Synchronous Generator or Alternator: Sikandar Ali Khan

Synchronous Generator
or
Alternator
By
SIKANDAR ALI KHAN
Principle of operation
• Consider a two pole alternator having 6 slots.
• Assume that the stator winding of each phase is
concentrated in two opposite
𝑜
slots which are
space displaced by 120 .
• Assume that when the field current 𝐼𝑓 flows
through the rotor field winding, it establishes a
sinusoidally distributed flux in the air gap.
• If the rotor is now rotated by the prime mover
(which can be a turbine or diesel engine or dc
motor or induction motor), a revolving field is
produced in the air gap.
• This field is called the excitation field, because
it is produced by the excitation current 𝐼𝑓 .
• The rotating flux so produced will
change the flux linkage of the
armature windings aa’, bb’, and
cc’ and will induce voltages in
these stator windings.
• These induced voltages, shown in
Fig. , have the same magnitudes
but are phase-shifted by 120
electrical degrees.
• They are called excitation
voltages 𝐸𝑓 .
• The rotor speed and frequency of the induced voltage are related by
120𝑓
𝑁=
𝑃
𝑃𝑁
𝑓=
120
• The excitation voltage or induced voltage is given as
𝐸𝑓 = 4.44𝑓𝜑𝑇𝑝ℎ
If the effect of distribution factor and pitch factor is also included
𝐸𝑓 = 4.44𝐾𝑤 𝑓𝜑𝑇𝑝ℎ
• Once machine is manufactured, 𝐾𝑤
and 𝑇𝑝ℎ are fixed, therefore
𝐸𝑓 ∝ 𝑓𝜑
𝐸𝑓 ∝ 𝑁𝐼𝑓
• The excitation voltage is
proportional to the machine speed
and excitation flux, and the latter in
turn depends on the excitation
current 𝐼𝑓 .
• The induced voltage at 𝐼𝑓 = 0 is
due to the residual magnetism.
• Initially the voltage rises linearly with
the field current, but as the field current
is further increased, the flux 𝜑𝑓 does
not increase linearly with 𝐼𝑓 because of
saturation of the magnetic circuit, and
therefore 𝐸𝑓 levels off.
• If the machine terminals are kept open,
the excitation voltage is the same as the
terminal voltage and can be measured
using a voltmeter.
• If the stator terminals of the machine
are connected to a 3 phase load, stator
current 𝐼𝑎 will flow.
• The frequency of 𝐼𝑎 will be the same as
that of the excitation voltage 𝐸𝑓 .
Armature Reaction
• The stator currents flowing in the 3 phase windings will also establish a
rotating field in the air gap.
• The net air gap flux is the resultant of the fluxes produced by rotor
current 𝐼𝑓 and stator current 𝐼𝑎 .
• Let 𝜑𝑓 be the flux due to 𝐼𝑓 and 𝜑𝑎 be the flux due to 𝐼𝑎 , known as the
armature reaction flux. Then,
𝜑𝑟 = 𝜑𝑓 + 𝜑𝑎
• It may be noted that the resultant and the component fluxes rotate in
the air gap at the same speed.
Armature Reaction
• The space phasor diagram for these fluxes is
shown in Fig.
• The rotor field mmf 𝐹𝑓 (due to 𝐼𝑓 ) and the flux
𝜑𝑓 produced by the mmf 𝐹𝑓 are represented
along the same line.
• The induced voltage 𝐸𝑓 lags the flux 𝜑𝑓 by 90𝑜 .
• Assume that the stator current 𝐼𝑎 lags 𝐸𝑓 by an
angle θ. The mmf 𝐹𝑎 (due to the current 𝐼𝑎 )
and the flux 𝜑𝑎 produced by the mmf 𝐹𝑎 are
along the same axis as the current 𝐼𝑎 .
• The resultant mmf 𝐹𝑟 is the vector sum of the
mmfs 𝐹𝑓 and 𝐹𝑎 .
• Assuming no saturation, the resultant flux 𝜑𝑟 is
also the vector sum of the fluxes 𝜑𝑓 and 𝜑𝑎 .
Armature Reaction
• Armature flux depends upon the armature current which in turn
depends upon the nature of the load.
• Thus the effect of armature reaction depends upon the magnitude of
current as well as its phase w.r.t. terminal voltage i.e. power factor of the
load.
• Let us consider the effect of armature reaction for each of the following
type of load :
1. Unity power factor load

2. ZPF lagging load
3. ZPF leading power factor load
Armature Reaction
• Consider the machine as shown in axis of phase c

the figure.
• Rotor of the synchronous machine
is rotating at the synchronous speed a
in the clockwise direction. b’ N c’

• Therefore the phase sequence is ωs
ABC. axis of phase a
• Axis of field flux is along N – S
direction (At the instant shown in c S b
the fig. vertically upward).
a’
• Axes of respective phases are as
shown(represents the axes along
which maximum emf is induced). axis of phase b
Armature Reaction
1. Unity power factor load φf
θ
• Distribution of field flux is shown in
the figure. V
• Since the axis of phase
𝑜
a lags the axis of
field flux by 90 , distribution of θ
induced
𝑜
emf is shown to be lagging by
90 . Ia
• Since load is upf in nature, armature θ

current is in phase with the induced
emf.
φa
• If saturation is neglected, armature flux
will have the same waveform as the θ
armature current.
Armature Reaction
1. Unity power factor load φf

φa
• It can be seen that for some
portion of the waveform armature
flux support the field flux and for θ
some portion it opposes the field
flux.
• For unity power factor load,
armature reaction is said to have
the cross – magnetizing effect.
Armature Reaction
φf
2. ZPF lagging load
θ
• Since load is zero power factor V
lagging in nature, armature θ
current is lagging from induced

emf by 90𝑜 .
Ia
θ
• If saturation is neglected,
armature flux will have the same φa
waveform as the armature θ

current.
Armature Reaction
2. ZPF lagging load φf

φa
• It can be seen that armature flux
opposes the field flux. θ
• For ZPF lagging load, armature

reaction is said to have the
demagnetizing effect.
Armature Reaction
φf
3. ZPF leading load
θ
• Since load is zero power factor E
leading in nature, armature θ

current is leading from induced
emf by 90𝑜 . Ia
• If saturation is neglected, θ
armature flux will have the same φa
waveform as the armature θ

current.
Armature Reaction
3. ZPF leading load φf

• It can be seen that armature flux φa
supports the field flux.
θ
• For ZPF leading load, armature
reaction is said to have the
magnetizing effect.
Equivalent Circuit Diagram : Cylindrical Rotor
• As stated earlier, excitation voltage 𝐸𝑓 is different from the terminal
voltage V.
• Both are equal under no – load condition.
• When load is applied, terminal voltage can be less than, equal to or
even greater than the excitation voltage.
• The difference in 𝐸𝑓 and V is due to
1. Distortion of field flux due to armature flux i.e. effect of armature reaction
2. The self – inductance of the armature coils
3. The resistance of the armature coils
• The current 𝐼𝑓 in the field winding produces a flux 𝜑𝑓 in the air gap.
• The current 𝐼𝑎 in the stator winding produces flux 𝜑𝑎 .
• Part of it, 𝜑𝑎𝑙 , known as the leakage flux, links with the stator winding
only and does not link with the field winding.
• A major part, 𝜑𝑎𝑟 , known as the armature reaction flux, is established
in the air gap and links with the field winding.
• The resultant air gap flux 𝜑𝑟 is therefore due to the two component
fluxes, 𝜑𝑓 and 𝜑𝑎𝑟 .
• Each component flux induces a
component voltage in the stator
winding.
• In Fig., 𝐸𝑓 is induced by 𝜑𝑓 , 𝐸𝑎𝑟 by𝜑
𝑎𝑟
𝜑𝑎𝑟 , and the resultant voltage 𝐸𝑟 by
the resultant flux 𝜑𝑟 .
• The excitation voltage 𝐸𝑓 can be
found from the open-circuit curve.
However, the voltage 𝐸𝑎𝑟 , known as
the armature reaction voltage,
depends on 𝜑𝑎𝑟 (and hence on 𝐼𝑎 ).
• From the figure, we can write
𝐸𝑟 = 𝐸𝑎𝑟 + 𝐸𝑓
𝐸𝑓 = −𝐸𝑎𝑟 + 𝐸𝑟
• From the phasor diagram of fig.,
The 𝑜
voltage 𝐸𝑎𝑟 lags 𝜑𝑎𝑟 (or 𝐼𝑎 ) by
90 .
• Therefore,
𝑜
𝐼𝑎 lags the phasor −𝐸 𝑎𝑟
by 90 .
• The voltage −𝐸𝑎𝑟 can thus be
represented as a voltage drop across
a reactance 𝑋𝑎𝑟 due to the current
𝐼𝑎 .
• Hence,
𝐸𝑓 = 𝑗𝐼𝑎 𝑋𝑎𝑟 + 𝐸𝑟
• This reactance 𝑋𝑎𝑟 is known as ↓

the reactance of armature
reaction or the magnetizing
reactance.
• If the stator winding resistance 𝑅𝑎 and
the leakage reactance 𝑋𝑎𝑙 (which
accounts for the leakage flux 𝜑𝑎𝑙 ) are
included, the per-phase equivalent
circuit is represented by the circuit
shown in figure.
• The resistance 𝑅𝑎 is the effective
resistance and is approximately 1.6
times the dc resistance of the stator
winding. ↓
• The effective resistance includes the
effects of the operating temperature
and the skin effect caused by the
alternating current flowing through the
armature winding.
• If the two reactances 𝑋𝑎𝑟 and 𝑋𝑎𝑙 are
combined into one reactance, the
equivalent circuit model reduces to the
form shown in Fig., where
𝑋𝑠 = 𝑋𝑎𝑟 + 𝑋𝑎𝑙
𝑍𝑠 = 𝑅𝑎 + 𝑗𝑋𝑠
Where
𝑋𝑠 → 𝑆𝑦𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑍𝑠 → 𝑆𝑦𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
• The values of these machine parameters
depend on the size of the machine.
↓
• For the fig. phasor relationship between
different quantities can be written as
𝐸𝑓 = 𝑉 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 + 𝑗𝑋𝑠
𝐸𝑓 = 𝑉 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 + 𝑗𝐼𝑎 𝑋𝑠
23
Phasor Diagram : Cylindrical Rotor
Ef Ef Ef jIaXs
jIaXs δ
jIaXs
Ia
φ V IaRa
δ
δ
Ia IaRa V
Ia V IaRa
UPF load Lagging PF load Leading PF load
Power (Torque) – Angle Characteristic :
Cylindrical Rotor
Pconv = τind.ωs = 3EfIacosγ
Pin = τm.ωs Pout = 3VIacosφ
Stray F&W Core Copper

losses losses losses losses
• The source of mechanical power is prime mover (Turbine, diesel

engine or other motors).
• For alternators, speed of the prime mover must remain constant
otherwise frequency of the machine will not remain fixed.
Cylindrical Rotor

• The input mechanical power for the alternator is the shaft power which is
given as
𝑃𝑖𝑛 = 𝜏𝑚 𝜔𝑠
• Power converted from mechanical to electrical form is given as
𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 = 𝜏𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝜔𝑠 = 3𝐸𝑓 𝐼𝑎 cos 𝛾
Cylindrical Rotor

• The real electrical power output for the alternator is given as

𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 3𝑉𝐼𝑎 cos 𝜑
• The reactive electrical power output for the alternator is given as
𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 3𝑉𝐼𝑎 sin 𝜑
Cylindrical Rotor
• If the armature resistance 𝑅𝑎 is Ef
jIaXs
neglected, its phasor diagram
can be drawn as shown in figure. Efsinδ=IaXscosφ
• In the phasor diagram, the γ

δ
vertical segment can be written φ V
both in terms of 𝐸𝑓 and 𝐼𝑎 𝑋𝑠 i.e.
Ia
𝐼𝑎 𝑋𝑆 cos 𝜑 = 𝐸𝑓 sin 𝛿
𝐸𝑓 sin 𝛿
𝐼𝑎 cos 𝜑 =
𝑋𝑆
Cylindrical Rotor
• Power converted from mechanical to electrical form is given as
3𝑉𝐸𝑓 sin 𝛿
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 =
𝑋𝑆
• When output power is represented in this form, it depends on angle 𝛿.
• Angle 𝛿 is known as the internal angle or torque angle of the machine.
• Maximum power that a generator can supply occurs at 𝛿 = 90𝑜 .
3𝑉𝐸𝑓
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡,𝑚 =
𝑋𝑆
Cylindrical Rotor
• 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡,𝑚 i.e. the maximum power that an alternator can produce is called
the static stability limit of the alternator.
• Full load torque angle of 20𝑜 to 30𝑜 is the common value for most
machines.
• If the stator losses are neglected,
𝜏𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝜔𝑠 =
𝑋𝑆
𝜏𝑖𝑛𝑑 =
𝑋𝑆 𝜔𝑠
Two Reaction Theory : Salient Pole Rotor
• Low-speed multipolar synchronous machines have salient poles and non -
uniform air gaps.
• The magnetic reluctance is low along the poles and high between poles.
• Therefore, a particular armature reaction mmf will produce more flux if it is
acting along the pole axis, called the d-axis, and less flux if it is acting along
the interpolar axis, called the q-axis.
• In the cylindrical rotor synchronous machine, the same armature reaction
mmf produces essentially the same flux irrespective of the rotor position
because of the uniform air gap.
• It is therefore obvious that the magnetizing reactance 𝑋𝑎𝑟 , which represents
the armature reaction flux in the cylindrical machine, can no longer be used
to represent armature reaction flux in a salient pole machine.
• Consider Fig, in which the stator current 𝐼𝑎 is shown in phase with the excitation
voltage 𝐸𝑓 .
• The field mmf 𝐹𝑓 and flux 𝜑𝑓 are along the d-axis, and the armature mmf 𝐹𝑎 and
flux 𝜑𝑎𝑟 are along the q-axis.
• Only the fundamental components of the fluxes are considered here.
• In Fig. the stator current 𝐼𝑎 is considered to lag the excitation voltage 𝐸𝑓 by 90𝑜 .
• The armature reaction mmf 𝐹𝑎 and flux 𝜑𝑎𝑟 act along the d-axis, directly opposing
the field mmf 𝐹𝑓 and flux 𝜑𝑓 .
• Note that the same magnitude of the mmf 𝐹𝑎 now acting along the d-axis (axis of
high permeance) produces more armature reaction flux than that when 𝐼𝑎 was in
phase with 𝐸𝑓 and its mmf was acting along the q-axis.
• The magnetizing reactance is more if 𝐼𝑎 lags 𝐸𝑓 than if 𝐼𝑎 is in phase with 𝐸𝑓 .

• Therefore, the magnetizing or armature reaction reactance is not unique in a
salient pole machine, but depends on the power factor of the stator current.
• The armature mmf 𝐹𝑎 (and hence the armature current 𝐼𝑎 ) can be resolved
into two components :
• one acting along the d-axis, 𝐹𝑑 , and the other acting along the q-axis, 𝐹𝑞 .
• The component mmfs 𝐹𝑑 , 𝐹𝑞 or currents 𝐼𝑑 , 𝐼𝑞 produce fluxes
𝜑𝑎𝑑 , 𝜑𝑎𝑞 along the respective axes.
• This concept is illustrated in Fig., where stator current 𝐼𝑎 is considered to lag the
excitation voltage 𝐸𝑓 .
• The d-axis flux 𝜑𝑎𝑑 and the q-axis flux 𝜑𝑎𝑞 are along axes of fixed magnetic
permeance.
• these fluxes can be represented by the following reactances:
𝑋𝑎𝑑 → d – axis armature reactance to account for flux 𝜑𝑎𝑑 produced by the d – axis current 𝐼𝑑
𝑋𝑎𝑞 → q – axis armature reactance to account for flux 𝜑𝑎𝑞 produced by the q – axis current 𝐼𝑞
• If the leakage reactance 𝑋𝑎𝑙 is included to account for the leakage flux
produced by the armature current, then
𝑋𝑑 = −𝑋𝑎𝑑 + 𝑋𝑎𝑙
𝑋𝑞 = 𝑋𝑎𝑞 + 𝑋𝑎𝑙
• The armature leakage reactance 𝑋𝑎𝑙 is assumed to be the same for both d-
axis and q-axis currents, because leakage fluxes are primarily confined to the
stator frame.
• Obviously, 𝑋𝑑 > 𝑋𝑞 , because reluctance along the q-axis is higher than that
along the d-axis, owing to the larger air gap along the q-axis.
• Normally, 𝑋𝑞 is between 0.5 and 0.8 of 𝑋𝑑 .
Equivalent Circuit Diagram : Salient Pole
Rotor
• In the equivalent circuit for a
salient pole synchronous
machine, these d-axis and q-axis
synchronous reactances must be
considered, as shown in Fig.
• The component currents 𝐼𝑑 and
𝐼𝑞 produce component voltage
drops 𝑗𝐼𝑑 𝑋𝑑 and 𝑗𝐼𝑞 𝑋𝑞 .
• The phasor relations are
𝐸𝑓 = 𝑉 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 + 𝑗𝐼𝑑 𝑋𝑑 + 𝑗𝐼𝑞 𝑋𝑞
𝐼𝑎 = 𝐼𝑑 + 𝐼𝑞
Phasor Diagram : Salient Pole Rotor
• The generator phasor diagram is shown in
Fig. for armature current 𝐼𝑎 lagging the
excitation voltage 𝐸𝑓 by an angle ψ (called
the internal power factor angle).
• If the angle between 𝐸𝑓 and 𝐼𝑎 is known,
the component currents 𝐼𝑞 and 𝐼𝑑 ,
respectively, are obtained by resolving the
current 𝐼𝑎 along 𝐸𝑓 (which is along the q-
axis) and perpendicular to it.
• However, normally the angle between Ia
and Vt (which is the terminal power factor
angle φ) is known, and therefore the angle
δ between Vt and Ef must be known to
obtain the component currents Id and Iq.
Phasor Diagram : Salient Pole Rotor
• The phasor diagram is drawn again
in Fig., neglecting the armature
resistance Ra.
• From the phasor diagram shown in
Fig.
ψ=𝜑+𝛿
𝐼𝑑 = 𝐼𝑎 sin ψ = 𝐼𝑎 sin 𝜑 + 𝛿
𝐼𝑞 = 𝐼𝑎 cos ψ = 𝐼𝑎 cos 𝜑 + 𝛿
𝑉 sin 𝛿 = 𝐼𝑞 𝑋𝑞 = 𝐼𝑎 𝑋𝑞 cos 𝜑 + 𝛿
𝐼𝑎 𝑋𝑞 cos 𝜑
tan 𝛿 =
𝑉 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑋𝑞 sin 𝜑
𝐸𝑓 = 𝑉 cos 𝛿 + 𝐼𝑑 𝑋𝑑
Salient Pole Rotor
• To simplify the derivation of expressions for
the power and torque developed by a salient
pole synchronous machine, neglect Ra and the
core losses.
• From the phasor diagram shown in Fig.
𝐸𝑓 − 𝑉 cos 𝛿
𝐼𝑑 =
𝑋𝑑
𝑉 sin 𝛿
𝐼𝑞 =
𝑋𝑞
𝐼𝑎 cos 𝜑 = 𝐼𝑑 cos 90 − 𝛿 + 𝐼𝑞 cos 𝛿

𝐼𝑎 cos 𝜑 = 𝐼𝑑 sin 𝛿 + 𝐼𝑞 cos 𝛿
𝐸𝑓 − 𝑉 cos 𝛿 𝑉 sin 𝛿
𝐼𝑎 cos 𝜑 = sin 𝛿 + cos 𝛿
𝑋𝑑 𝑋𝑞
Salient Pole Rotor
𝐼𝑎 cos 𝜑 = sin 𝛿 + cos 𝛿
𝑋𝑑 𝑋𝑞
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 3𝑉𝐼𝑎 cos 𝜑
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
= 3𝑉 sin 𝛿 + cos 𝛿
𝑋𝑑 𝑋𝑞
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝐸𝑓 sin 𝛿 − 𝑉 cos 𝛿 sin 𝛿 𝑉 sin 𝛿 cos 𝛿
= 3𝑉 +
𝑋𝑑 𝑋𝑞
Salient Pole Rotor
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
3𝑉𝐸𝑓 sin 𝛿 − 3𝑉 2 cos 𝛿 sin 𝛿 3𝑉 2 sin 𝛿 cos 𝛿
= +
𝑋𝑑 𝑋𝑞
3𝑉𝐸𝑓 sin 𝛿 3𝑉 2 cos 𝛿 sin 𝛿 3𝑉 2 sin 𝛿 cos 𝛿

𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = − +
𝑋𝑑 𝑋𝑑 𝑋𝑞
3𝑉𝐸𝑓 sin 𝛿 3𝑉 2 sin 2𝛿 3𝑉 2 sin 2𝛿

𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = − +
𝑋𝑑 2𝑋𝑑 2𝑋𝑞
Reactive Power Expression : Salient Pole
Rotor
3𝑉𝐸𝑓 sin 𝛿 3𝑉 2 1 1
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = + − sin 2𝛿
𝑋𝑑 2 𝑋𝑞 𝑋𝑑
3𝑉𝐸𝑓 sin 𝛿 3𝑉 2 1 1
𝜏𝑖𝑛𝑑 = + − sin 2𝛿
𝜔𝑠 𝑋𝑑 2𝜔𝑠 𝑋𝑞 𝑋𝑑
Similarly,
𝐼𝑎 sin 𝜑 = 𝐼𝑞 cos 90𝑜 + 𝛿 + 𝐼𝑑 cos 𝛿
𝐼𝑎 sin 𝜑 = −𝐼𝑞 sin 𝛿 + 𝐼𝑑 cos 𝛿
𝑉 sin 𝛿 𝐸𝑓 − 𝑉 cos 𝛿
𝐼𝑎 sin 𝜑 = − sin 𝛿 + cos 𝛿
𝑋𝑞 𝑋𝑑
Reactive Power Expression : Salient Pole
Rotor
𝑉𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛿 𝐸𝑓 cos 𝛿 − 𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛿
𝐼𝑎 sin 𝜑 = − +
𝑋𝑞 𝑋𝑑
𝑉𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛿 𝐸𝑓 cos 𝛿 − 𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛿

𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 3𝑉 − +
𝑋𝑞 𝑋𝑑
3𝑉 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛿 3𝑉𝐸𝑓 cos 𝛿 − 3𝑉 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛿

𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 = − +
𝑋𝑞 𝑋𝑑
3𝑉𝐸𝑓 cos 𝛿 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝛿 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝛿

𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 = − 3𝑉 2 +
𝑋𝑑 𝑋𝑞 𝑋𝑑
Salient Pole Rotor
• Consider the real power in a salient pole synchronous machine.
• The first term, say 𝑃𝑓 , represents power due to the excitation voltage 𝐸𝑓
(the same as that obtained for cylindrical-rotor machine).
• The second term, say 𝑃𝑟 , represents the effects of salient poles and
produces the reluctance torque.
• Note that the reluctance torque is independent of field excitation and
vanishes if 𝑋𝑑 = 𝑋𝑞 .
• The power angle characteristic is shown in Fig, in which the excitation
component 𝑃𝑓 and the reluctance component 𝑃𝑟 of the power are also
indicated.
Salient Pole Rotor
• The maximum resultant power is
higher than that of a cylindrical-
rotor machine for the same
excitation voltage, and it occurs at δ
less than 90, making the curve
steeper in the region of positive
slope.
• This makes the machine respond
quickly to changes in shaft torque.
• If the field excitation is reduced to
zero, the machine can still develop
power (or torque) because of the
saliency of the rotor structure.
Determination of Equivalent Circuit
Parameters
• The performance parameters which
are used to compare two alternators are
: voltage regulation and efficiency.
• Calculation of performance parameters

depends upon the knowledge of
equivalent circuit parameters of
alternator.
• Armature resistance 𝑅𝑎 , Synchronous

reactance 𝑋𝑠 (cylindrical rotor), 𝑋𝑑 &
𝑋𝑞 (salient pole rotor) needs to be
calculated.
Parameters : Armature Resistance
A
I
Ra Rf
E DC
V
If
Ra Ra X XX
• To calculate armature resistance, voltmeter – ammeter method is used.
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑉
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = =
𝐴𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐼
A A
I I
Ra Rf Rf
E DC
V E DC
V Ra Ra
If If
Ra Ra X XX X XX
Ra
• For star connection,

𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 2𝑅𝑎
• For delta connection,
2
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑅𝑎 || 𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑎 = 𝑅𝑎
3
A A
I I
Ra Rf Rf
E DC
V E DC
V Ra Ra
If If
Ra Ra X XX X XX
Ra
• For star connection,

1 1 𝑉
𝑅𝑎 = 𝑅𝑒𝑞 =
2 2 𝐼
• For delta connection,
3 3 𝑉
𝑅𝑎 = 𝑅𝑒𝑞 =
2 2 𝐼
• Armature resistance obtained is dc resistance.
• When an AC current flows in the armature, effective resistance of the

armature conductor changes due to skin effect and change in
temperature.
• Therefore, DC resistance is converted into an effective resistance using

the empirical formula
𝑅𝑎,𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 1.6𝑅𝑎
Parameters : Synchronous Reactance
• The phasor relation for the equivalent circuit of cylindrical rotor can be written as
𝐸𝑓 = 𝑉 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 + 𝑗𝑋𝑠 = 𝑉 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑍𝑠
• For a given field current under short-circuit condition 𝐼𝑎 = 𝐼𝑆𝐶 , 𝑉 = 0 ,
𝐸𝑓 𝑉𝑂𝐶
𝑍𝑠 = =
𝐼𝑆𝐶 𝐼𝑆𝐶
𝑉𝑂𝐶
𝑍𝑠 =
𝐼𝑆𝐶 𝐼𝑓 =𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
• Since the magnetization characteristic of the machine is nonlinear, it is
necessary to determine the complete open-circuit characteristic (OCC)
of the machine (𝑉𝑂𝐶 – 𝐼𝑓 relationship).
• It is sufficient to determine one point on the short-circuit characteristic

(SCC) of the machine (𝐼𝑆𝐶 – 𝐼𝑓 relationship) as it is linear in the range of
interest (for ISC up to 150% of the rated current).
Open Circuit Characteristics (OCC) :

• In this test the machine is run by a prime mover at synchronous speed 𝑁𝑠 to generate voltage at the
rated frequency, while the armature terminals are open-circuited with switch S open.
• The readings of the open-circuit line-to-line armature voltage, 𝑉𝑂𝐶 = 3𝐸𝑓 , are taken for various
values of 𝐼𝑓 , the rotor field current.
• It may be noted that 𝐼𝑓 is representative of the net mmf/pole acting on the magnetic circuit of the
machine.
V AGL
OCC
→
If
O
• These data are plotted as OCC which indeed is the magnetization characteristic.
• The OCC exhibits the saturation phenomenon of the iron in machine.
• At low values of 𝐼𝑓 when iron is in the unsaturated state, the OCC is almost linear and the mmf
applied is mainly consumed in establishing flux in the air-gap, the reluctance of the iron path being
almost negligible.
• The straight-line part of the OCC, if extended as shown dotted, is called the air-gap line and would
indeed be the OCC if iron did not get saturated.
Short Circuit Characteristics (SCC) :

• The short-circuit characteristic of the machine is obtained by means of the short -circuit test
conducted as per the schematic circuit diagram with switch S closed.
• While the rotor is run at synchronous speed 𝑁𝑠 , the rotor field is kept unexcited to begin
with.
• The field excitation is then gradually increased till the armature current equals about 150%
of its rated value.
Ia
SCC
→
If
O
Short Circuit Characteristics (SCC) :

• 𝐼𝑆𝐶 the short-circuit current per phase is taken as the average value of the three
ammeter readings.
• It is to be noted that the machine must not be short-circuited under excited
conditions with a near about rated voltage.
• This can give rise to intolerably large transient currents in the machine.
• The synchronous reactance can be obtained from
the OCC and SCC as
𝑉𝑂𝐶 3
𝑍𝑠 =
𝐼𝑆𝐶
𝐼𝑓 =𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑋𝑠 = 𝑍𝑠2 − 𝑅𝑎2
• Short Circuit Ratio (SCR) :
The short-circuit ratio (SCR) is defined as the
ratio of the field current required to produce
rated voltage on open-circuit to the field current
required to produce rated armature current with
the armature terminals shorted while the
machine is mechanically run at synchronous
speed.
Determination of Equivalent Circuit Parameters :
𝑋𝑑 & 𝑋𝑞
• Direct and quadrature-axis reactances of a salient-pole synchronous machine can be estimated by

means of a test known as the slip test.
• The machine armature is connected to a 3-phase supply whose voltage is much less than the rated
voltage of the machine, while the rotor is run at speed close to synchronous with the field winding
left open circuited (unexcited).
• Since the excitation emf is zero, heavy currents would be drawn by the armature if connected to the
rated voltage supply.
• The currents drawn by the armature set up an mmf wave rotating at synchronous speed.
𝑋𝑑 & 𝑋𝑞
• Since the rotor is being run at a speed close to synchronous, the stator mmf
moves slowly past the field poles at slip speed 𝑁𝑠 − 𝑁𝑟 .
• When the stator mmf is aligned with the d-axis (field poles), flux 𝜑𝑑 / pole is
set up so that effective reactance offered by the machine is 𝑋𝑑 .
• Similarly when the stator mmf aligns with the q-axis, the flux set up is 𝜑𝑞 /pole
and the machine reactance is 𝑋𝑞 .
𝑋𝑑 & 𝑋𝑞
• The current drawn by the armature
therefore varies cyclically at twice the slip
frequency as shown by the current
waveform.
• The rms current is minimum when
machine reactance is 𝑋𝑑 and is maximum
when it is 𝑋𝑞 .
• Because of cyclic current variations and
consequent voltage drop in the impedance
of supply lines (behind the mains), the
voltage at machine terminals also varies
cyclically and has a minimum value at
maximum current and maximum value at
minimum current as shown by the voltage
waveform).
𝑋𝑑 & 𝑋𝑞
• The machine reactances can be
found as
𝑉𝐿 𝑎𝑡 𝐼𝑎,𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑋𝑑 =
3𝐼𝑎,𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑉𝐿 𝑎𝑡 𝐼𝑎,𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑋𝑞 =
3𝐼𝑎,𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑋𝑑 & 𝑋𝑞
• Observation of the voltage induced in the field
during the slip test is helpful in location of
maxima/minima on current and voltage wave
shapes.
• As the flux set up by armature currents moves

past the rotor field, the flux linkage of the field
vary and an emf of twice the slip frequency is
induced in it.
• When the rotor field is aligned with the armature

mmf, its flux linkages are maximum while the
rate of change of flux linkage is zero, i.e. the
voltage across the open field goes through zero at
this instant which identifies 𝑋𝑑 of the machine.
𝑋𝑑 & 𝑋𝑞
• It similarly follows that 𝑋𝑞 is identified
with the voltage maximum in the field.
• Since current and voltage meters would
oscillate twice the slip frequency, the slip
must be kept very small so that dynamics
of the meters do not introduce errors in
reading maximum/ minimum values.
Greater accuracy is achieved by using a
recording oscillogram.
SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR
OPERATING ALONE
Assumptions :
1. Armature resistance is neglected

2. Speed of the prime mover is assumed to be constant
3. Rotor flux is assumed to be constant
OPERATING ALONE
• An increase in the load is an
increase in the real and/or reactive
power drawn from the generator.
• Such a load increase increases the
load current drawn from the 𝐸𝑓
generator. 𝑗𝐼𝑎 𝑋𝑠
δ
• Because the field resistor has not φ
been changed, the field current is V
constant, and therefore the flux 𝜑 is 𝐼𝑎
constant.
• Since the prime mover also keeps a
constant speed 𝜔, the magnitude of
the excitation voltage 𝐸𝑓 = 𝐾𝜑𝜔 is
constant.
OPERATING ALONE
• Consider the lagging pf load with
armature current 𝐼𝑎 lagging the
terminal voltage V by the angle 𝜑. 𝐸𝑓
𝐸𝑓
• If more load is added at the same
𝑗𝐼𝑎 ′𝑋𝑠 𝑗𝐼𝑎 𝑋𝑠
power factor, then 𝐼𝑎 increases δ
but remains at the same angle 𝜑 φ V’ V
with respect to V as before. 𝐼𝑎
𝐼𝑎 ’
• Therefore, the armature reaction
voltage 𝑗𝐼𝑎 𝑋𝑠 is larger than before
but at the same angle.
OPERATING ALONE
• Phasor relation can be written for the phasor
diagram
𝐸𝑓 = 𝑉 + 𝑗𝐼𝑎 𝑋𝑠 𝐸𝑓
𝐸𝑓
• 𝑗𝐼𝑎 𝑋𝑠 must stretch between V at an angle of 0𝑜 𝑗𝐼𝑎 ′𝑋𝑠
and 𝐸𝑓 which is constrained to be of the same 𝑗𝐼𝑎 𝑋𝑠
δ
magnitude as before the load increase. φ V’ V
• If these constraints are plotted on a phasor
diagram, there is one and only one point at 𝐼𝑎
which the armature reaction voltage can be 𝐼𝑎 ’
parallel to its original position while increasing
in size.
• If the constraints are observed, then it is seen
that as the load increases, the voltage V
decreases rather sharply.
OPERATING ALONE
• Consider the unity pf load with
armature current 𝐼𝑎 in phase with
the terminal voltage V.
𝐸𝑓
• With the same constraints as δ

before, it can be seen that this 𝐼𝑎 V

time terminal voltage V decreases
only slightly
OPERATING ALONE
• Consider the unity pf load with
armature current 𝐼𝑎 in phase with
𝐸𝑓
the terminal voltage V.
𝐸𝑓
• With the same constraints as δ

before, it can be seen that this 𝐼𝑎 𝐼𝑎 ’ V’ V

time terminal voltage V decreases
only slightly
OPERATING ALONE
• Finally, let the generator be
loaded with leading-power-factor
loads.
• If new loads are added at the
same power factor this time, the
armature reaction voltage lies 𝐼𝑎
𝐸𝑓
outside its previous value, and V’ δ 𝑗𝐼𝑎 𝑋𝑠
actually rises. V
• In this last case, an increase in the

load in the generator produced
an increase in the terminal
voltage.
OPERATING ALONE
• Finally, let the generator be
loaded with leading-power-factor
loads.
• If new loads are added at the
same power factor this time, the 𝐼𝑎 ’ 𝐸𝑓
armature reaction voltage lies 𝐼𝑎
𝑗𝐼𝑎 ′𝑋𝑠
𝐸𝑓
outside its previous value, and V’ δ 𝑗𝐼𝑎 𝑋𝑠
actually rises. V V’
• In this last case, an increase in the

load in the generator produced
an increase in the terminal
voltage.
Voltage Regulation
• A convenient way to compare the voltage behavior of two generators is by their
voltage regulation.
• The voltage regulation (VR) of a generator is defined by the equation
𝑉𝑛𝑙 − 𝑉𝑓𝑙
𝑉𝑅 = × 100%
𝑉𝑓𝑙
where
𝑉𝑛𝑙 → No – load voltage of the generator
𝑉𝑓𝑙 → Full – load voltage of the generator
• Under no – load condition, 𝑉𝑛𝑙 = 𝐸𝑓 and under rated condition 𝑉𝑓𝑙 = 𝑉
𝐸𝑓 − 𝑉
𝑉𝑅 = × 100%
𝑉
Voltage Regulation
• The following methods are normally used to calculate voltage regulation
of an alternator :
1. EMF Method
2. MMF Method
3. Zero Power Factor Method
4. New A. S. A. (American Standard Association) Method

Voltage Regulation
1. EMF Method
• This method can only be applied to cylindrical rotor construction.
• The iron part of the machine is assumed to have a constant permeability i.e. saturation is neglected.
• In this method, the mmf is represented by the corresponding emf i.e. 𝐹𝑓 is represented by 𝐸𝑓 , 𝐹𝑎𝑟 is
represented by 𝐸𝑎𝑟 and 𝐹𝑟 is represented by 𝐸𝑟 .
• When all the quantities are represented in terms of emf or voltage drops, the phasor relation can be
written as
Voltage Regulation
• If the terminal voltage and machine parameters are known, excitation
voltage can be calculated for any load current.
• Once both excitation voltage and terminal voltage are known, voltage
regulation can be calculated using
𝐸𝑓 − 𝑉
𝑉𝑅 = × 100%
𝑉
• For low values of field current or for low values of flux density, the
synchronous impedance is large and as the saturation sets in, 𝑍𝑠 starts
decreasing.
Voltage Regulation
• During the short-circuit test, 𝐹𝑎 is almost opposite to 𝐹𝑓 —consequently the
resultant m.m.f. 𝐹𝑟 , responsible for the resultant air-gap flux density, is very
small.
• This results in low value of flux density which is much less than the flux
density under actual working conditions—consequently an unsaturated value
of 𝑍𝑠 is obtained.
• As unsaturated value of 𝑍𝑠 is more than the saturated value, voltage
regulation computed by emf method is much higher than the actual value.
• It is because of this reason that the emf method is called a pessimistic
method.
• This procedure, however, tells us that the voltage regulation would always be
less than that computed by this method.
Voltage Regulation
2. MMF Method
• In the emf method, all the mmfs were transformed into the
corresponding emfs.
• In the mmf method reverse procedure is adopted.
• All the assumptions taken for emf method are retained here also.
• The phasor relation can be written as
Voltage Regulation
𝐸𝑓 = 𝑉 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 + 𝑗𝐼𝑎 𝑋𝑎𝑟 + 𝑗𝐼𝑎 𝑋𝑙
𝐸𝑓 = 𝐸𝑟1 + 𝑗𝐼𝑎 𝑋𝑎𝑟 + 𝑗𝐼𝑎 𝑋𝑙

𝐹𝑓 𝐹𝑎𝑟 + 𝐹𝑙
𝐸𝑓
• In mmf method, excitation voltage is 𝐹𝑟1 𝑗𝐼𝑎 𝑋𝑙
represented by mmf 𝐹𝑓 , armature
reaction drop is represented by mmf V
𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎
𝑗𝐼𝑎 𝑋𝑎𝑟
𝐹𝑎𝑟 , leakage reactance drop is
represented by 𝐹𝑙 and the remaining 𝐼𝑎 𝐸𝑟1
portion i.e. the combination of terminal
voltage V and armature resistance drop
are represented by mmf 𝐹𝑟1 .
Voltage Regulation
• Phasor relation in terms of emf can now
be written in terms of mmfs as follows
𝐹𝑓 = 𝐹𝑟1 + 𝐹𝑎𝑟 + 𝐹𝑙
𝐹𝑓 𝐹𝑎𝑟 + 𝐹𝑙
𝐸𝑓
• 𝐹𝑟1 , 𝐹𝑎𝑟 and 𝐹𝑙 are the mmf compnents 𝐹𝑟1 𝑗𝐼𝑎 𝑋𝑙
produced due to armature current,
hence they are compensated by the field
current. V 𝑗𝐼𝑎 𝑋𝑎𝑟
𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎
𝐸𝑟1
• Each of these mmfs can also be 𝐼𝑎
represented by a component field
current.
Voltage Regulation
• Steps for obtaining voltage
regulation by MMF method : 𝐼𝑎 𝑉
𝑆𝐶𝐶
1. Plot O.C.C. and S.C.C. 𝐸𝑓 𝑂𝐶𝐶
𝐼𝑎,𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐸𝑟1
2. Find 𝐸𝑟1 = 𝑉 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 and

obtain the corresponding
value of 𝐼𝑓,𝑟1 from O.C.C.
𝐼𝑓 𝑎𝑟+𝑙
3. Find 𝐼𝑓 𝑎𝑟+𝑙 from S.C.C.
𝐼𝑓 𝐼𝑓
4. Calculate 𝐼𝑓 = 𝐼𝑓,𝑟1 + 𝑂 𝐼𝑓 𝑎𝑟+𝑙 𝑂 𝐼𝑓,𝑟1 𝐼𝑓
𝐼𝑓 𝑎𝑟+𝑙 .
Voltage Regulation
5. Field current 𝐼𝑓 can also be 𝐹𝑓 𝐹𝑎𝑟 + 𝐹𝑙
𝐸𝑓
obtained from Fig, where field 𝐹𝑟1 𝑗𝐼𝑎 𝑋𝑙
current components are drawn by
taking 𝐼𝑓,𝑟1 horizontal. V 𝑗𝐼𝑎 𝑋𝑎𝑟
𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎
𝛼
𝐼𝑎 𝐸𝑟1
6. Take AB = 𝐼𝑓,𝑟1 . Now draw BC =
𝐼𝑓 𝑎𝑟+𝑙 at an angle of (90 + 𝛼)
with respect to AB. Then AC 𝐼𝑓 C
gives the required value of field 𝐼𝑓 𝑎𝑟+𝑙
current 𝐼𝑓 .
90𝑜 + 𝛼
2 2 B
𝐼𝑓 = 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐵𝐶 sin 𝛼 + 𝐵𝐶 cos 𝛼 A 𝐼𝑓,𝑟1
Voltage Regulation
7. Corresponding to field current
𝑉
𝐼𝑓 , obtain the excitation voltage
𝐸𝑓 from OCC. 𝐸𝑓 𝑂𝐶𝐶
𝐸𝑟1
8. Once both excitation voltage
and terminal voltage are
known, voltage regulation can
be calculated using 𝐼𝑓 𝑎𝑟+𝑙
𝐸𝑓 − 𝑉 𝐼𝑓
𝑉𝑅 = × 100% 𝑂 𝐼𝑓,𝑟1 𝐼𝑓
𝑉
Voltage Regulation
3. Zero Power Factor Method
• This method is also called general method, Potier reactance (or

triangle) method.
• For this method, zero power factor characteristic (ZPFC) is also
required along with OCC for determination of voltage regulation.
• ZPFC is obtained when a purely reactive load is connected to the
alternator.
• ZPF inductive load is used because for ZPF capacitive load alternator
will go into saturation for very small values of field current.
Voltage Regulation
• Determination of ZPFC :
𝑉
1. The synchronous machine is run at rated
synchronous speed by the prime-mover. 𝑂𝐶𝐶
2. A purely inductive load is connected
across the armature terminals and field 𝑍𝑃𝐹𝐶
current is increased till full load armature
current is flowing.
3. The load is varied in steps and the field
current at each step is adjusted to
maintain full-load armature current. The
plot of armature terminal voltage and field
current recorded at each step, gives the
zero-power-factor characteristic at full-
load armature current. 𝐼𝑓
𝑂 𝐹′
Voltage Regulation
• We know the phasor relation for
cylindrical rotor
𝐹𝑓 𝐹
𝑎
𝐸𝑓 = 𝑉 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 + 𝑗𝐼𝑎 𝑋𝑎𝑟 + 𝑗𝐼𝑎 𝑋𝑙
𝐹𝑟
V
𝐸𝑓
𝐸𝑓 = 𝑉 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 + 𝑗𝐼𝑎 𝑋𝑙 + 𝑗𝐼𝑎 𝑋𝑎𝑟 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎
𝐸𝑟
𝑗𝐼𝑎 𝑋𝑙 𝑗𝐼𝑎 𝑋𝑎𝑟
𝐸𝑓 = 𝐸𝑟 + 𝑗𝐼𝑎 𝑋𝑎𝑟 𝐼𝑎
where
𝐸𝑟 = 𝑉 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 + 𝑗𝐼𝑎 𝑋𝑙
Voltage Regulation
• For the phasor diagram shown in the
figure, since 𝐸𝑟 & 𝐸𝑓 and hence 𝐹𝑟 & 𝐹𝑓
are almost in phase, the phasor relation can 𝐹𝑓 𝐹
be converted into the algebraic relation i.e. 𝑎
𝐹𝑟
𝐸𝑓 ≈ 𝐸𝑟 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑋𝑎𝑟 V
𝐸𝑟 𝐸𝑓
𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 𝑗𝐼𝑎 𝑋𝑙 𝑗𝐼𝑎 𝑋𝑎𝑟
𝐹𝑓 ≈ 𝐹𝑟 + 𝐹𝑎
Similarly, 𝐼𝑎
𝐸𝑟 ≈ 𝑉 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑋𝑙
Voltage Regulation
• Procedure for calculating voltage
𝑉
regulation by zpfc: 𝐴𝐺𝐿
𝐶 𝑂𝐶𝐶
Step 1 : Draw OCC along with AGL 𝐸𝑟
𝐼𝑎 𝑋𝑙
and ZPFC. 𝑉
𝐷 𝐵 𝐴 𝑍𝑃𝐹𝐶
Step 2 : Corresponding to terminal
voltage, draw a horizontal line which
cuts ZPFC at point A. C′
𝐼𝑓
𝑂 B′ 𝐹′ 𝐹 𝑃
Step 3 : Draw a line AD from point A 𝐹𝑟
equal in length with OF’. 𝐹𝑓
Voltage Regulation
• Procedure for calculating voltage regulation
by zpfc:
𝑉 𝐴𝐺𝐿
Step 4 : From point D draw a line parallel to AGL
which cuts the OCC at point C. The voltage 𝐶 𝑂𝐶𝐶
𝐸𝑟
corresponding to point C is air gap emf 𝐸𝑟 . 𝐼𝑎 𝑋𝑙
𝑉
𝐷 𝐵 𝐴 𝑍𝑃𝐹𝐶
Step 5 : Drop a perpendicular CB from point C at
line segment AD. Length CB is equal to drop in
leakage reactance and length AB is equal to mmf
C′
corresponding to armature reaction 𝐹𝑎 .
𝐼𝑓
Step 6 : extended line segment CB cuts the field 𝑂 B′ 𝐹′ 𝐹 𝑃
𝐹𝑟 𝐹𝑎
current axis at F. Length OF represent the mmf
𝐹𝑓
component 𝐹𝑟 .
Voltage Regulation
• Procedure for calculating voltage
regulation by zpfc: 𝐹𝑎
𝐹𝑓 𝐸𝑓
Step 7 : Draw a phasor diagram taking 𝐹𝑟 as the 𝐹𝑟
𝑗𝐼𝑎 𝑋𝑎𝑟
reference. 𝐹𝑎 is drawn at an angle 90𝑜 + 𝛽 with 𝐸𝑟
respect to 𝐹𝑟 . 𝛽 𝑗𝐼𝑎 𝑋𝑙
V
𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎
Step 8 : Phasor sum of 𝐹𝑟 and 𝐹𝑎 gives 𝐹𝑓 . 𝐼𝑎
Step 9 : Use OCC to obtain 𝐸𝑓 corresponding

𝐹𝑓 C
to 𝐹𝑓 .
𝐹𝑎
Step 10 : With 𝐸𝑓 and V known, 90𝑜 + 𝛽
B
𝐸𝑓 −𝑉 A 𝐹𝑟
𝑉𝑅 = × 100%
𝑉
Voltage Regulation
4. New A. S. A. (American Standard
Association) Method : 𝑉 𝐴𝐺𝐿
𝐸𝑓 𝑃 𝑂𝐶𝐶
• This method is essentially a modification of 𝐾 𝐻 𝐶
the m.m.f. method and gives satisfactory 𝑀
results both for cylindrical rotor and salient- 𝑂′
pole synchronous machines. 𝐺 𝐷 𝐵 𝐴 𝑍𝑃𝐹𝐶
• New A.S.A. method requires O.C.C. and

z.p.f.c.
• From OCC and ZPFC, leakage reactance 𝑋𝑙 is 𝐼𝑓

obtained as discussed in ZPFC method. 𝑂 𝐹′ 𝐹
𝐹𝑓
Voltage Regulation
• Since, ASA method is a modification 𝐹𝑓 𝐹𝑎𝑟 + 𝐹𝑙
of mmf method, therefore revisiting 𝐸𝑓
𝐹𝑟1
the equations for mmf method 𝑗𝐼𝑎 𝑋𝑙
V 𝑗𝐼𝑎 𝑋𝑎𝑟
𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎
𝐸𝑟1 = 𝑉 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 𝜑 𝛼
𝐼𝑎 𝐸𝑟1
If resistive drop is neglected, 𝐹𝑓 𝐹𝑎𝑟 + 𝐹𝑙 𝐸𝑓
𝐹𝑟1 𝑗𝐼𝑎 𝑋𝑎𝑟

𝐸𝑟1 = 𝑉 & 𝛼 = 𝜑 𝐸𝑟
𝑗𝐼𝑎 𝑋𝑙
𝛼=𝜑 𝑉=𝐸
𝐸𝑟 = 𝐸𝑟1 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑋𝑙 𝑟1
𝐼𝑎
Voltage Regulation
• In stead of finding 𝐹𝑟1 from the
OCC against 𝐸𝑟1 = 𝑉 , 𝐹𝑟1 is read 𝑉 𝐴𝐺𝐿
on the air-gap. 𝑃
𝐸𝑓 𝐶 𝑂𝐶𝐶
• It means saturation has been 𝐾 𝐻
𝑀
ignored. 𝑂′
𝐺 𝐷 𝐵 𝐴 𝑍𝑃𝐹𝐶
• On the characteristic, O’G
represents 𝐹𝑟1 .
• From SCC, 𝐹𝑎𝑟 + 𝐹𝑙 is obtained
which represents the mmf required
to compensate the effect of 𝑂 𝐹′ 𝐹
𝐼𝑓
armature reaction and leakage flux. 𝐹𝑓
Voltage Regulation
• Draw 𝐹𝑟1 as the refrance phasor
and draw 𝐹𝑎𝑟 + 𝐹𝑙 at an angle
90𝑜 + 𝜑 from 𝐹𝑟1 . 𝐹′𝑓
𝐹𝑎𝑟 + 𝐹𝑙
• The phasor sum gives the net field 90𝑜 + 𝜑
mmf 𝐹′𝑓 with the saturation

𝐹𝑟1
neglected i.e.
𝐹′𝑓 = 𝐹𝑟1 + (𝐹𝑎𝑟 + 𝐹𝑙 )

Voltage Regulation
• Obtain 𝐸𝑟 from the relation,
𝑉 𝐴𝐺𝐿
𝐸𝑟 = 𝑉 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑋𝑙 𝑃
𝐸𝑓 𝐶 𝑂𝐶𝐶
𝐾 𝐻
𝑀
• Corresponding to 𝐸𝑟 , draw a line 𝑂′
𝐺 𝐷 𝐵
parallel to field current axis which cuts 𝐴 𝑍𝑃𝐹𝐶
AGL at H and OCC at M. Length HM
represents the mmf to include the
effect of saturation.
• Net mmf is given as
𝐼𝑓
𝑂 𝐹′ 𝐹
𝐹𝑓 = 𝐹′𝑓 + 𝐻𝑀 𝐹𝑓
Voltage Regulation
• Corresponding to 𝐹𝑓 , obtain the
𝑉
excitation emf 𝐸𝑓 . 𝐴𝐺𝐿
𝐸𝑓 𝑃 𝑂𝐶𝐶
𝐻 𝐶
𝐾
𝑀
• Once excitation emf 𝐸𝑓 and 𝑂′
𝐺 𝐷 𝐵 𝐴 𝑍𝑃𝐹𝐶
terminal voltage 𝑉 are known,
voltage regulation can be calculated
as
𝐼𝑓
𝐸𝑓 −𝑉 𝑂 𝐹′ 𝐹
𝑉𝑅 = × 100% 𝐹𝑓
𝑉
Parallel Operation of Alternators
• Need for parallel operation :
1. Several generators can supply a bigger load than one machine by itself.
2. Having many generators increases the reliability of the power system, since
the failure of anyone of them does not cause a total power loss to the load.
3. Having many generators operating in parallel allows one or more of them to
be removed for shutdown and preventive maintenance.
4. If only one generator is used and it is not operating at near full load, then it
will be relatively inefficient. With several smaller machines in parallel, it is
possible to operate only a fraction of them. The ones that do operate are
operating near full load and thus more efficiently.
• The Conditions Required for Parallel
operation
1. The rms line voltages of the two

generators must be equal. Alternator
Load
1
2. The two generators must have the same
phase sequence.
3. The phase angles of the two a phases must

be equal.
Alternator
4. The frequency of the new generator, 2
called the oncoming generator,
must be slightly higher than the frequency
of the running system.
• Importance of the Conditions Required for Parallel operation
The RMS line The phase angles of
voltages of the two the two phases must
generators must be be equal.
equal. Alternator
Load
1
The frequency of the

new generator, called
Alternator the oncoming
2
generator, must be
The two generators
slightly higher than the
must have the same
frequency of the
phase sequence.
running system.
The RMS line
voltages of the two
generators must be 𝑉𝑅1
equal. Alternator 𝑉𝑌1
Load
1 𝑉𝐵1
𝑋𝑠1 Assuming that other

conditions are satisfied.
𝑉𝑅2
Alternator 𝑉𝑌2
2 𝑉𝐵2
𝑋𝑠2
Neglecting the armature resistance for both
alternators.
The RMS line
voltages of the two
generators must be 𝑉𝑅1 If condition 1 is
equal. 𝑉𝑌1 satisfied i.e.
Alternator
Load
1 𝑉𝐵1
𝑉𝑅1 = 𝑉𝑅2
𝑉𝑌1 = 𝑉𝑌2
𝑋𝑠1
𝑉𝐵1 = 𝑉𝐵2
𝑉𝑅1 − 𝑉𝑅2
𝑉𝑅2 𝐼𝑐𝑅 = 0 𝐼𝑐𝑅 = =0
𝑋𝑠1 + 𝑋𝑠2
Alternator 𝑉𝑌2 Similarly,
2 𝑉𝐵2 𝐼𝑐𝑌 = 0 𝐼𝑐𝑌 = 𝐼𝑐𝐵 = 0
𝐼𝑐𝐵 = 0
𝑋𝑠2
alternators.
The RMS line
voltages of the two
generators must be 𝑉𝑅1 If condition 1 is not
equal. 𝑉𝑌1 satisfied i.e.
Alternator
Load
1 𝑉𝐵1
𝑉𝑅1 ≠ 𝑉𝑅2
𝑉𝑌1 ≠ 𝑉𝑌2
𝑋𝑠1
𝑉𝐵1 ≠ 𝑉𝐵2
𝑉𝑅2 𝐼𝑐𝑅 ≠ 0 𝐼𝑐𝑅 = ≠0
Similarly,
2 𝑉𝐵2 𝐼𝑐𝑌 ≠ 0
𝐼𝑐𝑌 = 𝐼𝑐𝐵 ≠ 0
𝐼𝑐𝐵 ≠ 0
𝑋𝑠2
alternators.
𝑉𝑅1
The phase angles of
the two phases must
If condition 2 is Alternator 𝑉𝑌1
be equal.
Load
satisfied i.e. 1 𝑉𝐵1
𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒(𝑉𝑅1 ) = 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒(𝑉𝑅2 ) 𝑋𝑠1

𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒(𝑉𝑌1 ) = 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒(𝑉𝑌2 )
𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒(𝑉𝐵1 ) = 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒(𝑉𝐵2 )
𝑉𝑅2 𝐼𝑐𝑅 = 0
𝐼𝑐𝑅 = =0 Alternator 𝑉𝑌2
𝑋𝑠1 + 𝑋𝑠2 2 𝑉𝐵2 𝐼𝑐𝑌 = 0
Similarly,
𝐼𝑐𝐵 = 0
𝐼𝑐𝑌 = 𝐼𝑐𝐵 = 0 𝑋𝑠2

alternators.
𝑉𝑅1
The phase angles of
If condition 2 is not the two phases must
satisfied i.e. 𝑉𝐵1
Load be equal.
1
𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒(𝑉𝑅1 ) ≠ 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒(𝑉𝑅2 ) 𝑋𝑠1

𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒(𝑉𝑌1 ) ≠ 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒(𝑉𝑌2 )
𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒(𝑉𝐵1 ) ≠ 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒(𝑉𝐵2 )
𝑉𝑅2 𝐼𝑐𝑅 ≠ 0
𝐼𝑐𝑅 = ≠0 Alternator 𝑉𝑌2
𝑋𝑠1 + 𝑋𝑠2 2 𝑉𝐵2 𝐼𝑐𝑌 ≠ 0
Similarly,
𝐼𝑐𝑌 = 𝐼𝑐𝐵 ≠ 0 𝐼𝑐𝐵 ≠ 0
𝑋𝑠2

alternators.
𝑉𝑅1
𝑉𝑅1
𝑉𝑌1
If condition 3 is
Alternator
1 𝑉𝐵1
Load satisfied i.e.
𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒(𝑉𝑅1 ) = 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒(𝑉𝑅2 )
𝑉𝐵1 𝑉𝑌1 𝑋𝑠1 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒(𝑉𝑌1 ) = 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒(𝑉𝑌2 )
𝑉𝑅2 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒(𝑉𝐵1 ) = 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒(𝑉𝐵2 )
𝑉𝑅2 𝐼𝑐𝑅 = 0 𝑉𝑅1 − 𝑉𝑅2
𝑉𝑌2 𝐼𝑐𝑅 = =0
Alternator 𝑋𝑠1 + 𝑋𝑠2
2 𝑉𝐵2 𝐼𝑐𝑌 = 0 Similarly,
𝑉𝐵2 𝑉𝑌2 𝐼𝑐𝐵 = 0 𝐼𝑐𝑌 = 𝐼𝑐𝐵 = 0
𝑋𝑠2
The two generators
must have the same Neglecting the armature resistance for both
phase sequence. alternators.
𝑉𝑅1
If condition 3 is not
𝑉𝑅1
satisfied i.e.
Load
1 𝑉𝐵1 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒(𝑉𝑅1 ) = 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒(𝑉𝑅2 )
𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒(𝑉𝑌1 ) ≠ 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒(𝑉𝑌2 )
𝑉𝐵1 𝑉𝑌1 𝑋𝑠1 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒(𝑉𝐵1 ) ≠ 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒(𝑉𝐵2 )
𝑉𝑅2
𝐼𝑐𝑅 = 0
𝐼𝑐𝑅 = =0
𝑉𝑅2 𝑋𝑠1 + 𝑋𝑠2
Alternator 𝑉𝑌2 But,
2 𝑉𝐵2 𝐼𝑐𝑌 ≠ 0 𝑉𝑌1 − 𝑉𝑌2
𝑉𝑌2
𝐼𝑐𝑌 =
𝑉𝐵2
𝑋𝑠2
𝐼𝑐𝐵 ≠ 0 𝑋𝑠1 + 𝑋𝑠2
The two generators 𝑉𝑌 −120𝑜 − 𝑉𝑌 120𝑜
must have the same Neglecting the armature resistance for both = ≠0
phase sequence. alternators. 𝐼𝑐𝐵 ≠ 0
The General Procedure for Paralleling
Generators
• Suppose that alternator G2 is to be
connected to the running system
shown in Figure.
Alternator
Load
1
• The following steps should be taken
to accomplish the paralleling.
• First, using voltmeters, the field

current of the oncoming alternator Alternator
should be adjusted until its terminal 2
voltage is equal to the line voltage of
the running system.
Generators
• Second, the phase sequence 𝑉𝑅1
of the oncoming generator
must be compared to the
phase sequence of the Alternator
running system. 1
Load
• Phase sequence can be 𝑉𝐵1 𝑉𝑌1

checked using three-light-
bulb method.
• In this approach, three light 𝑉𝑅2
L
bulbs are stretched across
the open terminals of the Alternator
L
switch connecting the 2
alternator to the system as L
𝑉𝐵2
shown in Figure. 𝑉𝑌2
Generators
• As the phase changes 𝑉𝑅1
between the two systems, the
light bulbs first get bright
(large phase difference) and Alternator
then get dim (small phase 1
Load
difference). 𝑉𝐵1 𝑉𝑌1
• If all three bulbs get bright
and dark together, then the
systems have the same phase 𝑉𝑅2
L
sequence.
• If the bulbs brighten in Alternator
L
succession, then the systems 2
have the opposite phase 𝑉𝑌2 𝑉𝐵2
L
sequence, and one of the
sequences must be reversed.
Generators
• Next, the frequency of the oncoming generator is adjusted to be slightly
higher than the frequency of the running system.
• This is done first by watching a frequency meter until the frequencies are
close and then by observing changes in phase between the systems.
• The oncoming generator is adjusted to a slightly higher frequency so that
when it is connected, it will come on the line supplying power as a generator,
instead of consuming it as a motor would.
• Once the frequencies are very nearly equal, the voltages in the two systems
will change phase with respect to each other very slowly.
• The phase changes are observed, and when the phase angles are equal, the
switch connecting the two systems together is shut.
Generators
• Three light bulbs method can be used to
ascertain when the phase of incoming
generator is same as the existing system.
• When the three light bulbs all go out, the
voltage difference across them is zero and
the systems are in phase.
• This simple scheme works, but it is not
very accurate.
• A better approach is to employ a
synchroscope.
• A synchroscope is a meter that measures
the difference in phase angle between the a
phases of the two systems.
Generators
• The face of a synchroscope is
shown in Figure.
• The dial shows the phase
difference between the two a
phases, with 0 (meaning in phase)
at the top and 180o at the bottom.
• Since the frequencies of the two
systems are slightly different, the
phase angle on the meter changes
slowly.
Generators
• If the oncoming generator or system
is faster than the running system (the
desired situation), then the phase
angle advances and the
synchroscope needle rotates
clockwise.
• If the oncoming machine is slower,
the needle rotates counterclockwise.
• When the synchroscope needle is in
the vertical position, the voltages are
in phase, and the switch can be shut
to connect the systems.
Frequency-Power and Voltage-Reactive Power
Characteristics of an Alternator
• All alternators are driven by a prime mover, which is the alternator's
source of mechanical power.
• Regardless of the original power source, all prime movers tend to
behave in a similar fashion-as the power drawn from them increases, the
speed at which they turn decreases.
• The decrease in speed is in general nonlinear, but some form of
governor mechanism is usually included to make the decrease in speed
linear with an increase in power demand.
• Whatever governor mechanism is present on a prime mover, it will
always be adjusted to provide a slight drooping characteristic with
increasing load.
• The speed droop (SD) of a prime mover is
defined by the equation
𝑁𝑛𝑙 − 𝑁𝑓𝑙
𝑆𝐷 = × 100%
𝑁𝑓𝑙
• where 𝑁𝑛𝑙 is the no-load prime-mover speed
and 𝑁𝑓𝑙 is the full -load prime-mover speed.
• Most alternator prime movers have a speed
droop of 2 to 4 percent.
• In addition, most governors have some type of
set point adjustment to allow the no-load speed
of the turbine to be varied.
• A typical speed versus power plot is shown in
Figure.
• Since the shaft speed is related to
the resulting electrical frequency by
𝑃𝑁
𝑓=
120
• The power output of a synchronous
generator is related to its frequency.
• An example plot of frequency
versus power is shown in Figure.
• Frequency-power characteristics of
this sort play an essential role in the
parallel operation of synchronous
generators.
• The relationship between frequency
and power can be described
quantitatively by the equation
P = Sp fnl − fsys
where
P = power output of the generator

fnl = no-load frequency of the generator
fsys = operating frequency of system
Sp = slope of curve, in kW/Hz or
MW/Hz
• A similar relationship can be derived
for the reactive power Q and terminal
voltage 𝑉𝑇 .
• As previously seen, when a lagging load
is added to a synchronous generator, its
terminal voltage drops.
• Likewise, when a leading load is added
to a synchronous generator, its terminal
voltage increases.
• It is possible to make a plot of terminal
voltage versus reactive power, and such
a plot has a drooping characteristic like
frequency vs. power characteristic.
• This characteristic is not intrinsicalIy
linear, but many generator voltage
regulators include a feature to make it
so.
• The characteristic curve can be moved

up and down by changing the no-load
terminal voltage set point on the
voltage regulator.
• As with the frequency-power

characteristic, this curve plays an
important role in the parallel operation
of synchronous generators.
• It is important to realize that when a single alternator is operating alone,
the real power P and reactive power Q supplied by the alternator will be
the amount demanded by the load attached to the alternator - the P and
Q supplied cannot be controlled by the alternator's controls.
• Therefore, for any given real power, the governor set points control the
alternator's operating frequency f and for any given reactive power, the
field current controls the alternator's terminal voltage 𝑉𝑇 .
Operation of Alternators in Parallel with Large
Power System – Concept of Infinite Bus
• When a synchronous generator is
connected to a power system, the
power system is often so large that
nothing the operator of the
generator does will have much of an
effect on the power system.
• An infinite bus is a power system so
large that its voltage and frequency
do not vary regardless of how much
real and reactive power is drawn
from or supplied to it.
• The power frequency characteristic
and the reactive power - voltage
characteristic are shown in Figure.
• To understand the behavior of a generator connected to such a large system,

examine a system consisting of a generator and an infinite bus in parallel
supplying a load.
• Assume that the generator's prime mover has a governor mechanism, but that
the field is controlled manually by a resistor.
• When a generator is connected in
parallel with another generator or a
large system, the frequency and
terminal voltage of all the machines
must be the same, since their output
conductors are tied together.
• Therefore, their real power -
frequency and reactive power -
voltage characteristics can be plotted
back to back, with a common
vertical axis.
• Such a sketch, sometimes informally
called a house diagram, is shown in
Figure.
• Assume that the generator has
just been paralleled with the
infinite bus according to the
procedure described previously.
• Then the generator will be
essentially "floating" on the line,
supplying a small amount of real
power and little or no reactive
power.
• This situation is shown in Figure.
• Suppose the generator had been
paralleled to the line but, instead of
being at a slightly higher frequency
than the running system, it was at a
slightly lower frequency.
• In this case, when paralleling is
completed, the resulting situation is
shown in Figure.
• Notice that here the no-load
frequency of the generator is less
than the system's operating
frequency.
• At this frequency, the power
supplied by the generator is actually
negative.
• In other words, when the generator's
no-load frequency is less than the
system's operating frequency, the
generator actually consumes electric
power and runs as a motor.
• It is to ensure that a generator
comes on line supplying power
instead of consuming it that the
oncoming machine's frequency is
adjusted higher than the running
system's frequency.
• Once the generator has been
connected, what happens when its
governor set points are increased?
• The effect of this increase is to shift
the no-load frequency of the
generator upward.
• Since the frequency of the system is
unchanged (the frequency of an
infinite bus cannot change), the
power supplied by the generator
increases.
• This is shown by the house diagram
and by the phasor diagram.
• Notice in the phasor diagram that
𝐸𝑓 sin 𝛿 (which is proportional to the
power supplied as long as V is
constant) has increased, while the
magnitude of 𝐸𝑓 (= 𝐾𝜑𝜔) remains
constant, since both the field current 𝐼𝑓
and the speed of rotation ware
unchanged.
• As the governor set points are further
increased, the no-load frequency
increases and the power supplied by
the generator increases.
• As the power output increases, 𝐸𝑓
remains at constant magnitude while
𝐸𝑓 sin 𝛿 is further increased.
• What happens in this system if the
power output of the generator is
increased until it exceeds the power
consumed by the load?
• If this occurs, the extra power
generated flows back into the infinite
bus.
• The infinite bus, by definition, can
supply or consume any amount of
power without a change in frequency,
so the extra power is consumed.
• After the real power of the generator
has been adjusted to the desired value,
the phasor diagram of the generator
looks like Figure.
• Notice that at this time the generator is
actually operating at a slightly leading
power factor, supplying negative reactive
power.
• Alternatively, the generator can be said to
be consuming reactive power.
• How can the generator be adjusted so that
it will supply some reactive power Q to the
system?
• This can be done by adjusting the field
current of the machine.
• To understand why this is true, it is
necessary to consider the constraints on
the generator's operation under these
circumstances.
• The first constraint on the generator is that the power must remain constant
when 𝐼𝑓 is changed.
• The power into a generator (ignoring losses) is given by the equation
𝑃𝑖𝑛 = 𝜏𝑚 𝜔𝑠
• Now, the prime mover of a synchronous generator has a fixed torque-speed

characteristic for any given governor setting.
• This curve changes only when the governor set points are changed.
• Since the generator is tied to an infinite bus, its speed cannot change.
• If the generator's speed does not change and the governor set points have not been
changed, the power supplied by the generator must remain constant.
• If the power supplied is constant as the field current is changed, then the distances
proportional to the power in the phasor diagram 𝐼𝑎 cos 𝜑 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐸𝑓 sin 𝛿 cannot change.
• When the field current is increased, the flux 𝜑 increases, and therefore 𝐸𝑓 (= 𝐾𝜑𝜔)
increases.
• If 𝐸𝑓 increases, but 𝐸𝑓 sin 𝛿 must remain constant, then the phasor 𝐸𝑓 must "slide" along
the line of constant power, as shown in Figure.
• Since V is constant, the angle of 𝑗𝐼𝑎 𝑋𝑠 changes as shown, and therefore the
angle and magnitude of 𝐼𝑎 change.
• Notice that as a result the distance proportional to Q 𝐼𝑎 sin 𝜑 increases.
• In other words, increasing the field current in a synchronous generator
operating in parallel with an infinite bus increases the reactive power output
of the generator.
Operation of Generators in Parallel with Other
Generators of the Same Size
• When a single generator operated alone,
the real and reactive powers (P and Q)
supplied by the generator were fixed,
constrained to be equal to the power
demanded by the load, and the frequency
and terminal voltage were varied by the
governor set points and the field current.
• When a generator operated in parallel with
an infinite bus, the frequency and terminal
voltage were constrained to be constant by
the infinite bus, and the real and reactive
powers were varied by the governor set
points and the field current.
• If a generator is connected in parallel with
another one of the same size, the resulting
system is as shown in Figure.
• In this system, the basic constraint is
that the sum of the real and reactive
powers supplied by the two
generators must equal the P and Q
demanded by the load.
• The system frequency is not
constrained to be constant, and
neither is the power of a given
generator constrained to be
constant.
• The power-frequency diagram for
such a system immediately after G2
has been paralleled to the line is
shown in Figure.
• The total power Ptot (which is
equal to Pload ) is given by
Ptot = Pload = PG1 + PG2
and the total reactive power is given

by
Qtot = Qload = QG1 + QG2

• When the governor set points of 𝐺2
are increased, the power-frequency
curve of G2 shifts upward, as shown
in Figure.
• Remember, the total power
supplied to the load must not
change.
• At the original frequency 𝑓1 the
power supplied by 𝐺1 and 𝐺2 will
now be larger than the load
demand, so the system cannot
continue to operate at the same
frequency as before.
• In fact, there is only one
frequency at which the sum of the
powers out of the two generators
is equal to 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 .
• That frequency 𝑓2 is higher than
the original system operating
frequency.
• At that frequency, 𝐺2 supplies
more power than before, and 𝐺1
supplies less power than before.
SYNCHRONOUS
GENERATOR TRANSIENTS
• When the shaft torque applied to a generator or the output load on a
generator changes suddenly, there is always a transient lasting for a finite
period of time before the generator returns to steady state.
• If the torque applied by the prime mover 𝜏𝑎𝑝𝑝 is suddenly increased,
the shaft of the generator will begin to speed up, and the torque angle 𝛿
will increase.
• As the angle 𝛿 increases, the induced torque 𝜏𝑖𝑛𝑑 of the generator will
increase until an angle 𝛿 is reached at which 𝜏𝑖𝑛𝑑 is equal and opposite
to 𝜏𝑎𝑝𝑝 .
• This is the steady-state operating point of the generator with the new
load.
SYNCHRONOUS
• However, the rotor of the generator has a great
deal of inertia, so its torque angle δ actually
overshoots the steady-state position, and
gradually settles out in a damped oscillation, as
shown in Figure.
• If at any point in the transient response the
instantaneous torque exceeds τapp , the
synchronous generator will be unstable.
• The size of the oscillations depends on how
suddenly the additional torque is applied to the
synchronous generator.
• If it is added very gradually, the machine
should be able to almost reach the static
stability limil.
• On the other hand, if the load is added sharply,
the machine will be stable only up to a much
lower limit, which is very complicated to
calculate.
SYNCHRONOUS
• By far the severest transient condition
that can occur in a synchronous
generator is the situation where the
three terminals of the generator are
suddenly shorted out.
• Such a short on a power system is
called a fault.
• There are several components of
current present in a shorted
synchronous generator, which will be
described below.
• The same effects occur in less severe
transients like load changes, but they
are much more obvious in the extreme
case of a short circuit.
SYNCHRONOUS
• When a fault occurs on a
synchronous generator, the
resulting current flow in the
phases of the generator can
appear as shown in Figure.
• The current in each phase shown

in Figure can be represented as a
dc transient component added on
top of a symmetrical ac
component.
SYNCHRONOUS
• The symmetrical ac component by
itself is shown in Figure.
• Before the fault, only ac voltages and
currents were present within the
generator, while after the fault, both ac
and dc currents are present.
• Remember that the synchronous
generator is basically inductive - it is
modeled by an internal generated
voltage in series with the synchronous
reactance.
• Also, recall that a current cannot
change instantaneously in an inductor.
SYNCHRONOUS
• When the fault occurs, the ac
component of current jumps to a very
large value, but the total current cannot
change at that instant.
• The dc component of current is just
large enough that the sum of the ac and
dc components just after the fault
equals the ac current flowing just
before the fault.
• Since the instantaneous values of
current at the moment of the fault are
different in each phase, the magnitude
of the dc component of current will be
different in each phase.
SYNCHRONOUS
• These dc components of current
decay fairly quickly, but they
initially average about 50 or 60
percent of the ac current flow the
instant after the fault occurs.
• The total initial current is
therefore typically 1.5 or 1.6
times the ac component taken
alone.
• The ac symmetrical component
of current is shown in Figure.
SYNCHRONOUS
• It can be divided into roughly
three periods.
• During the first cycle or so after
the fault occurs, the ac current is
very large and falls very rapidly.
• This period of time is called the
subtransient period.
SYNCHRONOUS
• After it is over, the current
continues to fall at a slower rate,
until at last it reaches a steady
state.
• The period of time during which
it falls at a slower rate is called the
transient period, and the time
after it reaches steady state is
known as the steady-state period.
SYNCHRONOUS
• The ac rms current flowing in the
generator during the subtransient
period is called the subtransient current
and is denoted by the symbol I’’.
• This current is caused by the damper

windings on synchronous generators.
• The time constant of the subtransient

current is given the symbol T’’.
• This current can often be 10 times the

size of the steady-state fault current.
SYNCHRONOUS
• The rms current flowing in the
generator during the transient
period is called the transient
current and is denoted by the
symbol I’.
• It is caused by a dc component of
current induced in the field
circuit at the time of the short.
• This field current increases the
internal generated voltage and
causes an increased fault current.
SYNCHRONOUS
• Since the time constant of the dc
field circuit is much longer than the
time constant of the damper
windings, the transient period lasts
much longer than the subtransient
period.
• This time constant is given the
symbol T’.
• The average rms current during the
transient period is often as much as
5 times the steady-state fault current.
SYNCHRONOUS
• After the transient period, the fault
current reaches a steady-state
condition.
• The steady-state current during a
fault is denoted by the symbol 𝐼𝑠𝑠 .
• It is given approximately by the
fundamental frequency component
of the internal generated voltage 𝐸𝑓
within the machine divided by its
synchronous reactance:
𝐸𝑓
𝐼𝑠𝑠 =
𝑋𝑠
SYNCHRONOUS
• The rms magnitude of the ac fault
current in a synchronous generator
varies continuously as a function of
time.
• If I’’ is the subtransient component of
current at the instant of the fault, I’ is
the transient component of current at
the instant of the fault, and 𝐼𝑠𝑠 is the
steady - state fault current, then the rms
magnitude of the current at any time
after a fault occurs at the terminals of
the generator is
𝐼 𝑡 = 𝐼′′ − 𝐼′ 𝑒 −𝑡 𝑇′′
+ 𝐼′ − 𝐼𝑠𝑠 𝑒 −𝑡 𝑇′
+ 𝐼𝑠𝑠
SYNCHRONOUS
• It is customary to define subtransient and
transient reactances for a synchronous
machine as a convenient way to describe
the subtransient and transient components
of fault current.
• The subtransient reactance of a

synchronous generator is defined as the
ratio of the fundamental component of the
internal generated voltage to the
subtransient component of current at the
beginning of the fault.
′′
Ef
X =
I′′
SYNCHRONOUS
• Similarly. the transient reactance of
a synchronous generator is defined
as the ratio of the fundamental
component of Ef to the transient
component of current I' at the
beginning of the fault.
• This value of current is found by

extrapolating the subtransient region
in Figure back to time zero:
′
Ef
X =
I′
Thank
You

Synchronous Generator or Alternator: Sikandar Ali Khan

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Synchronous Generator

1. Unity power factor load

• Consider the machine as shown in axis of phase c

in the clockwise direction. b’ N c’

1. Unity power factor load φf

• Since load is upf in nature, armature θ

1. Unity power factor load φf

• Since load is zero power factor V

lagging in nature, armature θ

current is lagging from induced

waveform as the armature θ

2. ZPF lagging load φf

• For ZPF lagging load, armature

• Since load is zero power factor E

leading in nature, armature θ

armature flux will have the same φa

waveform as the armature θ

3. ZPF leading load φf

• This reactance 𝑋𝑎𝑟 is known as ↓

Pin = τm.ωs Pout = 3VIacosφ

Stray F&W Core Copper

• The source of mechanical power is prime mover (Turbine, diesel

Pin = τm.ωs Pout = 3VIacosφ

Stray F&W Core Copper

Pin = τm.ωs Pout = 3VIacosφ

Stray F&W Core Copper

• The real electrical power output for the alternator is given as

• In the phasor diagram, the γ

• The magnetizing reactance is more if 𝐼𝑎 lags 𝐸𝑓 than if 𝐼𝑎 is in phase with 𝐸𝑓 .

𝐼𝑎 cos 𝜑 = 𝐼𝑑 cos 90 − 𝛿 + 𝐼𝑞 cos 𝛿

𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 3𝑉𝐼𝑎 cos 𝜑

3𝑉𝐸𝑓 sin 𝛿 3𝑉 2 cos 𝛿 sin 𝛿 3𝑉 2 sin 𝛿 cos 𝛿

3𝑉𝐸𝑓 sin 𝛿 3𝑉 2 sin 2𝛿 3𝑉 2 sin 2𝛿

𝐼𝑎 sin 𝜑 = 𝐼𝑞 cos 90𝑜 + 𝛿 + 𝐼𝑑 cos 𝛿

𝐼𝑎 sin 𝜑 = −𝐼𝑞 sin 𝛿 + 𝐼𝑑 cos 𝛿

𝑉𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛿 𝐸𝑓 cos 𝛿 − 𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛿

3𝑉 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛿 3𝑉𝐸𝑓 cos 𝛿 − 3𝑉 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛿

3𝑉𝐸𝑓 cos 𝛿 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝛿 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝛿

• Calculation of performance parameters

• Armature resistance 𝑅𝑎 , Synchronous

• To calculate armature resistance, voltmeter – ammeter method is used.

• For star connection,

• For star connection,

• When an AC current flows in the armature, effective resistance of the

• Therefore, DC resistance is converted into an effective resistance using

• For a given field current under short-circuit condition 𝐼𝑎 = 𝐼𝑆𝐶 , 𝑉 = 0 ,

• It is sufficient to determine one point on the short-circuit characteristic

Open Circuit Characteristics (OCC) :

Short Circuit Characteristics (SCC) :

Short Circuit Characteristics (SCC) :

• Direct and quadrature-axis reactances of a salient-pole synchronous machine can be estimated by

• As the flux set up by armature currents moves

• When the rotor field is aligned with the armature

1. Armature resistance is neglected

• With the same constraints as δ

before, it can be seen that this 𝐼𝑎 V

• With the same constraints as δ

before, it can be seen that this 𝐼𝑎 𝐼𝑎 ’ V’ V

• In this last case, an increase in the

• In this last case, an increase in the

3. Zero Power Factor Method

4. New A. S. A. (American Standard Association) Method