org/details/ajivikas
00barurich/page/68) –69. ISBN 978-1-
152-74433-2. Retrieved 30 October 2012.

References
Basham, A.L. (1951). History and
Doctrines of the Ājīvikas (https://books.
google.com/books?id=BiGQzc5lRGY
C) (2nd ed.). Delhi, India: Moltilal
Banarsidass (Reprint: 2002). ISBN 81-
208-1204-2. originally published by
Luzac & Company Ltd., London, 1951.
Balcerowicz, Piotr (2015). Early
Asceticism in India: Ājīvikism and
Jainism (https://books.google.com/bo
oks?id=nfOPCgAAQBAJ) (1st ed.).
Routledge. p. 368.
ISBN 9781317538530.
Jayatilleke, K.N. (1963). Early Buddhist
Theory of Knowledge (http://www.ahan
dfulofleaves.org/documents/Early%20
Buddhist%20Theory%20of%20Knowled
ge_Jayatilleke.pdf) (PDF) (1st ed.).
London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd.
p. 524.
Warder, Anthony K. (1998). "Lokayata,
Ajivaka, and Ajnana Philosophy" (http
s://books.google.com/books?id=zw1U
D1Mj9DwC&q=ajnana&pg=PA32) . A
Course in Indian Philosophy (2nd ed.).
 Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers.
pp. 32–44. ISBN 9788120812444.

External links
Doctrines and History of the Ajivikas (h
ttp://philtar.ucsm.ac.uk/encyclopedia/
hindu/ascetic/ajiv.html) , University of
Cumbria, UK
The Ajivikas (https://archive.org/strea
m/ajivikas00barurich#page/n3/mode/
2up) B.M. Barua (1920), University of
Calcutta, West Bengal
A New Account of the Relations
between Mahavira and Gosala (https://
www.jstor.org/stable/289849) , Helen
M. Johnson, The American Journal of
Philology, Vol. 47, No. 1 (1926), pages
74–82
Rock-cut cave halls of Ajivikas (http://
www.bihartourism.gov.in/districts/jeha
nabad/Barabar%20Caves.html)
Government of Bihar, India
Ajivikas in Malhar, South Kosala (http
s://blogs.law.harvard.edu/cqtwo/200
9/06/22/ajivikas-in-malhar-south-kosal
a/) , Inscriptions and artwork related to
Ajivikas in Chhattisgarh, India, by Ed
Murphy (Harvard Law School)
Ajivakas in Manimekhalai (https://archi
ve.org/stream/manimekhalaiinit03117
6mbp#page/n95/mode/2up) , Rao
Bahadur Aiyangar (Translated from
 Tamil), Madras University, pages 54–
57

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