Lurret Shannen G.
Bengua
11- STEM 102
INTRODUCTION TO SOCIAL SCIENCE
SOCIAL SCIENCE
● The field of human knowledge that deals with
all aspects of the group of life of human beings.
So it is subject to change with the changes of
human behavior.
● It attempts to explain social phenomena.
● The subject of Social Science is society itself.
● Social scientists use empirical research
methods to investigate all sorts of interpersonal
and intrapersonal behavior.
● Social science is the study of human society
and social relationships
● Includes fields such as economics, political
science, law, geography and history
● Use scientific methods as well as other
methods
● Students can become lawyers, linguists,
historians, writers, journalists, teachers,
accountants, etc
The Historical Background of the Growth of Social
Sciences
Western Philosophies
● The study of society, culture and politics were
based on social and political philosophy.
● It was highly influenced by theological
reasoning grounded in
● Revelation based on the bible.
● This was largely due to the dominance of
religious worldview and authority during this
time.
The Unprecedented Growth of Science
● The Scientific Revolution refers to historical
changes in thought and belief, to changes in
social and institutional organization.
● Newton's Universal Laws of Motion, Bacon's
reasoning than imagination, Descartes'
separation of physical over spiritual
The Secularization of Learning and Education
● Modern period marked the growing triumph of
scientific method (Western Reasoning) over
religious dogma.
● Reformation led by Martin Luther challenged the
supremacy of the Catholic Church and
democratized the interpretation of the bible.
● The Age of Enlightenment emphasized the
process of rationalization.
● Separation between different social spheres
The Rise of the Universities
● Education paved way to the rise of Social
Sciences
● Secular subjects proliferated universities
Merchants and capitalists invested universities and
institutions because these are the training ground for the
future scientist, technocrats and innovators
● Emile Durkheim Father of Sociology - the need
to secularize education based on the need of the
society
The Dissolution of Feudal Society
● The emerging factory system led to the
dissolution of guilds and workers
● The unprecedented growth of urban centers due
to trade and commerce - (the cause of the study
of society)
● Gesellschaft replaced Gemeinschaft
● Capitalism replaced agricultural economy
economic transaction over personal
relationship)
Trade and Commerce
● Travels of Marco Polo introduced Europeans to
Asia and China
● Columbus begun the exploration of America
● Cross comparison (anthropology) of civilized
life of western to "savage" non-westerner.
● Harriet Martineau provided the model of the
early stage of Western civilization
The Birth of Social Sciences as a Response to the Social
Turmoil
● Sociology is a branch of social science that
deals with the scientific study of human
interactions, social groups and institutions,
whole societies and the human world as such.
● Sociology does not only study the existing
social forms of interactions but also pursues
the investigation of the emergence of stable
structures that sustain such interactions
➔ Auguste Comte (1798-1857)
➔ Coined the term "sociology" but first used social
physics
➔ Introduced positivism as the school of thought
that says science and its method is the only
valid way of knowing things
➔ Harriet Martineau (1802-1876)
➔ Founding mother of "sociology"
➔ Had a deep sociological insights that now called
as ethnography
➔ Influenced by David Ricardo and Adam Smith
.
➔ Karl Marx (1818-1883)
➔ Introduced the materialist analysis of history
which discounts religious and metaphysical
explanation
➔ Advocated the use scientific to uncover the deep
structural
Lurret Shannen G. Bengua
11- STEM 102

➔ Emile Durkheim (1858-1917) Factors of social change

➔ Defended Sociology as separate from ➢ Physical environment
psychology that society possesses a reality of ➢ Population changes
its own, kind or class ➢ Isolation and contact
➔ Society exists prior and after human life. ➢ Social structure
➔ Responsible for sociology in education, religion ➢ Attitudes and values
and deviance ➢ Technological factors

➔ Max Weber (1864-1920) Processes in social change

➔ Pioneer of interpretive sociology ➢ Formulated by William Fielding Ogburn
➔ Stressed the role of rationalization in the ➢ Includes four steps
development of society ● Invention
➔ Bureaucracy efficiency is considered as the ❖ Mental ability
supreme value ❖ Demand
❖ Existence of cultural elements
➔ Anthropology as a scientific discipline from ● Accumulation
social philosophy and travelogues of Western ● Diffusion
travelers ● Adjustment
➔ A science of holistic study of man
BARRIERS OF SOCIAL CHANGE
➔ Franz Boas (1858-1942)
➔ Father of Modern American Anthropology Theories of social change
➔ Rejected historical particularism of Darwin ➢ Democratization
thus, promoted cultural relativism ➢ Industrialization
➔ Rejected biological basis of racism ➢ Globalization
➢ Modernization
➔ Branislow Malinowski (1884-1942)
➔ Contributed to Modern Anthropology Stages of Growth Model
➔ Introduced Participant Observation and ➢ Formulated by Walt Whitman Rostow
Ethnography ➢ States that society's development is composed
of five steps
➔ Alfred Radcliffe-Brown (1881-1955) ● Traditional society
➔ He saw individuals as mere products of social ● Preconditions to take-off
structures. ● Take-off
➔ He introduced the structural-functionalist ● Drive to maturity
perspective ● Age of mass consumption

SOCIAL CHANGE Neoliberal Globalization Theory

HANGING TRENDS IN THE FILIPINO CULTURE
● Youth Volunteerism - Active political and social
engagement
● Social Media- Texting capital, Cybercommunity,
Online Business
● Transnational Families- OFWs, Women in the
Workplace
● LGBT Community- Gender Equality
Basic concepts of social change
Social change
➢ General process of the alteration of the
structure of society
➢ Change in social structure
➢ Any event or action that affects a group of
individuals that have shared values or
characteristics
➢ Acts of advocacy for the cause of changing
society in a normative way
➢ Postulates that globalization is vital to
economic development and social change
➢ Argues that free trade, free market and formal
democracies are prerequisites to a progressive
social change
➢ Encourages all countries to be open for
international investment partnership in order to
achieve growth
Democratic Transition Theory
➢ Postulates the transformation of socioeconomic
order by adopting democratic principles
➢ Three waves formulated by Samuel Huntington:
● First wave - consists of French
Revolution and American Revolution
● Second wave - characterized by post
World war II society; liberation of
colonies
● Third wave - collapse of Fascism and
Marxism
Lurret Shannen G. Bengua
11- STEM 102

Barriers to social change SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE

➢ Group solidarity
➢ Rejection of outsiders Sociological Analysis of Culture
➢ Conformity to norms ➢ Introduction to Sociology and Culture
➢ Sectoral conflict ➢ Sociological Perspectives on Culture
➢ Lack of knowledge and skills
Introduction to Sociology and Culture
THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVE ON CULTURE Definition of Sociology
➢ It is a systematic study of groups and societies
Levels of Culture that people create and how these affect their
1. National/Societal behavior
2. Organizational ➢ It focuses on various social connections,
3. Identity group institutions, organizations, structures and
4. Functional processes
5. Team ➢ It gathers social inputs which are composed of
6. Individual frequent forms and manners: attitude,
viewpoints, consolidated values and norms of
Theoretical Perspectives on Culture High Culture Theory social institutions which form part of social
➢ Postulated by Matthew Arnold array
➢ Culture is the study of perfection
➢ Introduced the Three Immortal Notions Sociological Perspectives on Culture
● Beauty The Functionalist Perspective
● Intelligence ➢ Views society as a stable, orderly system with
● Knowledge interrelated parts that serve specific functions
➢ Polish Anthropologist, Bronislaw Malinowski,
Ordinary/Popular Culture Theory suggested that culture helps people meet their
➢ Postulated by Raymond Williams needs, specifically:
➢ Culture is ordinary as it is part of everyday life ● Biological needs - such as food and
➢ Argued that culture must be viewed in two procreation
aspects: ● Instrumental needs - such as law and
● The known meanings and directions education
which its members are trained to ● Integrative needs - such as religion
● The new observations and meanings and art
which are offered and tested Strengths
➔ It focuses on the needs of society and the fact
that stability is essential for a society’s
High Culture In Modern Time Popular Culture In Modern continued success
Time Weaknesses
➔ It overemphasizes harmony and cooperation
Social dances/ Ballet dance Street dancing (such as ➔ It does not acknowledge all the societal factors
break dance, rap and hip hop)
that contribute to conflict and strife
Fine Arts/ Classical music/ Loose and ragged mode of
Opera clothing The Conflict Perspective
➢ Based upon the assumption that social life is a
Conservative and formal mode Graffiti (or vandalism) continuous struggle in which members of
of clothing powerful groups seek to control scarce
resources
Cultural Diversity ➢ According to Karl Marx, ideas are cultural
➢ High culture - Cultural patterns that distinguish creations; it is therefore possible for society’s
a society’s elite leaders to use ideology, a system of ideas that
Examples: Museum, art gallery, opera, etc guides the way people think and act, in order to
➢ Popular culture - Cultural patterns that are maintain their positions of dominance in a
widespread among society’s population society
Examples: The latest trend Strengths
➢ Subculture - Cultural patterns set apart some ➔ It stresses how cultural values and norms may
segment of society’s population perpetuate social inequalities
Examples: Old car Club, Gangs, and Rave parties Weaknesses
➢ Counterculture - Cultural patterns that strongly ➔ It focuses on societal discord and the
oppose those widely accepted within a society divisiveness of culture
Lurret Shannen G. Bengua
11- STEM 102
The Symbolic Interactionist Perspective
➢ Examines society as the sum of all people’s
interactions; it suggests that people create,
maintain and modify culture as they go about
their day-to-day activities
➢ Argues that our culture’s values and norms do
not automatically determine our behavior;
rather, we reinterpret these values and norms
with each situation we come across
➢ German sociologist, Georg Simmel, suggested
that culture eventually takes on a life of its own
and begins to control people instead
Strengths
➔ It examines how people maintain and change
culture through interaction with others
Weaknesses
➔ It does not provide an outline to analyze how we
shape culture and how it in turn shapes us.
➔ It fails to take into account the larger,
macro-level social structures (e.g. social class)
that are considered in the Functionalist and
Conflict perspectives
MODULE 1
Lesson 1 – Essentials in Studying Culture, Society, and
Politics
Natural Science and Social Science
The study of culture, society, and politics are parts and
parcel of a larger body of knowledge with the integration
of systematic processes and scientific method called,
Social Science. Nisbet (1974) stated that “it is a branch of
discipline or branch of science that deals with human
behavior in its social and cultural aspects” (para.1).
Social Science goes side by side with Natural Science as
both branches of Science. It is a branch of science that
deals with the natural world: its processes, elements, and
composition. However, social science is a branch of
science primarily focuses in human society and social
relationships
Sociology
Individual behavior may differ when he will be included
into a group thus, making this event a remarkable
beginning of one of the pioneer disciplines under Social
Sciences. Sociology is one of the disciplines that tends
to answer the social and political issues in the Modern
Period.
Etymologically, Sociology came from the Latin word
socius – means companion and Greek word logos –
means to study. It is a systematic study of human
relationship along with human society and interaction.
Auguste Comte (1798- 1857) to study these phenomena
and eventually coined the term sociology in 1838. He
focused on the idea of improving the development of the
society and how it operates. He also introduced the term
Positivism through his book entitled Course on Positive
Philosophy (1830– 1842) and System of Positive Polity
(1851-1854).
Karl Marx (1818–1883), a German philosopher and
economist. He made Communist Manifesto (1848) with
Friedrich Engels (1820–1895).
The efforts of Emile Durkheim (1858-1917), His notable
works are The Division of Labor in Society (1893) which
tackles the transformation of a society from a primitive
state into a capitalist, industrial society. He also
published a work titled Suicide (1897).
Max Weber (1864-1920) is another pioneer in the field of
sociology. He emphasized the role of rationalization in the
development of society. He introduced bureaucracy as an
application of scientific way of life
Anthropology
Another pioneering Social Science discipline,
anthropology helps us to understand our holistic identity.
It came from a Latin word anthropos – means man and
Greek word logos – means to study.
Anthropology is a branch of Social Science that deals with
all aspects of human beings including their biological
evolution and social and cultural features that
definitively distinguish humans from other animal
species.
The discipline of anthropology is the fruity of scientific
developments in the Western World through the
groundbreaking work of the Charles Darwin’s “On the
Origin of Species” (1859), it boosted the passion of the all
scientists in different fields.
Bronislaw Malinowski (1884-1942) introduced participant
observation as a method of studying culture.
Franz Boas (1858-1942) His works focused on rejecting the
biological basis of racism or racial discrimination. He
also rejected the Western idea of social evolution thus, he
favored historical particularism. He also advocated
cultural relativism or the complexity of all culture
whether primitive or not.
Culture comes from Latin word cultura, means
cultivation. British anthropologist Edward B. Tylor
(1832-1917) from his book Primitive Culture (1871) first
gave the definition of culture which is widely quoted
“culture is that complex whole which includes knowledge,
beliefs, arts, morals, law, custom, and all aspects of man
as a member of society”. This is the most known
definition of culture and later used as a pattern in
interpreting and analyzing aspects and elements of
culture.
Lurret Shannen G. Bengua
11- STEM 102
Branches of Anthropology
The discipline of anthropology has diverse branches that
studies different levels of expertise within the bounds of
human social, cultural, and physical background.
➢ Cultural Anthropology – The study of people
with their variations and progress in terms of
culture. It also deals with the description and
analysis of the forms and styles of social life of
past and present ages.
➢ Linguistic Anthropology – The study of
language mainly but not exclusively among
humans. It also deals with the study of
communication’s origins, history, and
contemporary variation.
➢ Archaeology – The study of past human cultures
through their material remains. It also the study
of past human culture through the recovery and
analysis of artifacts.
➢ Biological Anthropology – The study of humans
as biological organisms, including their
evolution and contemporary variation.
➢ Applied Anthropology – They analyze social,
political, and economic problems and develop
solutions to respond to present problems.
Political Science
The etymology of Political Science came from two ancient
words. The word political came from Greek word “polis”
means city-state and science comes from Latin word
“scire” which means to know. Political Science is a
discipline in social science concerned primarily in the
state, government, and politics. It focuses widely in
political theory and its practice and the analysis of
political systems and behavior.
Areas of Political Science
In understanding the nature of political science, (Calilung
F., 2014, p.12) noted that it encompasses important aspect
of our society primarily:
1. Political Theory – It deals with the accumulation
of principles identifying with the basis,
structure, conduct, and operations of the state
2. Public Law – It pertains to laws or ordinances
which control the framework of public
governance.
3. Public Administration – It serves as an
academic discipline that studies civil service
and governance.
4. Political Dynamics – It is an aspect of Political
Science which are concerned with the
relationship of different societal forces that
dictate political opportunities and actions.
5. Government and Business – It gives importance
to the regulatory and governmental function to
corporate, or business entities concerning the
national economy.
6. Legislatures and Legislation – The term
legislation is a complex mechanism that can be
extended as a discipline. It tries to explain the
process, composition, and organization of
legislature.
7. International Relations – It includes inquiries
into the nation-states' foreign policy in their
mutual ties on the various forces-geographic,
technological, psychological, and political that
contribute to shaping such policy.
8. International Law – It is a system of agreements
and treaties that entails responsibilities of one
state into another.
9. Comparative Government – It is a discipline
that studies and analyzes the general structure
of governments of all countries. It includes
(executive, legislative, and judicial bodies, their
constitutions, laws, administrative
organizations, foreign policies, political parties
and processes, economic, social, and political
functions, and their cultures and traditions)
On Society
Societies are formed through social interaction of its
member. These members need to understand their roles
and functions to propagate patterned behavior in a
structured society. Thus, society is important for:
➔ human connection and interconnectedness
➔ symbolizing identity of the members
➔ characterizing the boundaries of a territory
➔ representing political independence and
economic interdependence
On Politics
Each society possesses distinctive characteristics of
political structure. Political science deals primarily in the
study of government and state processes. Understanding
deeply a political life suggests that politics can be
reduced to the question of who gets what, where, when,
and how
➔ understand the theories, concepts and
knowledge and principles of governance as well
as public administration and political
dynamics.
➔ manifest the underlying principles of state
policies and laws to be abided and respected by
all
➔ prepares the student for a possible career path
in the legal profession, government service and
other professions with high respect to legal
matters and procedures.
The Goals of Anthropology, Sociology, and Political
Science
Lurret Shannen G. Bengua
11- STEM 102
Lesson 2 – Anthropological and Sociological
Perspectives on Culture and Society
Perspectives on Culture
Culture is a generic term yet very difficult to define. Aside
from the famous definition of Tylor on culture, scholars
and social scientists vary different perspectives on how to
properly define it. Also, because of its wider scope and it
encompasses everything of man, experts from several
fields find it complicated to box culture into one universal
terminology. Spencer-Oatey (2012, p.2) compiled
perspectives from scholars about culture.
Matthew Arnold in his Culture and Anarchy (1867)
mentioned that culture or high culture as opposed to
popular culture (or folkways in an earlier usage) is a
product of a special intellectual or artistic endeavor
humans had invented.
Kroeber & Kluckhohn (1952) defined that culture is
composed of behavior (explicit and implicit) acquired and
transmitted through symbols.
Lastly, Schwartz (1992) stated that culture consists of
experiences that are organized, learned or created by the
individuals of a population, including those images and
images adding up their unique interpretations
transmitted from the past generations up to the future.
Aspects of Culture
Dynamic, Flexible, & Adaptive
Culture changes constantly throughout the time. It varies
on the societal structure and the capacities of its
members to respond.
Shared & Contested
Culture through its elements is enjoyed by a group of
people who live together. It also allows its members to
predict the behavior of other members but it is no
assurance that they will think and act similarly
Learned through socialization or enculturation
Culture is learned with practice through continued
process. It is a lifelong process in which social interaction
plays a vital role.
Patterned social interactions
Culture creates patterned behavior and social
interactions that can be transmitted through
socialization and enculturation.
Integrated and at times unstable
Culture to be always functioning must maintain its
components integrated. Language must have all its ideas
and ideals intact for the successful transmission from
one person to another.
Transmitted through socialization/ enculturation
Socialization is a process of learning and internalizing
rules and patterns of society (Sociological Perspective)
while enculturation is a process of learning and adopting
ways and manners of culture. (Anthropological
Perspective)
Requires language and other forms of communication
Culture will be successfully transmitted if it uses
language and other forms of communication within their
context.
Types of Culture
Material Culture
➔ Food
➔ Clothing and Fashion
➔ Buildings and Properties
➔ Arts and Technology
Non-Material Culture
➔ Ideas and Knowledge
➔ Beliefs and Traditions
➔ Symbols and Language
➔ Behavior
➔ Religion
Elements of Culture
Norms - These are the standard an expected behavior
within a society. It is divided into two: formal norms and
informal norms
Formal Norms
● Mores – they are norms that has a firm control
to moral and ethical behavior
Examples: Pre-marital sex, Homosexual relationships
● Laws – they are ordinance of reason enacted to
protect the people from the bad effects of
outdated mores
Examples: 1987 Constitution, laws promulgated by the
Philippine Government
Informal Mores
● Folkways or Customs – they are behaviors of
less importance yet still influence our behavior.
Examples: Doing “Mano Po” Practicing “Bayanihan”
➢ Symbols - These are anything that carry a
meaning recognized by people who share a
culture.
➢ Values- These are culturally defined standards
by which people assess desirability, goodness,
and beauty and that serve as broad guidelines
for social living.
➢ Beliefs- These are specific statements that
people hold to be true.
➢ Language- It refers to a form of communication
using words either spoken or gestured with the
hands and structured with grammar, often with
a writing system.
➢ Taboos- These are norms that are crucial to a
society’s moral center, involving behaviors that
are always negatively sanctioned
Lurret Shannen G. Bengua
11- STEM 102
Theoretical Perspectives on Society
The term society also makes an impact to several experts
in the field of social science. It made them the
understanding that society is a system of usages and
procedures, of authority and mutual aid, of many
groupings and divisions, of controls of human behavior
and of liberties. Their perspectives paved way modern
scholars to have a better understanding on society. As the
Father of Sociology Auguste Comte coined the term
sociology and said that society is a social organism
possessing a harmony of structure and function, his
followers were motivated to give their own perspective on
this.
Herbert Spencer (1820-1903) described the emerging
societies as societies of survival and primarily based on
the concept of natural law
Their environment. Karl Marx (1818-1883) had a different
take on society. He postulated that societies develop
through class conflicts.
Emile Durkheim (1858-1917) said that society is composed
of harmonious elements such as individuals,
organizations, and social institutions. Dysfunction may
occur if these elements are not in the state of equilibrium.
George Herbert Mead (1863–1931) and other scholars who
conceptualized the concept of symbolic interactionism
take a different point of view on society.
Herbert Blumer (1969) who coined the term symbolic
interactionism studied how humans interact to the
meanings ascribed into a specific object under
circumstances. Erving Goffman (1958) on the other hand
used dramaturgical analysis.
Charles Horton-Cooley (1902) said that society and
individuals are not separated but are simply collective
and distributive aspects of the same thing. He theorized
the concept of the looking glass self
Contemporary scholar such as Morris Ginsberg (1921)
stated that society is a group of individuals bonded by
specific relation or manner of behavior which tend to
differ them from individuals who have a different set of
patterned behavior. Also, Franklin Giddings (1922)
mentioned that society is a unified itself, the
organization, and the totality of formal relations in which
interacting humans are guaranteed together.
Module 2: Ethnocentrism and Cultural Relativism
Ethnocentrism
Ethnocentrism is the view that one’s own cultural
elements such as norms, values, ideology, customs, and
traditions are dominant and superior to others (Brown,
2007).
William Graham Sumner (1906) coined the term
ethnocentrism in his work Folkways that served as the
foundation in social analysis of every culture. According
to his definition, ethnocentrism is a technical name to
see things in which one’s own cultural identity is the
center of everything over which all must be scaled, rated,
and referred to. This perspective led to conceited behavior
and the belief of the superiority of one’s own group with
great prejudice to outsiders. While ethnocentrism takes
universal stage, which propels cohesion and continuity at
all levels of social structure, it provides a rational
explanation for attack made on other culture or
subculture in its extreme forms.
Sumner mentioned some characteristics of an individual
with an ethnocentric view. Ethnocentric persons -
➔ have a dominant cultural element which they
see as superior to other cultures
➔ view rigidly their own socio-economic, political,
and cultural elements
➔ see their cultural elements as normal and
acceptable to all
➔ Consider in-group norms can be universalized
➔ discard out-group ethnicities and cultures
➔ believe that other cultures are inferior and look
at other culture’s elements as inferior and
unacceptable
It can be seen in Philippine society that ethnocentrism is
still emerging. The sense of identity seems to be a
contributing reason for this. It goes deeper in our history
that the mixture of different cultures has created several
identity marks resulting in our diverse cultural heritage,
both tangible and intangible. Also, our indigenous culture
can be categorized as old, non-advanced technology with
no sense of modernity. After the primitive age, we begin to
be the melting pot of Western and Oriental cultures
resulting in a shaky and complex identity attributed to us
today. With this characteristic, it is very difficult to blend
this type of indigenous culture to the fast-changing
society.
Chinof (2016) made some observations on how to address
this growing concern on Filipino ethnocentrism.
1. Identify indigenous culture that truly reflects
Filipino identity.
2. Eliminate foreign influences and stick to
“home-grown" practices.
3. If we want to settle our identity, we must accept
the good part of the foreign influences that
come to us.
Lurret Shannen G. Bengua
11- STEM 102

Cultural Relativism
Culture, just like a story, conveys different meanings and
it can vary among the people who created it. It poses a
challenge to the idea that culture is the same for
everyone. Also, culture like a story has a life of its own.
This notion rejects the concept of cultural universality.

Cultural relativism refers to an objective analysis of one’s

own culture – seeing and understanding of one’s beliefs
and traditions from his/her own point of view. It also
entails not to judge the practices of others based on your
own culture; hence, respecting it in their own cultural
context. For example, you may find eating insects as an
unacceptable and a disgusting practice. However, in
Thailand, as well as parts of Central America like Mexico,
it is considered a delicacy. Instead of being prejudiced,
one can pose an interesting question like “Why do some
cultures eat fried insects?”.

According to James Rachels (2003), the following claims

have all been made by cultural relativists:
1. Each society has a diverse set of moral
conducts.
2. The rightfulness of an action within a society is
primarily determined by the moral standards of
that society.
3. There is no objective standard that can be used
as a basis of comparison among societies.
4. The moral code of our own society is just part of
a larger body of morality and ethical standards.
5. High tolerance among all culture must be
exercised always

However, in his critical analysis, he also posited some

observations and consequences of accepting cultural
relativism
1. It is difficult to determine if the custom of other
societies is morally inferior to others.
2. The decision whether actions are right or wrong
can be done just by consulting the standards of
our society.
3. The idea of moral progress is always
questionable.
4. The objective criticism of one’s own culture is
shallow.
5. There will be no idea of moral progress because
of acceptance of other’s culture.