STUDYIQ.

COM BASICS OF GEOGRAPHY 16

DYNAMO THEORY: GENERATION OF o The tachocline is the transition region of

EARTH’S MAGNETIC FIELD stars of more than 0.3 solar masses,
between the radiative interior and the
• Dynamo theory proposes a mechanism by differentially rotating outer convective
which a celestial body such as Earth or a zone.
star generates a magnetic field. o This causes the region to have a very large
• The theory describes the process through shear as the rotation rate changes very
which a rotating, convecting, and electrically rapidly.
conducting fluid can maintain a magnetic
field over astronomical time scales.
• Dynamo theory suggests that convection in
the outer core, combined with the Coriolis
Effect, gives rise to the self-sustaining
(geodynamo) Earth’s magnetic field.
• The conductive fluid in the geodynamo is
liquid iron in the outer core, and in the solar
dynamo is ionized gas at the tachocline.

Mechanism • Charged metals passing through these fields

go on to create electric currents of their
• Earth’s magnetic field is generated in the
own, and so the cycle continues. This self-
earth’s outer core.
sustaining loop is known as the
• Lower pressure than the inner core means
geodynamo.
the metal in the outer core is fluid.
• The spiral movement of the charged
• The temperature of the outer core ranges
particles caused by the Coriolis force means
from 4400 °C in the outer regions to 6000 °C
that separate magnetic fields created are
near the inner core.
roughly aligned in the same direction, their
• Heat sources include energy released by the combined effect adding up to produce one
compression of the core, energy released at vast magnetic field of the planet.
the inner core boundary as it grows, and
radioactivity of potassium, uranium, and
thorium.
• The differences in temperature, pressure,
and composition within the outer core cause
convection currents in the molten iron of
the outer core as cool, dense matter sinks
while warm, less dense matter rises.
• This flow of liquid iron generates electric
currents, which in turn produce magnetic
fields.
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MAGNETIC POLES • Unlike poles of different magnets attract

each other; like poles repel each other.
• The Geomagnetic poles (dipole poles) are
the intersections of the Earth's surface and
the axis of a bar magnet hypothetically
placed at the centre the Earth.
• Magnetic pole, the region at each end of a
magnet where the external magnetic field is
strongest.
• A bar magnet suspended in Earth’s magnetic
field orients itself in a north-south direction.
• The north-seeking pole of such a magnet, or
any similar pole, is called a north magnetic
pole.
• The south-seeking pole, or any pole similar
to it, is called a south magnetic pole.

GEOMAGNETIC REVERSAL • The reversal is not literally 'periodic' as it is on

the sun, whose magnetic field reverses every
• A geomagnetic reversal is a change in a 11 years.
planet's magnetic field such that the positions • The time between magnetic reversals on the
of magnetic north and magnetic south are earth is sometimes as short as 10,000 years and
interchanged. sometimes as long as 25 million years.
• The Earth's field has alternated between • And the time it takes to reverse could be about
periods of normal polarity, in which the a few hundred or a few thousand years.
predominant direction of the field was the same • The magnetic poles emerge at odd latitudes
as the present direction, and reverse polarity, in throughout the process of the reversal.
which it was the opposite.
• These periods are called chrons.
o A polarity chron, or chron, is the
time interval between polarity
reversals of Earth's magnetic field.
• Reversal occurrences are statistically random.
• There have been 183 reversals over the last 83
million years (on average once every ~450,000
years).
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MAGNETOSPHERE and cosmic rays that would otherwise strip

• The magnetosphere is the region above the
ionosphere that is defined by the extent of
the Earth’s magnetic field in space.
• The magnetosphere is formed by the
interaction of the solar wind with Earth’s
magnetic field.
• It extends several tens of thousands of
kilometers into space, protecting the Earth
from the charged particles of the solar wind
away the upper atmosphere, including the
ozone layer that protects the Earth from
harmful ultraviolet radiation.
• Many cosmic rays are kept out of the Solar
system by the Sun’s magnetosphere called
the heliosphere.
• The boundary between the solar wind and
Earth’s magnetic field is called the
magnetopause.

AURORAS • The charged particles follow magnetic field

lines which are oriented in and out of our
• Aurora is the name given to the luminous planet and its atmosphere near the
glow in the upper atmosphere of the Earth magnetic poles.
which is produced by charged particles • Therefore, aurora mostly is seen to occur at
(solar wind) descending from the planet’s high latitudes.
magnetosphere.
• Positive ions slowly drift westward, and
negative ions drift eastward, giving rise to a
ring current. This current reduces the
magnetic field at the Earth’s surface.
• Some of these particles penetrate the
ionosphere and collide with the atoms
there.
• This results in an excitation of the oxygen
and nitrogen molecular electrons.
• The molecules get back to their original
state by emitting photons of light which are
the aurora.

GEOMAGNETIC STORMS Earth's magnetic field, which

oscillates in a complex manner. All of
• A geomagnetic storm is a major and these phenomena constitute a
temporary disturbance of Earth’s "magnetic storm"
magnetosphere.
• Magnetic storms have two fundamental
origins:
o A coronal mass ejection is a powerful
burst of solar wind emitted by the
Sun on occasion. This solar wind gust
perturbs the outer portion of the
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o On occasion, the Sun's magnetic field
connects directly with the Earth's.
This direct magnetic connection is
not a typical occurrence. When this
occurs, charged particles travelling
Effects of Geomagnetic Storms
along magnetic field lines can easily
enter the magnetosphere, generate
currents, and trigger time-
dependent variations in the
magnetic field.
• Sustained (for many hours) periods of the
high-speed solar wind,
• A southward directed solar wind magnetic
field (opposite the direction of Earth’s field)
at the dayside of the magnetosphere.
• This condition is effective for transferring
energy from the solar wind into Earth’s
magnetosphere.
• Not all solar flares reach Earth, but solar
flares/storms, solar energetic particles
VAN ALLEN RADIATION BELTS
• A Van Allen radiation belt is a zone of
energetic charged particles, most of which
originate from the solar wind, that are
captured by and held around a planet by
that planet's magnetosphere.
• Two such concentric tire-shaped regions.
The inner belt is 1–2 Earth radii out while the
outer belt is at 4–7 Earth radii.
• By trapping the solar wind, the belts deflect
the energetic particles and protect the
atmosphere from destruction.
BASICS OF GEOGRAPHY 19
(SEPs), high-speed solar winds, and coronal
mass ejections (CMEs) that come close can
impact space weather in near-Earth space
and the upper atmosphere.
• The ionosphere gets heated and distorted,
• Long-range radio communication that is
dependent upon sub-ionospheric reflection
can be difficult.
• Ionospheric expansion can increase satellite
drag and make their orbits difficult to
control,
• Disrupt satellite communication systems
• Astronauts and high-altitude pilots would
face high radiation levels.
• Electric power grids would see a high
increase in voltage which may lead to
blackouts.
• The belts endanger satellites, which must
have their sensitive components protected
with adequate shielding if they spend
significant time near that zone.
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 STUDYIQ.COM BASICS OF GEOGRAPHY 1

GEOMORPHIC MOVEMENTS

• Geomorphic: This term is relating to the form of
the landscape and other natural features of the
earth’s surface.
o Geomorphological processes are the
natural processes of erosion,
weathering, and deposition that modify
the surficial materials and landforms on
the earth's surface.
o Exogenous and endogenous forces
exert chemical and physical pressures
on the earth's materials.
• Geomorphic agents: These agents are nothing
but the mobile medium (like running water,
moving ice masses or glaciers, wind, waves,
currents etc.) which removes, transports, and
deposits earth materials.
o All movements on the surface of the
earth and within the earth are caused by
gradients - from high pressure to low
pressure regions, from higher levels to
lower levels, etc.
o The gravitational stresses are as
essential as the other geomorphic
processes.
▪ Gravity is the force that keeps
us in contact with the surface
and is responsible for the
movement of all surface
material on Earth.
o Without gradients and gravity, there
would be no movement and,
consequently, no transportation,
erosion, or deposition.
• Geomorphic processes: These processes are
physical and chemical processes that take place
on the earth’s surface (folding, faulting,
weathering, erosion, etc.) due to endogenic and
exogenic forces.
• Geomorphic movements: large-scale physical
and chemical changes that take place on the
earth’s surface due to geomorphic processes.

EARTH
MOVEMENT

ENDOGENETIC EXOGENETIC

DIASTROPHISM (Slow) SUDDEN WEATHERING ERROSION/DEPOSITIONAL

ICE
EPEIROGEN EARTHQUAKE PHYSICAL
OROGENIC
IC RIVER
UPWARD
TENSION
CHEMICAL SEA
DOWNWARD VOLCANOES
D WIND
COMPRESSION BIOLOGICAL
UNDERGROUND
WATER
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ENDOGENIC GEOMORPHIC MOVEMENTS ▪ Diastrophism refers to

deformation of the earth's
• Endogenic forces are those internal forces that crust.
derive their strength from the earth’s interior ▪ Diastrophic movements are
and play a crucial role in shaping the earth's gradual.
crust. ▪ Diastrophic movements are
o Examples – mountain building forces, further classified into
continent building forces, earthquakes, 1. Epeirogenic movements
volcanism, etc. (continent forming ―
• The endogenic forces are mainly land-building subsidence, upliftment)
forces. 2. Orogenic movements
• The energy emanating from within the earth is (mountain building ―
the main force behind endogenic geomorphic folding, faulting).
processes. • All such internal forces contribute to vertical and
• This energy is mostly generated by radioactivity, horizontal motions and lead to subsidence, land
rotational and tidal friction, and primordial upliftment, volcanism, faulting, folding,
heat from the origin of the earth.
• Endogenetic forces are of 2 types based on
direction
o Horizontal
o Vertical
• Endogenetic Forces are of 2 types based on
intensity
o Sudden forces
▪ Sudden movements like
earthquakes and volcanic
eruptions occur in a very short
period.
o Diastrophic forces earthquakes lead to diverse landforms.

Factors behind Endogenic movements o Convectional currents in the mantle

drive the lithospheric plates (crust and
• Internal Heat: upper mantle) and the movement of the
o The ultimate source of energy behind lithospheric plates (tectonics) is the
endogenic movements is internal heat. cause behind endogenic movements.
o Internal heat is a result of radioactive o The destination of convection currents
decay (which is 50% of earth’s internal determines the nature and location of
heat) and gravitation (leads to pressure the endogenic movements
gradients). • Earth’s Rotation
• Conventional Currents o The earth’s rotation (Coriolis effect)
o Differences in temperature and can impact where convection currents
pressure among various layers of the travel.
earth give rise to density
differences which further give rise to
conventional currents.
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DIASTROPHISM o Epeirogenic processes involving uplift or

• Diastrophism refers to the deformation of the
Earth’s crust due to diastrophic movements
(deforming movements) such as folding,
faulting, warping (bending or twisting of a large
area) and fracturing.
• All processes that move, elevate or build up
portions of the earth’s crust come under
diastrophism. They include:
o Orogenic processes involving mountain
building through severe folding (crust is
severely deformed into folds) and
affecting long and narrow belts of the
earth’s crust;
warping of large parts of the earth’s
crust (simple deformation);
o Earthquakes and volcanism involving
local relatively minor movements;
o Plate tectonics involving horizontal
movements of crustal plates.
• All of the aforementioned processes result in
changes in pressure, volume, and temperature
(PVT) that result in the metamorphism of rocks.
• The most obvious evidence of diastrophic
movement can be seen where sedimentary
rocks have been bent, broken, or tilted.

EPEIROGENIC/CONTINENT FORMING MOVEMENTS

• Epeirogenic or continent forming movements

are radial movements (act along the radius of
the earth).
• Their direction may be towards (subsidence) or
away (uplift) from the centre.
• They cause upheavals or depressions of land
exhibiting undulations (wavy surface) of long
wavelengths and little folding.
• The broad central parts of continents are called
cratons and are subject to Epeirogenic, hence
the name continent forming movements.
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• Epeirogenic movement can be permanent or
transient.
o Transient uplift can occur over a thermal
anomaly due to convecting abnormally
hot mantle, and it disappears when
convection subsides.
UPLIFT
• Raised beaches, elevated wave-cut terraces, sea
caves, and fossiliferous beds above sea level are
evidence of upliftment.
• In India, raised beaches to occur at several
places along the Kathiawar, Nellore, and
Tirunelveli coasts.
• Several places which were on the sea some
centuries ago are now a few miles inland due to
upliftment.
• For example, Coringa near the mouth of the
Godavari, Kaveripattinam in the Kaveri delta,
BASICS OF GEOGRAPHY 4
o When igneous material is injected into
the crust, permanent uplift can occur,
and one characteristic of a mantle
plume is circular or elliptical structural
uplift (without folding) over a large
radius (tens to thousands of kilometres).
and Korkai on the coast of Tirunelveli were all
flourishing seaports about 1,000 to 2,000 years
ago.
SUBSIDENCE
• Submerged forests and valleys, as well as
buildings, are evidence of subsidence.
• In 1819, a part of the Rann of Kachchh was
submerged as a result of an earthquake.
• The presence of peat and lignite beds below the
sea level in Tirunelveli and the Sundarbans is an
example of subsidence.
• The Andamans and Nicobars have been isolated
from the Arakan coast by the submergence of
the intervening land.
• On the east side of Bombay Island, trees have
been found embedded in the mud about 4 m
below the low watermark.
• A similar submerged forest has also been
noticed on the Tirunelveli coast in Tamil Nadu.
• A large part of the Gulf of Mannar and Palk
Strait is very shallow and has been submerged
in geologically recent times.
• A part of the former town of Mahabalipuram
near Chennai is submerged in the sea.
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OROGENIC/THE MOUNTAIN-FORMING MOVEMENTS ▪ Tension produces fissures (since this type of

force acts away from a point in two
• In contrast to Epeirogenic movement, the directions),
Orogenic movement is a more complicated o towards each other (Compressional force/
deformation of the Earth’s crust, associated convergent force)
with crustal thickening (due to the convergence ▪ compression produces folds (because this
type of force acts towards a point from two
of tectonic plates).
• Such plate convergence forms Orogenic belts
that are characterized by “the folding and
faulting of layers of rock, by the intrusion of
magma, and by volcanism.
• Orogenic or mountain-forming movements act
tangentially to the earth's surface, as in plate
tectonics.

• Horizontal forces and movements are also

called tangential forces. Orogenetic or
Horizontal forces work in two ways viz.
o in opposite directions (Tensional force/divergent
forces)

or more directions).
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OROGENIC MOVEMENT
TENSIONAL
• Tension produces fissures.
• This type of force acts away from
a point in two directions.
SUDDEN MOVEMENTS - EARTHQUAKE
• An earthquake is a sudden movement of the
Earth, caused by the abrupt release of strain
that has accumulated over a long time.
o Such surplus accumulated stress in rocks in
the earth’s interior due to folding, faulting or
other physical changes is relieved through
the weak zones over the earth’s surface in
the form of kinetic energy (Seismic waves).
• For hundreds of millions of years, the forces of
plate tectonics have shaped the Earth as the
BASICS OF GEOGRAPHY 6
COMPRESSIONAL
• Compression produces folds.
• This type of force acts towards a
point from two or more directions.
huge plates that form the Earth's surface slowly
move over, under, and past each other.
• Earthquakes may cause a change in contours,
change in river courses, shoreline changes,
glacial surges (as in Alaska), landslides, soil
creeps, mass wasting etc.
• Caused by the
1. Seismic waves
2. Waves that are generated due to a sudden
movement
• A seismograph, or seismometer, is an
instrument used to detect and record
earthquakes.
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SUDDEN MOVEMENTS- VOLCANISM • The convection currents create convergent and

divergent boundaries.
• Volcanism includes the movement of molten
• At the divergent boundary, molten, semi-molten
rock (magma) onto or towards the earth’s
and sometimes gaseous material appears on
surface through narrow volcanic vents or
earth.
fissures.
• The earthquakes here may expose fault zones
• A volcano is formed when the molten magma in
through which magma may escape.
the earth’s interior escapes through the crust by
• At the convergent boundary, the subduction of
vents and fissures in the crust, accompanied by
denser plate creates magma at high pressure,
steam, gases (hydrogen sulphide, sulphur
which will escape to the surface in the form of
dioxide, hydrogen chloride, carbon dioxide etc.)
violent eruptions.
and pyroclastic material (cloud of ash, lava
fragments carried through the air, and vapour).
• Depending on the chemical composition and
viscosity of the lava, a volcano may take various
forms.

Causes of volcanism

• Huge temperature difference due to the

differential amount of Radioactivity.
• Temperature difference gives rise to
Convectional currents.

EXOGENIC GEOMORPHIC MOVEMENTS • Exogenic geomorphic processes vary from location

to location due to variations in:
• The geomorphic processes on the earth’s crust or
its surface brought down by the forces emanating
from above the earth’s surface (wind, water) are
called exogenic geomorphic process.
• Exogenic geomorphic process gives rise to
exogenic geomorphic movements or simply
exogenic movements such as weathering and
erosion.
• The effects of most of the exogenic geomorphic
processes are small and slow but will, in the long
run, affect the rocks severely due to continued
fatigue.
o Thermal gradients caused by seasonal,
latitudinal, land and water distribution on
the earth's surface.
o The type and distribution of vegetation,
which depends primarily on precipitation
and temperature, indirectly affect
exogenic geomorphological processes.
o Depending on the type and structure of
rocks, exogenic geomorphic processes
exert varying degrees of force.
o Variable resistance to various geomorphic
processes is exhibited by a variety of rock
types with distinct structures.
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The force behind Exogenic Movements
• Exogenic processes are a direct result of the
sun’s heat.
• Sun’s energy dictates the weather patterns like
winds, precipitation, etc.
• Sun’s heat along with weather patterns are
responsible for stress-induced in earth materials
BASICS OF GEOGRAPHY 8
giving rise to exogenic movements (weathering
and erosion).
• Earth materials become subjected to molecular
stresses caused due to temperature changes.
• Chemical processes normally lead to loosening
of bonds between grains.
• Stress is produced in a solid by pushing or pulling
(shear stresses ― separating forces) forces.