NMAT Social Science ● Evolution of Man

Hocson ● Mutant
● Mutant- partially evolved; almost there, but not completely
Social Science evolved
● People and how they live inside the society ● Evolution- cycle
● Study- leads us towards research; based on facts alone ● Revolution- deviates from cycle
● Systems in the society- how elements in the society work ● Inuit- Eskimo tribe w narrower nostril 🡪 less air enters 🡪 they
together feel the cold less
● Dr. Flavier: Little doctor to the barrio; your learning must lead to ● Culture- a way of life; leads you to an understanding of the
efficiency persons
✔ Doctors: get into your advocacy: Health is prevention not cure ☺
✔ It takes 22 days to build a habit Scope of Anthropology (Pi—Sunyer, 1978)
✔ No definitions in social science & words are very close to what it 1. The homo sapiens is a biological animal
means (no jargon); cases 2. The homo sapiens transcends his animal heritage by adapting to
Breakdown: an ever-growing variety of natural and self made conditions
1. Psychology- individual 3. Human beings developed language which aided him in his
2. Sociology- individual as a member in his society; how you remarkable evolution
influence other people; relationships 4. Humanity displays various solutions to problems that are diff.
3. Anthropology- looking into their past and trying to understand but in their solution one can find oneness of the human
the future; adaptation condition throughout the ages and the world over

Science Division of Anthropology

1. Basic- Eg: Biology
2. Applied- Eg: Social science
Anthropology & Sociology- youngest of the social sciences; science of
man; overlapping areas where both have similar findings
Anthropology
● Closely affiliated to natural history
● Origin and development of man as a biological and social-cultural
being
● Origin and history of man; development of culture
● Holistic science: emphasizes organic/functional relation of the
diff. parts of society and the diff. aspects of human experiences
● Encompasses a broad spectrum touching most areas of human
endeavor
● Branched into specialized studies and areas covered by other
social sciences using holistic approach
● Studies culture and societies whether primitive, preliterate, or
modern, past and present in its holistic form
● Tries to explain fundamental questions that usually trouble
mankind such as: origin of inequality, racism, sexism, and the
significance of mankind’s animal heritage
● Encompasses the whole study of mankind: past and present
● Ember said: Anthropologists insist on taking many aspects of
human existence both past and present, in all levels of
complexity
Characteristics of Anthropology
● Conclusions should be based on a comparative study of society
all over the world
● Transcends the interests of any particular culture/society-
studies their differences and similarities
● All societies are evaluated on its own right to be different and
unique from the other
Charles Darwin- “Father
Anthropology”
● Ape to Man
● Survival of the Fittest
● Natural Selection
A. Physical Anthropology
● Concerned w humane evolution and human variations
● Deals primarily with the study of man’s physical characteristics as
it evolves from the diff. points in time
● Studies the emergence of man
● Human Paleontology: Reconstructs various info from the
physical and biological sciences to develop theories to explain
changes in the fossil remains of man and evaluate these theories
by comparing the data gathered by different scientist
● Human Genetics: Study of human differences among the
human populations; studies heredity- how it works, how it
changes and how it is modified
● Population Biology: Study of the effects of the environment and
its interaction w the population characteristics
● Epidemiology: Study of the diff. diseases that afflict mankind in
diff. ways
● Primatology: Study of the primates (monkeys and apes) to
understand the origin of man’s social behavior and the beginning
of culture
B. Socio-cultural Anthropology
● Studies the origins and history of human societies and cultures
● Studies societies and culture through time and at a given point of
time
● Studies societies and cultures by looking at the similarities
between diff. cultures and societies and by looking for diff.
between societies and cultures that are alike or similar
Subdivisions:
1. Archeology
a. Systematic and organized study of man’s cultural past
b. Reconstructs the past from material remains (artifacts)
of past civilizations
c. Reconstructs the past by arranging the artifacts
chronologically through the help of the diff. techniques
of dating from the biological and physical sciences
of d. Traces cultural changes in diff. societies and provides
explanations for these changes
2. Ethnology
a. Knowing contemporary societies and cultures
b. To know why people differ in their ways of living
 c. Studies similarities and diff. bet societies and cultures Paleontological evidence of evolution: The fossil record
at diff. point of time and at a given time ● Paleontology- study of extinct animals; study of remains of
2 types of ethnologists ancient organisms that are occasionally preserved in earth layers
i. Ethnographer- concerned in a detailed of diff. ages such remains are known as fossils (skeletons,
descriptive study and explanation of the imprints of bodily structures left in soft material later turned to
many aspects of the customary behavior stone, whole animals found frozen, preserved specimens in tar
and practice of the diff. people he has pits, logs, or amber)
observed ● Fossils- provide diachronic proof (proof through time) of
ii. Ethno historian- studies the changes that common ancestry for common types by placing the solid
occur in a given culture at diff. points in evidence of gradual divergence from the common types before
time; studies written documents, reports, our eyes
accounts, diaries, writings, and government
records to establish sequence of events and Living Primates
changes in the culture of a given people; ● Man and living simians have many traits in common, which
reconstructs history of a people who might provide rational evidence of their common ancestry.
not have left written records ● This doesn’t mean that man, apes, and monkeys have one
3. Anthropological Linguistics common ancestor
a. Interested in knowing the origin, development and ● There is no common ancestor, but many ancestral
structure of the different languages of the world, past predecessors
and present; studies descriptions of a language and
the way the language develops and influences each Period in Earth’s history
other w the passing of time; studies similarities and ● Earth is not uniform, it consists of strata/layers of minerals laid
differences between languages and notes the down by wind, water, or volcanoes
interrelationships between language of the people and ● Undisturbed deposit: the lowest layer is the oldest; top layer is
its influence on the other aspects of culture the most recent
4. Applied Anthropology ● What can disturb deposit? Earthquakes, rivers, etc
a. Sub-area of cultural anthropology ● Geological dating is relative rather than absolute- can say the
b. Utilizes findings of other anthropologists to solve sequence of periods and their relative length, but not the exact
contemporary socio-economic and political problems number of years in any 1 period
c. Tests anthropological theories in clinical setting ● Cosmic time- time elapsed from the beginning of the universe to
d. Refines anthropological theories and research the birth of earth
methods ● Geologic time- starts w the laying down of the 1st sediment and
e. Application of anthropological theories and methods up to the present
are usually made in underdeveloped countries where ● Eras- major blocks of geologic time; come to a close by drastic
planned changes are being implemented changes in the conditions of the earth (revolution)
f. Most study planned changes in the areas of public ● Disturbances- minor changes in earth’s conditions; take place
health, agriculture, and cultural integration of cultural within eras, producing subdivisions called periods & epochs
minorities or migrants
5 Geologic eras and the dominant life forms are:
Relationship of anthropology to other sciences 1. Archeozoic (era of primitive life)- simple unicellular sea
● Linked to biological and social sciences dwelling form
● Cant fully develop its knowledge unless other disciplines provide 2. Proterozoic (era of earlier life)- sponges, diatoms, and other
it w some data, techniques and methods commencing complex forms
● To study human evolution: Anthropologists need a geologist’s 3. Paleozoic (era of ancient life) divided into 6 periods: [CCPODS]
stratigraphic method, the zoologist taxonomy and the chemist’s a. Cambrian
carbon and fluorine dating methods b. Carboniferous
● Other sciences also borrow from the anthropologist’s data, c. Permian
techniques and methods in studying man. d. Ordovician
● Anthropology- integrates the various disciplines of science in the e. Devonian
understanding of man; influences other social sciences in f. Silurian
achieving greater objectivity and relativity of viewpoint in the 4. Mesozoic (era of int. life/ age of reptiles divided into 3 periods:
understanding of man a. Triassic
b. Jurassic
Early History of Man c. Cretaceous
● Alexander Pope said: The proper study of mankind is man 🡪 if 5. Cenozoic (era of recent life/age of mammals) which contains 2
we want to learn about man, we should study man periods:
● Anthropologist: believes that to better study man, one must a. Tertiary/age of mammals with 5 epochs: Miocene,
study his near relatives and his ancestors 🡪 study primates and Eocene, Paleocene, Oligocene, Pliocene [MEPOP]
fossils of man 🡪 learn about pre-human roots of social and b. Quarternary/age of man w 2 epochs: Pleistocene &
physical existence Holocene/recent [PH]
 ✔ Miocene, Pliocene, Pleistocene epochs are important for man’s o Sometimes advantageous
immediate antecedents and Pleistocene geology is crucial for o Its characteristics will become prevalent in the species
the study of man for this is the period in which the hominid ● Mendel (1865)- physical heredity is transmitted by the
finally evolved germ-plasm of reproductive material
✔ Adaptive capabilities of man hastened his evolutionary o Blending inheritance
development o Dominant-recessive inheritance
● Darwin (1882)- Natural selection
3 main methods of dating prehistoric remains/fossils o Environment in which a population lives differentially
1. Relative dating affects inheritable variations
a. To know which form of life came after which o Those w adaptively valuable qualities will be at an
b. Specimen can be arranged in chronological order, but advantage in comparison to those who won’t and the
exact age may not be known formed are more likely to flourish than the latter
c. If fossils may be found in deposits elsewhere in the ● Wallace- same conclusion as Darwin, but later
world, it is not possible to link 1 deposit w another to
determine which is older Fossil men and apes
d. Fluorine, uranium, nitrogen test Oligocene period
2. Absolute method ● Parapithecus & Propliopithecus- most likely not direct
a. Determine exact or approximate age ancestors of man
b. To determine evolutionary sequence of 2 crucial fossils Miocene period
or cultural deposits ● Dryopithecus & Orepithecus- may be ancestors of man
c. Physico chemical dating- uses uranium and thorium Pleistocene Africa
d. Potassium argon (k40)- to determine age of rocks in ● Australopithecine- almost certainly ancestors of modern man;
deposits not the fossil teeth and bones of lower extremities and hips are more
3. Carbon 14 by Libby- used w organic materials like wood, bone, human-like
seeds, etc Edward Lartet (1956)- 1st described the dryopithecine fossil
● Dryopithecus Y-pattern dentition of the molars 🡪 indicates it’s
Other methods to determine age of prehistoric remains closely related to man and modern apes
Biological analysis Paleolithic/upper stone age
1. Pollen analysis or palynology- analyze rel. frequencies of diff. ● Pithecanthropines- 1,100 – 1,650 cc brain capacity; walked
kinds of pollens and useful in reconstructing local climatic upright and use tools and fire
conditions in recent deposits Middle Paleolithic
2. Dendrochronology/tree-ring dating- trees grow faster in wet ● Homo neanderthalensis / Neanderthal man- flat heavy skull
years than in dry years 🡪 shown in annual growth rings and slanting forehead 🡪 homo sapiens
a. Growth rings of comparable thickness belonging to the
trees that green in the same area are compared Best known varieties of early modern man
1. Cro-magnon of France- slightly taller and more ruggedly build
Major mechanism of evolution than contemporary
✔ Mendellian genetics 2. Grimaldi of France- similar in bone structure to Negros of Africa
✔ Darwin’s study of natural selection and adaptation and 3. Bruenn man of Czechoslovakia- shorter and more protruding
cellular reproduction studies jaw than cro-magnon
● All living things begin life as a single cell 4. Chancelade man of France- broad jaw and high cheekbones;
● Higher animals: ovum is fertilized by a sperm 🡪 zygote (fertile Magdalenian culture
cell) 5. Offnet man of Germany- relatively short, round head;
● Gonads- contain ova and sperm (sex cells) Mesolithic culture
o Testicle- thread-like tail
o Ovary- yolk Culture and Society
● Ovum and sperm both contain cell walls to preserve their shape Culture
● Chromosome- each species has a fixed number ranging from ● Sum total of all things we have learned in living together in a
2-200 group of society
o Man: 48 ● Complex whole which includes knowledge, beliefs, art, law,
o Genes- transmit single characteristics morals, customs, and other capabilities acquired by man as a
● Genes member of society (Taylor, E.)
o Control single chemical synthesis in a cell ● All the socially learned behaviors, beliefs, feelings and values the
o Alter just 1 trait of a cell members of a group or society experience (Persell)
o “Cross over” to other chromosomes in the pair in a ● Is an elaborate system of standardized expected ways of feeling
reproductive cell and acting which the members of society generally acknowledge
o Subject to occasional-unpredictable alterations 🡪 and generally follow (Horton and Hunt)
mutation ● Culture refers to the intangible and abstract processes that man
● Mutation does and the intrinsic knowledge and skills learned by him
o Due to cosmic radiation or chemicals
o Most are disadvantageous to survival
 ● Culture is the total way of life shared by members of a society. It
includes material products as well as patterned repetitive ways
of thinking, feeling, and acting (Brinkershoff)
o Includes material products 🡪 material culture
● Focus on the culture, not the place/environment
Characteristics (P. 31)
1. Learned and unlearned
2. All people have varied cultures
3. It is a group product- each member contributes
4. Transmitted from generation to generation- to sustain
5. Adaptive- continuously changing
Development of Culture (P.30 for examples)
● Started long before the advent of Christianity
● Accumulated ways of doing things are the product of human
experience
● Sum total of what individuals have learned about living together
● Culture continues to grow and change w the passing of time
● There are also symbols w several meanings even within the same
particular group
● Symbols change w time and space
● Language- most important symbol essential to human
development
o Consists of: spoken/written symbols combined into a
sys and governed by rules
o Enables us to share with others our ideas, thoughts,
fears, desires, and experiences
o Means by which symbols are created and transmitted
o Animals- have no language 🡪 no culture; what an
animal learns, they cannot teach to their offspring;
animal responses are purely instinctive
● Human experience is possible through the use of material
objects: tools, weapons, clothing, houses, ornaments, and other
tangible objects called artifacts (material culture objects)
● Tangible materials in themselves are insignificant; what is
important is the use to which these material objects of culture
are put to satisfy man’s demands (non-material aspects of
culture- skills, attitudes, knowledge and beliefs)
● Both material and non-material aspects of culture are important,
the latter are more enduring
Culture change
● Always changing
● Relatively primitive society (South African tribes or Aetas in
Zambales)- change is very slow
● Rapid rate of change in highly industrialized areas (Tokyo, NY,
MNL, urban cities) 🡪 varied and complex culture
● Discovery and invention 🡪 changes that occur within the society
● Culture borrowing 🡪 changes originating from the outside
● Culture diffusion- principal source of culture change
o Spread of a culture from 1 grp of people and from 1
culture area to another
o Can occur by direction or by accident
o Borrowed trait is adapted or fitted into the culture of
the group
o In time, the borrowed trait becomes so fused and so
integrated into the culture that its origin becomes lost
Subcultures
● Clusters of patterns which are both related to the general culture
of the society and yet distinguishable from it
● Important: help us understand people, since most individuals live
and function within a network of these subcultures
Cultural Relativism
● Views culture as a result of people’s attempt to do what is good
for them; each group’s solution to the task of survival are as valid
as those of others
● Same behavior can mean diff. things in diff. cultures
● Eg: Americans can do this and it’s acceptable but if a Filipino does
the same behavior, it can be considered insulting
● Cultural relativism- opposite of Ethnocentrism
● Ethnocentrism- some societies believe that their culture is
superior to other cultures; this belief is a myth; belief that one’s
own culture represents the only true and good way and
therefore this own culture is the best; has its value to the grp 🡪
enhances the conviction that one’s belief and behaviors reinforce
the tendency to conform and defend one’s society 🡪 leads to
nationalism and love of country
● All people have a culture of their own since people develop
culture by adaptation to their environment
Sociology- understanding of society
Nature of Sociology
1. Scientific study of social problems like race relations, crime
divorce, etc.
2. Contributes to the understanding of social problems but is
science, not philosophy. A science is a body of tested knowledge;
Philosophy is a set of ideas about how men ought to behave and
treat one another; Social science studies how men do behave
without trying to say what they ought to do
3. The major task of sociology is to study human groups
Sociology and the social science
1. Sociology occupies a midway position between the disciplines
which seek to describe the past and those which are devoted to
analyzing a specific segment of human life which is of current
concern
2. Major task of the sociologist is to study human groups, and by
doing so helps the specialized sciences in their tasks and from
them obtains more data, which may be used in the analysis of
group conduct
Nature and role of group behavior
● Sociology is primarily concerned w studying man and his social
relationships
● 2 of the most important factors in social relationships are the:
o Interaction w others, which takes place within the
group
o Culture which is transmitted by the group
● Group- interactions w others
o Any number or group of persons who share
consciousness (you and I both know) of membership
and interaction
o Not a mere collection of ind but an aggregate of
personalities acting and interacting w one another in
the process of living
o To be a member of the group, one must participate in
the common life and activities of the group
o Group life is indispensable to all humans
 o Individual strength and character come from 2. Suggestion- tendency to react is already present and can be
association w the group directed in any situation almost automatically. May lead to
o All people find personality fulfillment through group imitation (heard suggestion 🡪 amazed 🡪 wants to imitate)
life 3. Sympathy- ability to put oneself in the place of another and to
o You need other people to understand yourself and feel as the latter would if confronted by the same circumstances;
others relate to feelings
4. Identification- close to sympathy. It is the ability not to place
Kind of Group life oneself in the position of another but also actually to feel that he
1. Primary group/ “Face to Face” group- contacts are direct, is that other person
personal and immediate; characterized by a strong feeling of
“we” Culture and behavior
a. Socializes the ind 1. Culture distinguishes man from animals
b. Sources of fundamental social ideas 2. Languages and the transmission of culture
2. Secondary group- these relationships lack the intimacy and that ● Important to take care of our language
“we” feeling so conspicuous within the primary groups, but the ● Don’t allow others to destroy or manipulate our language
face to face contact may be governmental units, political parties, ● Language is the key factor in the human race’s success in
religious organizations, athletic and social clubs and business creating and preserving culture; for without language, the ability
corporations to convey ideas and traditions is impossible.
3. Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft (French word)- somewhat ● With language, persons can perpetuate and pass on knowledge
similar to primary and secondary groups from 1 generation to the next
● Talks about societies 3. Characteristics of culture
● Gemeinschaft- rural/provincial; close relationship; similar to a ● Learned, shared, cumulative, dynamic
primary group where everyone feels like they belong, but it grew 4. Culture and the group
into a gemeinschaft community ● It sets up a series of patterns for meeting the biological demands
● Gesellschaft- relationships in an urban setting; everybody is of the group members for sustenance, shelter, reproduction and
functioning because they have a purpose, and then they don’t protection
really care if they meet or make relationships with people until ● It provides rules that enable the ind members of a group to
there is a function or purpose for it; fast & instant pace; society adjust to their environmental situations
4. Sacred and secular societies ● Through the common culture, the members are provided w
● Sacred channels of interaction which help prevent conflict
o When everybody follows the rule 5. Culture and the individual
o Strong traditional unified type of culture ● Provides the individual w a large number of ready-made
o Most of the population follows a common set of mores adjustments, which one has to learn
and folkways ● Prevents waste of time on trial and error
o Society has a general agreement on what is right and ● Prevents conflict
wrong and produces stable, well integrated types of
personalities HUMAN VARIATION, CONFORMITY AND DEVIANCE AND THE SOCIAL
o Inclined to keep old patterns and is resistant to rapid SELF
change A. Similarities and differences in personality
● Secular 1. Biological- hormones,
o Lacks common cultural basis and has divergent 2. Sexual differentiation- M and F have different cultural
folkways and mores behaviors
o Individuals here have less respect for tradition and a 3. Geographical factors- mountain range, sea
greater willingness to accept change 4. Social and cultural bases- Eg: number of children and use of
birth control pills in urban and rural areas; results in differences
General character of groups: exist when there’s a feeling of strangeness in personality
or enmity between groups; feel suspicious, antagonistic and scornful 5. Occupational differentiation- Eg: A doctor should look clean
towards the members of the out-group, but are predisposed to be and organized
understanding and sympathetic to anyone in the in-group
● In-group B. Conformity and deviance
● Out-group 1. Conformity and social control
2. Deviant behavior; 4 distinct forms of deviance
Groups and personality ● Innovation- (+) Eg: changing a medical practice to a new and
● Group is composed of individuals acting and interacting upon improved one
one another; thus a continuous process of adaptation and ● Ritualism- sometimes (-) someone who is trying not to break the
adjustment takes place rules; Eg: you can’t get your grades from the Registrar
● Personality emerges out of this process of interaction and ● Retreatism- (-) Eg: you don’t want to do what your barkada
adjustment in the group wants
● Rebellion- Eg: you don’t want to do what your barkada wants +
Mechanisms of social interaction weapon or violence
1. Imitation- people want to imitate you
 ✔ There is (+) and (-) deviance, depending on the purpose; Eg: ▪ Authority
Ninoy Aquino ● Operational
3. Socialization o Equivalence and solidarity
● Social self: o Reciprocity/utang na loob
o You have always been told that you are such; o Compassion (awa)
therefore, you finally realize that you are such o Patience, endurance, resignation: Eg: OFWs
o Other people tell you this is you 4. Philippine values: limitations and potentials for development
o Eg: Mom keeps telling her she will be a good bright ● Pagsasarili- self-reliance
doctor, so this is what she becomes ● Pakiusap- Eg: malambing mag-usap
o Eg: You keep telling your mom you need this until she ● Pagdadamayan/bayanihan- support each other
finally gets it for you ● Amor propio and hiya
o Socialization- this is what you call the process ● Utang na loob
● Looking-glass self:
o Like social self, but you yourself tell you that this is you Sociological terms
● Generalized others: 1. Theoretical perspectives
o How others generally perceive other occupations a. Theory- statement that has been proven
o Connotations b. Perspective- idea/opinion; how we look at a society
and its problems and how to understand it; used to
PHILIPPINE CULTURAL VALUES analyze a society
Value- defined as the quality of desirability (or undesirability) believed to c. Statement that has been proven and perspectives that
inhere in an idea, object, or action will talk about a society
A. Social function of value judgment d. Perspective based on a proven fact
1. A criterion to be used in making a choice e. Places seemingly meaningless events in a general
2. The choice itself framework that enables us to determine cause &
3. A definition of the relationship between a specific action and the effect, to explain and to predict
people’s idea of “good” or “bad”
4. Placing a specific action in a continuum of the people’s idea of 2. Functionalist perspectives- looking into function
“good” or “bad” a. Function- looking at government, family, schools
b. Look into the functions of each and every element of
B. The Philippine value system the society
1. Aims goals and aspiration c. Analyze in the basis of function
● Social acceptance of the person for what he is d. Eg: Problem of poverty
o Smooth interpersonal relationship through pakikisama, e. Functionalist perspective: the government is not
use of go-between, tact functioning well enough to help those in poverty; the
o Amor propio- keen sense of self worth education is not functioning enough to teach the
o Hiya- embarrassment, shyness; don’t want to break youth; the family is …
relationships f. Society has a structure- it has interrelated parts:
● Economic security- proud, but don’t need to say we are better family, religion, military, and so on
● Social mobility- This happened (natural disasters) due to faith g. Functionalist theory: society tends to be an
2. Harmony with people: Beliefs and conviction organized, stable, well-integrated sys in which most
● Personalistic world-view members agree on basic values
● Supernaturalistic explanation of events
o Success/failure is undeserved 3. Conflict perspective- looking into conflict
▪ Bahala na a. Analysis is presented using conflict (Eg: poverty)
▪ Suerte b. Struggle between social classes as the “engine” of
▪ Gaba history and the main source of change
▪ Panalangin c. Conflict is a permanent feature
o Good is limited d. Conflict- includes violence, tension, hostility,
o Personalistic cyclic time-orientation competition and disagreement
3. Harmony with nature: Norms and principles e. Eg: Poverty itself is the problem; there are rich and
● Structural poor.
o Segmentation (in-group centerness) f. Argument: Conflict can often have positive results. It
▪ Family and kin bonds groups together as they pursue their own
▪ Age-grading and generation sys interest and the conflict among competing schools
▪ Status and power focuses attention on social problems and leads to
▪ Locality beneficial changes
▪ Language
▪ Religion 4. Inter-actionist perspective
o Ranking a. Interactions, relationships are looked into to analyze
▪ In-group vs. out-group the problem of society
▪ Superordinate-subordinate relationship
 b. Eg: People really want to go to jail or the hospital or
beg during Christmas because these places are treated
well at that time
c. Important of understanding the social world from the
excesses of the individuals who act within it
d. It is concerned primarily w the everyday social
interaction that occurs as we go about our lives
5. Hunting and gathering societies- are people who live in small
privacy groups that rarely exceed 40 members. Groups are
based on Kinship, w most members being related by ancestry or
marriage. Constantly on the move because they must leave an
area as soon as they have exhausted its food resources. Warfare
is extremely uncommon among hunting and gathering people,
partly because they have so little in the way of material goods to
fight about. Simple social structure. Culture cant be elaborate
and diversified.
6. Pastoral societies- much more reliable and productive strategy
than hunting and gathering. Not only is a steady food supply
assured, but also the size of the herds can be increased over
time through careful animal husbandry. An important result is
that societies can grow much larger, perhaps to include
hundreds or even thousands of people. Equally significant, the
greater productivity of pastoralism permits the accumulation of a
surplus of livestock and food. Distinctive social and cultural
opportunities and limitations. Larger population, political and
economic institutions begin to develop & both social structure
and culture become more complex
7. Horticultural societies- essentially gardeners cultivating
demonstrated plants by hand w hoes or digging sticks, although
must periodically move their gardens or villages short distances.
Live in rel. permanent settlements 🡪 can create more elaborate
cultural artifacts than can hunters and gatherers or pastoralists.
Larger population 🡪 both social structure and culture become
more complex
8. Agricultural societies- about 6,000 yrs ago the plow was
invented and the agricultural revolution was under way. Plow
usage improves land productivity, resurfaces nutrients and
returns to the soil what can act as fertilizers. 🡪 inc food output
and substantial supplies produced. Tend to be almost constantly
at war & sometimes engage in systematic empire-building.
Demand an effective military organization, and permanent
armies appear for the 1st time. Need for efficient transpo and
communication 🡪 building of roads and navies & previously
isolated communities are no longer isolated. Far more complex
social structure & culture. Cities appear 🡪 new institutions and
social classes 🡪 political and economic inequality 🡪 diverse
culture
9. Industrial societies- Application of scientific knowledge to the
technology of production. New energy sources are harnessed &
machines built. Family and kinship become less important in the
social structure. Family is no longer a unit of economic
production nor is it needed for education of the young. People
only live w immediate family. Science becomes a new and
important social institution for scientific knowledge. Mass literacy
is required & formal education is compulsory.
10. Post industrialization (globalization era/”Borderless
society”)- members of the World Trade Organization share their
economies wherein the 1st world countries will open their market
to the developing member nations and vice-versa
11. Group- collection of people interacting together in an orderly
way on the basis of shared expectations about each other’s
behavior. As a result of this interaction, members feel a common
sense of “belonging”
12. Primary group- consists of a small no. of people who interact in
direct, intimate and personal ways. The relationship among the
members is emotional depth, and the group tends to endure
over time. Typical primary groups include the family, gang, or a
college per group.
13. Secondary group- consists of a number of people who have few,
if any emotional ties w one another. The members come
together for some specific, practical purpose, such as making a
committee decision or attending a convention.
14. Small group- contains sufficiently few members for the
participants to relate to one another as individuals. Whether a
small group is a primary or secondary depends on the nature of
the relationships among its members.
15. Leadership- a leader is someone who by virtue of certain
personality, the characteristics is consistently able to influence
the behavior of others. Groups always have leaders even if the
leader doesn’t hold formal positions of authority
16. Accommodation- peaceful adjustment between hostile or
competing groups; “antagonistic cooperation”
17. Acculturation- acquisition by a group or ind. of the traits of
another culture
18. Achieved status- status reached by ind. effort
19. Aggregate- a gathering of people w/o conscious interaction
20. Amalgamation- biological interbreeding of 2 or more peoples of
distinct physical appearance until they become 1 stock
21. Anomie- a situation in which a large number of persons lack
integration w stable institutions, leaving rootless and normless
22. Ascribed role- hereditary status without regard to ind. ability or
performance
23. Assimilation- mutual cultural diffusion through which persons
or groups come to share a common culture
24. Attitude- a tendency to feel and act in a certain way
25. Bureaucracy- administration characterized by rules, hierarchy of
office, and centralized authority
26. Caste system- a stratified society in which social position is
entirely determined by %, with no provision for achieved status
27. Clique- a small group of intimates w intense in-group feeling
based on common sentiments and interest
28. Community- a group of people who have a certain sense of
belonging together and who reside in a given geographical area
29. Community organization- term used to describe both the
institutional structure of communities and also process by which
the functions of various aspects of community living are
continuously brought into closer integration w each other
30. Competition- the struggle for possession of rewards which are
in limited supple (money, goods, status, power, love, etc). It may
be formally defined as the process of seeking to obtain a reward
by surpassing all rivals
31. Concept- a term that expresses generalized or common
elements found in a number of specific cases
32. Conflict- seeking to monopolize rewards by elimination or
weakening the competition
33. Conjugal gamily- a married couple and their dependent children
34. Consanguine family- extended clan of blood relatives w their
mates and children
35. Cooperation- joint activity in pursuit of common goals or shared
rewards
36. Culture- the social heritage which the ind. receives from the
groups; a system of behavior shared by members of society
37. Culture complex- a cluster of related traits organized around a
particular activity, embodies certain common values and
procedures and meets certain basic needs of society
38. Cultural pluralism- the toleration of cultural differences within a
common society; allowing diff. groups to retain their distinctive
cultures
39. Cultural relativism- the concept that the function, meaning, and
desirability of a trait depend upon its cultural setting
40. Cultural trait- smallest unit of culture as perceived by a given
observed
41. Deviation- failure to conform to the customary norms of society
42. Discrimination- practice that treats equal people as non-equals;
limiting opportunity or reward according to race, religion, or
ethnic group
43. Ethnic group- a number of people w a common cultural heritage
which sets them apart from others in a variety of social
relationships
44. Ethnocentrism- the tendency of each group to take for granted
the superiority of its own culture
45. Expressive leadership- the kind of leadership necessary to
create harmony and solidarity among the members
46. Exogamy- a requirement that mates be selected outside some
specified group
47. Extended family- the nuclear family + other kin w whom
important relations are maintained. The other kin may or may
not live in the same house.
48. Folkways- customary, normal, habitual behavior characteristic of
the members of the group.
49. Formal organization- large social groups that are deliberately &
rationally designed to achieve specific objectives. They have a
carefully designed structure that coordinates the activities of the
members in the interest of the members & in the interest of the
organization’s goals.
50. Gesellschaft- type of community life in which impersonal,
superficial, and business-like relationships prevail; secondary
group contacts of a transitory type predominate. The large urban
centers are the prime example of a Gesselschaft community
(Tonnies)
51. Hypothesis- tentative, unverified statement of the relationship
of known facts; a reasonable proposition which is worthy of
scientific testing
52. Ideology- a system of ideas which sanctions a set of norms
53. Inductive method- the method of arriving at general principles
from actual observation of the behavior of what is being studied
54. Interaction- a process in which the responses of each party
successively become stimuli for the responses of the other
55. Instrumental leadership- the kind of leadership necessary to
organize the group in pursuit of its goals. It is the kind necessary
to organize the group in pursuit of its goals
56. Matrilocal residence- the condition in which a married couple
live in the family home or locality of the wife
57. Norm- standard behavior.
58. Statistica norm- measure of actual conduct
59. Cultural norm- states the expected behavior of the culture
60. Nuclear family- the same as conjugal family
61. Particularistic- the tendency to govern actions by special
relations to an ind. or group rather than by criteria equally
applicable to all men. Eg: Nepotism
62. Patriarchal family- A consanguine family, usually patrilineal and
patrilocal, in which the elderly man is functional head
63. Patrilocal residence- the condition in which a married couple
live in the family home or locality of the husband
64. Polygamy- plurality of mates
65. Polygyny- form of polygamy in which a husband has many wives
66. Polyandry- form of polygamy in which plural husband share a
wife
67. Primary group- small group in which people come to know one
another intimately as in ind. personalities; as distinct from the
impersonal, formal, utilitarian secondary group
68. Reference groups- group whose norms we respect and
generally adopt
69. Role- behavior of 1 whom holds a certain status
70. Secondary group- a group in which contacts are impersonal,
segmental, and utilitarian, as distinct from a small, intimate, and
highly personal primary group
71. Sect- religious group including only a small proportion of the
population. There is frequently a marked contrast between the
ethical ideal dominant in the total culture
72. Secular society- society w a diversity of folkways and mores. The
term is also used as an adjective describing any group in which
religious influence is minimized
73. Secularization- movement from a sacred to a rationalistic,
utilitarian, and experimental viewpoint
74. Social control- means and processes by which society secures
its members conformity to its norms and values
75. Social distance- degree of closeness to or acceptance of
members of other groups
76. Social inequality- exists when people’s access to social rewards
(such as money, influence, or respect) is determined by their
personal or group characteristics
77. Social mobility- movement from 1 class level to another.
Synonymous w vertical mobility
78. Social processes- respective forms of behavior commonly found
in social life
79. Social stratification- structured inequality of entire categories
of peoples, who have different access to social rewards as a
result of their status in the social hierarchy
80. Socialization- the process by which one internalizes the patterns
of the group so that a distinct self unique to the ind. emerges
81. Society- a group of people who share a common culture
82. Status- the position of an ind. in a group
83. Stereotype- false ideas or belief which regards all members of a
group as having identical traits
84. Sub-culture- a cluster of behavior patterns related to the
general culture of a society yet distinguishable from it. The
behavior patterns of a distinct group within the general society
85. Values- measure of goodness or desirability
Practice test P. 43
1. A
● Stratification- something that deals w classes
● Highly visible 🡪 extreme inequality
2. C
● Learns accepted norms and practices 🡪 Fit to function in the
society
3. C
 ● Rural 🡪 urban
4. A site
● Socialization- learning roles, altitudes, and the corresponding
behavior proper to a society or groups
5. C o
● In a modern society: People are not protected against the
stresses of constant adjustment to new roles
6. B o
7. A o
8. B ▪
9. A ▪
10. C
✔ Words are very near to what it means; cross out other choices 🡪
elimination ☺
✔ Practice your imagination; know the terms but look into how it
impacts the society
Psychology
Introduction
● Galileo Galilee- Earth isn’t the center of the universe
● 1859: Darwin- Natural selection
● 1879: W. Wundt
o Father of Psychology or else no Psych
o Structuralism- what makes the mind?
● Hobbes & Locke- British Empirical School- study mind
● Introspection
o Process of describing observation
o Mind’s sensory experience
● Affect- an individual’s likes and dislikes
o Builds: Emotion
o Basis for higher emotions (love; hate)
● Associations = memory- connect objects w emotions
● 1890: W. James- Functionalism- functions of the mind?
● Original Schools of Thought:
o Wundt (Structuralism)
o James (Functionalism)
● 1900: S. Freud- Father of Psychiatry; Psychoanalysis
o Studied imbalances in mental illness; poor hypnotist
o Cocaine- treatment for mental illness; stimulate CNS
● J. Breuer- symptom relief 🡪 Psychoanalysis/talking-out cure
● J. Charcot- hypnosis for hysteria = convulsion
o Neurosis (disability)
▪ Eg: Blindness but no physical evidence
▪ Eg: Hysterical blindness, paralysis, etc
▪ No anatomical support for the problem
o Freud studied w him
● Anna O.- significant patient of Breuer
o Parentified- take up role of parents in household
o Anxiety- can’t function, fear, cant sleep
o Talking-out cure- associated w opening pandora’s
box
▪ Catharsis- soul pours out
● Freud: Iceberg model of the mind
o You only see the tip
o Conscious mind- what you know: tip of the iceberg
o Unconscious- cause of disorders
▪ Experiences we go through 🡪 trauma
▪ Child- more vulnerable than adult 🡪 more
trauma
▪ Mind buries trauma: transfer
conscious 🡪 unconscious 🡪 forget all
o Repeated trauma of some nature 🡪 buried in same
o Thick barrier between unconscious and conscious 🡪 if
unconscious is releasing, it was so bad
Natural forgetting- everyone represses, but not
everyone is crazy; everyone has a way of release in
everyday life; expressed in diff. ways
Pathology in everyday life- book
Methods of release/expression
Slips of the pen
Slips of the tongue
● Dreaming
o Method of release of repressions
o Barrier between conscious and unconscious 🡪
permeable
o Mind protects itself 🡪 dreams are sanitized
o Components:
▪ Manifest content- sanitized version of
dream
▪ Latent content- real meaning from
repressed content
● Symptom relief:
a. Talking out cure 🡪 catharsis 🡪 free association
i. Free association- insight into repressed
ii. Best cure- primary therapeutic activity
b. Dream analysis- insight into unconscious and latent
content
c. Transference analysis- deep emotional associations
w repressed come out; individual success of therapy
o a, b, c = psychoanalysis/therapy 🡪 entry into
repressed mind
o Counter-transference- doctor responds/has feelings
for the patient; not good 🡪 cut professional ties 🡪 refer
patient to another & no contact for 1 year
● The interpretation of dreams- Freud’s psychoanalysis book
● 1912: Wertheimer, Kaffka, Kohler- gestalt psychology- how the
mind organizes info
● 1913: J. Watson- Behaviorism
Dominant/Contemporary Perspectives
Psychoanalysis/Psychodynamic (Freud)
● Unconscious- the primary explanation for normal or abnormal
● Psychodynamic- main
● Psychoanalysis- subpart
Behaviorism/stimulus-response psychology (Watson & Skinner)
● Stimulus- determines all behavior and responses
● All (object, event, etc) things outside of you
Humanistic/Phenomenological psychology (C. Rogers)
● Western view for growth and self-actualization:
o Self-determination
o Free will/choice
● Phenomenon- shared objective reality; real
● Phenomenology- interpretation of phenomenon; subjective
o Worldview of phenomenology- affects our daily lives
o Self-concept of phenomenology- subjective
▪ Phenomenology of self
▪ Diff. people, diff phenomenology of you
from ● Congruence- similarity; sufficiently realistic self-concept
o Phenomenon agrees w phenomenology of self
 ● Incongruence- gap between phenomenon and phenomenology
o Problems in living 🡪 counselor
● Neurosis- larger gap 🡪 ~ pathological; some reality
● Psychosis- larger gap bet. Reality; no reality
o Eg: Paranoid schizophrenia
✔ Neurosis doesn’t become psychosis; diff. gradation
● Unconditioned positive acceptance
o Eg: parents love 🡪 children grow up to be normal
● Conditions of worth
o Subtly communicated to you that you’re worth less if …
(can be outright too)
o Therapist will give you unconditioned
acceptance
Cognitive Psychology (Structuralism, functionalism, gestalt psychology)
● Psychology after cold war; mind; no brain; all mental
Neurobiological/neuroscience- mind + brain
● NS, genetics, sensory, endocrine
Human Development
● Fixed chronological stages (not age); dependent on the individual
● Development: Maturation & Learning
● Nature- genetics; inherited
● Nurture- environment
● Humans- product of both nature and nurture
3 classical experiments on pre-operational:
1) Clay experiment- 2 same balls of clay; roll 1 🡪 kids say
1 is diff., but it’s the same clay
2) Beaker experiment- pour from 1 short fat beaker to
tall thin beaker; kids say tall has more water
3) Chip experiment- lane of 5 chips is more than a
cluster of 5 chips
✔ Pre-operational time & child
o Representational thinking- can imagine; toys made
from lego = real thing; connects words 🡪 things
o Egocentric thinking- understand world from own
positive POV; Eg: I have a brother, but my brother doesnt have
a brother (me)
o Classifies objects by 1 feature such as color- most
obvious; can only see 1 part; i.e. color only not width,
length, height
3. Concrete operational stage (7-11)
o Logical thinking, learn by pictures and touching
o Classify object by many features
4. Formal operational (7 🡪 adulthood)
o Logical about abstract (religion, etc)
o Tests hypothesis systematically
o Concern: hypothetical, future, ideological issues
o 25% of the population reaches this

Stages of Human Development Moral Development theory- L. Kohlberg

● M puberty: live sperm in urine; wet dream- nocturnal emission ● Moral reasoning- knows consequences of action; can’t do
at REM sleep action- thinks about consequences before doing
● F puberty: menarch 1. Pre-conventional morality
a. Punishment orientation- obey to avoid punishment
2nd week Ovum Prenatal b. Reward orientation- obey for reward
2nd month Embryo 1. Mechanism to ensure the children survive
Birth Fetus 2. Conventional morality
Cut umbilical Partunate Neonatal a. Good-boy/good-girl orientation- obet to get social
nd approval & avoid disapproval
2 week Neonate
nd b. Authority orientation- obey to avoid authority
2 year Infancy/babyhood
o Follow laws even without anyone looking; Eg: Cross at
7th year Early Childhood
pedestrian lanes only even without police
Puberty Late
3. Post-conventional morality
18th year Adolescence
o 10% of the population reach
40th year Early Adulthood
o Follow even without anyone watching
60th year Mid a. Social contract orientation- choose what benefits
Death Senescence/old age majority
b. Ethical principle orientation- follow personally held
Theories of Development ethical rules
Cognitive Development Theory- J. Paget
● Decision and moral decision making; mind- what it can do Psychosocial Development theory- Erik Erikson (from Feud)
1. Sensorimotor state (0-2 yrs) ● How you develop is based on significant people in your life
o High dependence on sensory info; don’t see? It ● Within some stage, people will have some problems
disappears. No existence ● + response: strength of ego = personality
o Object performance (4 mos)- realizes, don’t see- it ● - response: problem of ego; can be resolved as long as in same
still exists, just went away. stage; outside of stage 🡪 therapy
o Differentiate self from env. ● Mother- primary carer
o Self = agent of action 🡪 intentional action ● Mother surrogate- anyone who substitutes mom
o Scientific thinking- starts
o Learning: Cause and effect Stage Psychosocial crisis Significant person
2. Pre-operational stage (3-6 yrs) 1 yo Trust- consistent and there; Mom/surrogate
o Operation- process w fixed set of steps and at end, mistrust
something’s transformed; also know reversal
2 yo Autonomy- independence; Mom and dad
o No understanding/memory of operation
self-doubt
3-5 yo Initiative- own plan & decision; Family ● Subthreshold- Eg: murmur; doesn’t enter the mind
guilt ● Subliminal seduction- advertising w subthreshold
6- puberty Point of comparison: Cognitive, Peers ● Subconscious = subthreshold = subliminal: can’t be
motor, social (friend-making) 🡪 controlled
industry; inferiority ● Unconscious- inaccessible memory; repressed; cant
Industry- competence be retrieved
Adolescence Identity- starts here 🡪 aging Models 2. Modes- normal to shift
Partial resolution of identity ● Active- get info, store, connect w other info
(Career); confusion ● Passive- enter then exit
Early Intimacy- deep binding emotional Partner ✔ Mind is active for 30 minutes 🡪 passive
adulthood ties w person; isolation 3. Altered state of consciousness- when youre conscious and it
Emotional isolation- no ties shifts [SMH]

Mid Generativity- concern for next Family, society, next

● Sleep- you still pick up info, but you’re highly selective
🡪 wake up
adulthood generation; self-absorption generation
● Meditation
Aging years Integrity- completeness of life;
● Hypnosis- control of consciousness 🡪 hypnotist;
despair
tentatively give control
● Influence of psychoactive drug
Fundamental building blocks of the mind
i. Stimulant- something to wake/jolt you; Eg:
Parietal: Somatosensory- taste, feel, touch, temperature, pressure
red horse
Temporal: Primary auditory area
ii. Depressant- painkiller
Occipital: Primary visual area; sensory only
iii. Hallucinogen- religious purpose 🡪 to talk to
✔ Top & bottom and left & right go to opposite brain
gods
sides except: visual and auditory- goes to both sides
● Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep- eyelids move fast;
● Neocortex- highest thinking
people dream
● Association area of neocortex- interpretation of senses

Memory
Perception- interpretation of sensory info
● Retrieval- from memory back to consciousness
● Nernicke’s area- speech and language interpretation; acoustic
code
Short term memory Long term memory
1. Attention: selective attention- mind chooses based on utility
1-59 secs >/= 60 secs
of information
1. Encoding Acoustic code- dominant Semantic code- meaning;
2. Perceptual organization- grouping principles
stage not words
a. Similarity- group 🡪 narrow down things to deal w
2. Storage 7 +/- 2 How to store:
b. Proximity- group together by nearness
stage Rehearsal- repeatedly tell 1. Elaborated meaning- add
c. Closure- bound; Eg: Boyfriend- keep boundaries yourself it 🡪 remember personal experience
d. Common fate- by common direction; Eg: flock of birds Displacement 🡪 forget 2. Organization- personal
e. Good continuity- logical order; Eg: Music- sintunado 3. Context- flowchart
3. Interpretation-
a. Familiar: Recognition- perceptual constancies- part of Why people forget: decay
mind; Eg: clothes are white 🡪 in blackout: you know it’s 1. Disuse
white 2. Time
b. Unfamiliar: Hypothesis- testing process -when it’s gone 🡪 you can’t
✔ Retinal info bypassed by constancy retrieve

✔ Light/brightness, location constancy, color, shape, 3. Retrieval Error free Failure due to:
stage 1. Retrieval cue failure: relax
size [LLCSS]
🡪 return to though
2. Interference
Consciousness- awareness and control of environment and people and
a. Proactive- old stays, no
self; you can’t control the environment 🡪 control your behavior
new
1. Aspects of consciousness
b. Retroactive- lose old, new
a. Non-conscious- will never be conscious; Eg: digestion stays
b. Subconscious- experiences below 50% 🡪 3. Emotional factors
subthreshold
▪ Sensory threshold: Learning- change in behavior due to past experience
1. Lower- none felt Excludes: maturation, fatigue effect, drug effect, disease, disorder; Eg:
2. Upper- feel and then you can’t walking (maturation), weakness (fatigue), neurosis & schizophrenia
feel (disease)
c. Preconscious accessible memory to be retrieved to A. Behavioristic/S-R theory: you learn a behavior due to a stimulus; Focus:
consciousness; Eg: Old teacher’s name S&R
● Only test for lower limits, not upper 🡪 destruction 1. I. Pavlov: Classical/Respondent Conditioning
● Threshold- you feel 50%; middle marker! ● Reflex- genetically passed on recognition of stimulus
 a. Unconditioned stimulus 🡪 unconditioned response 1. Basic motivation- when lost, survive for awhile, but we must
i. Some animals/species just do this; like lock look for it as we die without it; order or priority:
& key; Eg: meat powder 🡪 salivation a. Temperature adjustment- can only survive +/- 2 deg
b. Neutral stimulus C; hypothalamus
o Several pairing of a and b: neutral stimulus 🡪 b. Thirst- hypothalamus; conc. Urine 🡪 high cortical
conditioned stimulus 🡪 conditioned response regulation if too much
US 🡪 UR c. Hunger- hypothalamus- blood sugar 🡪 liver: release
NS 🡪 X glycogen
When you combine US & NS 🡪 after 🡪 NS 🡪 CS 🡪 CR d. Avoidance of pain/tissue damage
e. Need stimulation
Remove connection: f. Sex
US 🡪 UR ● Drive reduction theory- temp adjustment, thirst,
NS 🡪 X always no response hunger
2. B. F. Skinner: Operant/Instrumental Conditioning ● Incentive theory- avoidance of pain/tissue damage,
a. Srope 🡪 Rpull lower freq. need stimulation, sex
b. Slever 🡪 Rpush 🡪 food higher freq. 🡪 2. Human motives
SR food = reinforcer
c. Swindow 🡪 Rpress Lower freq. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
d. Scar 🡪 Rpush Lower freq. ● Partial satisfaction- this for basic needs 🡪 next level
Clues: Cause for behavior change: ● Pre-potency of needs- wont feel the need for it yet until lower is
● Before – Pavlovian partially satisfied
● After – Skinnerian 1. Physiological needs
● Reinforcer- increase freq. of response; rid of it/punishment 🡪 2. Safety needs
normal 3. Belongingness needs
4. Esteem needs
B. Cognitive theories- focus: organism & cognitive processes in response 5. Cognitive needs- need for information
to stimulus 6. Aesthetic needs- order and beauty in world around
1. E. Tolman: Latent Learning Theory; Skinnerian 7. Self-actualization needs (Rogers)- need to be the best you can
● 3 routes: 1 easy, 1 ave., 1 hard be
● Sample 1:
● Group 1: SR Personality theories
● Group 2: none 1. Humanistic/Phenomenology
● Group 3: none 2. Behavioristic-Cognitive/Social learning/Vicarious
● 10 days; 20 trials/day; Result: Group 1 < learning/Modeling (A. Bandura)
Group 2 = Group 3 ● Personality- all your behaviors
● Sample 2: SD 🡪 R 🡨 SR
● Group 1: 220 Trials: SR Model Personality Reinforce
1. Attention 1. External 🡪 internal
● Group 2: none
2. Retention 2. Immediate 🡪 delayed/anticipated
● Group 3: 20 trials: SR
3. Reproduction 3. Direct 🡪 vicarious
● 1=3<2 Social learning; modeling Vicarious learning
● 3 learned w/o reinforcement 🡪 has a map
to the maze Psychoanalytic Theory of Freud
● Close the easiest rout: 3 < 1 < 2 A. Structures of the Personality
● Close easiest and average route: 3 < 2 < 1 1. Id- personality you’re born w 🡪 primordial structure
● This is the result because 1 was never able to make a o Immediate gratification of needs
map o Doesn’t like work, but likes good things 🡪 hedonistic
● Reinforcement- only use to reveal learning; o Remains 1 yo all its life
something at stake 🡪 latent learning- you did learn, o Likes pleasure, wont work for it; pleasure principle
need reinforcement to retrieve o Gives birth to: Ego
2. W. Kohler: Insight Learning Theory 2. Ego- reality principle 🡪 deals w outside world
● Stimulus is always there 🡪 sudden rearrangement of o Id- want; Ego- execute in a realistic context
stimulus in environment 🡪 Insight o As you age:
● Monkey behind bars reaching for apple with different o Id- unconscious realm
lengths of sticks (in increasing length) in front: o Ego- conscious realm; dips into unconscious
● 1st attempt: reach for the apple o Creates superego
● Eventually used the sticks to get to the o Works for Id & superego
apple 3. Superego- conscious and unconscious (Age 3-5 yo)
o Ego ideal- feel good when you do good
Motivation- gives us behavior and sustains it o Conscience- right and wrong
*Aspiration- want; doesn’t sustain it o Striving for perfection
B. Dynamic: Ego Defense Mechanism- protect you from going crazy
 1. Denial- conscious; lying to yourself
2. Repression- did it, then brain erases it 🡪 forget
3. Rationalization
a. Sour-graping- bad mouth
b. Sweet lemonizing: good mouth
4. Reaction formation- you have emotions you cant release;
manifest the opposite of emotion 🡪 O. A. !
5. Projection- self-characteristics you don’t like, blame another
6. Intellectualization- don’t deal w emotion 🡪 use brain
7. Displacement- what you originally desire cant be reached 🡪
substitute- needs to be of same value or superego will get mad
C. Psychosexual Development Theory
● Life force- energy system that forces you to grow; Eg: eating, sex
● Death force- energy that degrades
✔ Where you find pleasure tells you the stage
Age Stage Source/Obj Fixation
0-1 Oral Mother Oral personality
2 Anal Mother Anal personality
3-5 Phallic Parent of opp. Oedipus complex
sex (M)
Electra complex
(F)
6- puberty Latenc Same sex peers
y
Adolescent- Genital Partner
adult

● Oral personality- only the id exists even when youre aging

● Anal stage- pleasure w control of sphincter 🡪 constricted
● Anal personality- fixated, perfectionist, selfish, and enjoys
control
● Phallic stage- penis = source of pleasure
o Hate parent of same sex 🡪 castration anxieties of
childhood: 1 & 2
o Boy: fears father 🡪 Fear of castration 🡪 makes you M
o Girl: “lost penis” 🡪 Penis envy