INTRODUCTION

Energy Conversion:

 Generators convert mechanical energy to electric energy.

 Motors convert electric energy to mechanical energy.

 The construction of motors and generators are similar.

 Every generator can operate as a motor and vice versa.

 Both types operate through the interaction between a magnetic field and
a set of windings

 Every AC (or DC) motor or generator has two parts: rotating part (rotor)
and a stationary part (stator).
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 DC
Machine

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 Commutator
Magnetic poles
CONSTRUCTION OF DC MACHINE

1) Stator
2) Rotor  
3) Yoke of dc machine
4) Field magnets (poles and field
winding)
5) Armature winding  (lap and Armature Brush
wave)
6) Commutator
7) Brushes and Bearings

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DC GENERATOR

A dc generator produces direct power.

Based on same fundamental principle of

Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction

E=Blv

The direction of field, current and force given by

Fleming’s Right Hand Rule

Most basic tow essential parts of a generator are

a) a magnetic field and
b) conductors which move inside that magnetic field.

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 WORKING PRINCIPAL OF DC GENERATOR

•When the loop rotates from its vertical position to its horizontal position, it cuts the
flux lines.
•During this movement, two sides, i.e. AB and CD of the loop, cut the flux lines and
there will be an emf induced in these both of the sides (AB & BC) of the loop.
As the loop is closed there will be a current
circulating through the loop.

The direction of the current can be determined

by Flemming's right hand Rule

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At this position the tangential motion of the sides
of the loop is parallel to the flux lines. Hence
there will be no question of flux cutting and
consequently there will be no current in the loop.

If the loop rotates further, it comes to again in

horizontal position. But now, AB side of the loop
comes in front of N pole and CD comes in front of
S pole, i.e. just opposite to the previous
horizontal position

Here the tangential motion of the side of the

loop is perpendicular to the flux lines, hence
rate of flux cutting is maximum. Current
direction given by Flemings Right Hand Rule.

NOTE:
Conductor near to N pole alys have same direction
of current.
Conductor near to S pole also has same direction of
current but opposite to N pole side 6
Now the loop is opened and connect it with a split ring. 

The external load terminals are connected with two carbon

brushes which are rest on these split slip ring segments.

In the first half of the revolution current flows always

along ABLMCD i.e. brush no 1 in contact with segment a. 

In the next half revolution, the direction of the

induced current in the coil is reversed.

But at the same time the position of the segments a

and b are also reversed which results that brush no 1
comes in touch with segment b. 
Hence, the current in the load resistance again flows from L to M.

The wave from of the current through the load circuit is unidirectional.

The emf is not steady. In actual practice armature of

generator has number of coils at equal angles and also its
commutator has segment as required for these coils and so
consequently the resultant emf is unidirectional and
steady.
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EMF EQUATION OF DC MACHINE:

Let , Therefore, total emf generated

Ø = flux/pole in weber E = (Ø P N / 60) *Z/A
Z = Total number of conductors in armature
= No of slots * no of conductors per slot E = (Ø Z N / 60) *P/A
P = Number of poles
A = Number of parallel paths in armature
N = speed in rpm of armature
E = induced emf in armature conductor in volts E = Ka Ø ω E = Ka Ø N

Number of conductors in each parallel path = Z/A E = Eg = generated emf in DC generator,

E= Eb = back emf in DC motor
Emf generated by armature = emf generated in one of the
parallel paths
For lap winding, A=P
Also,
E = Ø Z N / 60
Emf generated = flux cut per sec in volt
Flux cut by one conductor in making one revolution = Ø P
For wave winding, A = 2
Flux cut in one conductor per sec = Ø P N / 60
E = Ø Z P N / 120
So, emf generated in one conductor, E = Ø P N / 60
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TYPES OF DC GENERATOR:
Generally, DC generators are classified according to the ways of excitation of their
fields. There are three methods of excitation.

a) Field coils excited by permanent magnets – Permanent magnet DC generators

b) Field coils excited by some external source – Separately excited DC generators
c) Field coils excited by the generator itself – Self excited DC generators

Permanent Magnet DC Generator

When the flux in the magnetic circuit is established by the help of permanent
magnets then it is known as Permanent magnet dc generator.

Consists of an armature and one or several permanent magnets situated around the
armature.

Generates very low power.

Normally used in small applications like dynamos in motor cycles.

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Separately Excited DC Generator
•These are the generators whose field magnets are energized by some external dc
source such as battery.

Ia = Armature current

IL = Load current
V = Terminal voltage
Eg = Generated emf
Voltage drop in the armature = Ia × Ra  Let, Ia = IL = I (say)
Then, voltage across the load, V = Eg - I Ra
Power generated, Pg = Eg×I
Power delivered to the external load, PL = V×I
Self-excited DC Generators
•Field magnets are energized by the current supplied by themselves.
•Due to residual magnetism some flux is always present in the poles.
•When the armature is rotated, some induced emf and hence some current produced.
•Thus current passes partly or fully through field coils and strengthens the flux pole
•So more armature emf and hence more current produced until it reaches rated value.
Types of self-excited generators: Series wound generators
Shunt wound generators
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Compound wound generators (Long and Short)
Series Wound Generator
•Field windings are connected in series with armature conductors.
•Whole electric current flows through the series field coils as well as the load.
•As series field winding carries full load current it is designed with relatively few turns of
thick wire and low resistance (nearly 0.5Ω ).
Let,
Rsc = Series winding resistance
Isc = Current flowing through the series field
Ra = Armature resistance
Ia = Armature current
IL = Load current
V = Terminal voltage
Eg = Generated emf

Then, Ia = Isc = IL=I (say)

Voltage across the load, V = Eg - I (Rsc +Ra)
Power generated, Pg = Eg×I
Power delivered to the load, PL = V×I

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Shunt Wound DC Generators
•Field windings are connected in parallel with armature conductors.
•Voltage in the field winding is same as the voltage across the terminal.
•The effective power across the load will be maximum when IL  will be maximum. So, the
resistance of the shunt field winding generally kept high (100 Ω).

Let,
Rsh = Shunt winding resistance
Ish = Current flowing through the shunt field
Ra = Armature resistance
Ia = Armature current
IL = Load current
V = Terminal voltage
Eg = Generated emf
Here, Ia=Ish + IL

Shunt field current, Ish = V/Rsh

Voltage across the load, V = Eg-Ia Ra = Eg-(Ish + IL) Ra
Power generated, Pg= Eg×Ia
Power delivered to the load, PL = V×IL
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Compound Wound DC Generator
•Have both series field winding and shunt field winding.
•One winding is placed in series with the armature and the other is placed in parallel with the
armature.
•Two types- Short shunt compound wound generator and
Long shunt compound wound generator.

Short Shunt Compound Wound DC Generator

Only shunt field winding is in parallel with the armature winding.

Series field current, Isc = IL

Shunt field current, Ish = (V+Isc Rsc)/Rsh
Armature current, Ia = Ish + IL

Voltage across the load, V = Eg - Ia Ra - Isc Rsc

Power generated, Pg = Eg×Ia
Power delivered to the load, PL=V×IL

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Long Shunt Compound Wound DC Generator
Shunt field winding is in parallel with both series field and armature winding.

Shunt field current, Ish=V/Rsh

Armature current, Ia= series field current,
=Isc= IL+Ish
Voltage across the load, V=Eg-Ia Ra-Isc Rsc
=Eg-Ia (Ra+Rsc) [Ia=Isc]

Power generated, Pg= Eg×Ia

Power delivered to the load, PL=V×IL

In a compound wound generator, the shunt field is stronger than the series field.
When the series field assists the shunt field - commutatively compound wound.
When the series field opposes the shunt field -differentially compound wound.

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• Communtation:

The process by which the direction of current in armature while crossing

Magnetic Neutral Axis is short circuited is called commutation and the brief
period during which short circuiting of coils remains is known as commutation
period.

• Armature Reaction:

The armature winding of DC machine when carrying current produces a

magnetic field. As a result the main magnetic field across the air gap is
weakened (emf generated is reduced) and distorted causing heavy sparking on
the commutator.

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DC GENERATOR CHARACTERISTIC

Important Characteristics are:

a) Open Circuit Characteristic (OCC) or No Load or Magnetic Characteristics (E o/If)

b) Internal or Total Characteristics (Eg/Ia)
c) External Characteristics or Performance Characteristics (V/I)
Characteristic of Separately Excited Generator
a) Open Circuit Characteristic (OCC) or No Load or Magnetic Characteristics (Eo/If)
• Gives relation between No Load Generated emf (Eo) and field current (If)
• It is simply magnetization curve.
• Characteristic is practically same for all generators ( both separately excited and self
excited )

As the excitation current or field current (If) increases from its initial value, the flux and
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hence generated emf is increased with the field current.
If we plot the generated voltage on the Y axis and field
current on the X axis then the No load magnetization
curve/ saturation cure.
OA is due to residual magnetism,

BC is linear - since increase in field current increases the

flux and thus generated armature voltage.

Beyond point C, the magnetic material starts to get

saturated . Point C is saturation point beyond which large
current is required for even small magnetism.

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Internal or Total Characteristics (E/Ia) and External Characteristics (V/I)
(Separately Excited Generator)

AB indicates the constant Eo (No-Load) when drop

due to armature reaction and ohmic drop is not
considered.

When generator is loaded drop occurs due to

Armature Reaction and Ohmic resistances.

Internal characteristic is obtained by subtracting

armature reaction drop from Eo in loaded
condition. This gives actually generated voltage
( Eg) in armature. (curve AC)

External characteristic  is obtained by subtracting

the drops due to ohmic loss ( Ia Ra ) in the
armature from generated voltage ( Eg). (Curve AD)
Terminal voltage(V) = Eg - Ia Ra.
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Characteristic of Shunt Wound Generator

Magnetic or Open Circuit Characteristic: (Similar)

Internal or Total Characteristics (E/IL)

• When the generator is loaded then the generated voltage is decreased due to
armature reaction. So, generated voltage will be lower than the emf generated
at no load.

• AD curve is showing the no load voltage curve and AB is the internal

characteristic curve.

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External Characteristics (V/I) (Shunt Wound)
•If load resistance is decreased, then load current
increases
•But the load current (IL) can be increased to a
certain limit (upto point C).

•When IL increased, then terminal voltage

decreased.
•After a certain limit, due to heavy load current and
increased ohmic drop, the terminal voltage is
reduced drastically.
•This drastic reduction of terminal voltage across
the load, results the drop in the load current.
(although at that time load resistance is low)
•That is why the load resistance of the machine
must be maintained properly.
•The point in which the machine gives maximum
current output is called breakdown point (point C).

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 Ia = Isc = IL
Characteristic of Series Wound Generator

Magnetic or Open Circuit Characteristic: (Similar)

Internal or Total Characteristics (E/IL)

• Curve is obtained by subtracting the
drop due to the demagnetizing
effect of armature reaction from the
no load voltage.
• So, the actual generated voltage ( Eg)
will be less than the no load voltage
(E0).
• OC curve is showing the internal
characteristic or total characteristic
of the series wound DC generator.

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 External Characteristics (V/I) (Series Wound)

•Terminal voltage is obtained by subtracting the

ohomic drop due to armature resistance (Ra) and
series field resistance ( Rsc) from the actually
generated voltage ( Eg).
Terminal voltage V = Eg - I(Ra + Rsc)

•The external characteristic curve lies below the

internal characteristic curve because the value of
terminal voltage is less than the generated voltage.

•OD curve is showing the external characteristic of

the series wound DC generator
With there is increase in load current, the terminal voltage of the machine increases.
But after reaching its maximum value it starts to decrease due to excessive demagnetizing effect of armature reaction.
Dotted portion of the characteristic gives approximately constant current irrespective of the external load resistance.
This is because if load current is increased, the field current is increased as field is series connected with load. Also armature current increases
as the armature is also series connected with load.
But due to saturation, there will be no further significance raise of magnetic field strength hence any further increase in induced voltage.
But due to increased armature current, the affect of armature reaction increases significantly which causes significant fall in load voltage.
If load voltage falls, the load current is also decreased proportionally since current is proportional to voltage as per Ohm's law.
So, increase the load tends to increase load current, but decreasing load voltage, tends to decrease load current.
Due these two simultaneous effects, there will be no significant change in load current in dotted portion of external characteristics of series wound
DC generator.
That is why series DC generator is called constant current DC generator.
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Characteristic of Compound Wound Generator

In series wound DC generators, the output

voltage is directly proportional with load
current.
In shunt wound DC generators, output voltage
is inversely proportional with load current.
The electric current in the shunt field winding
produces a flux which causes a fall in terminal
voltage due to armature reaction and ohmic
drop in the circuit.
But the current in the series field also produces
a flux which opposes the shunt field flux and
compensate the drop in the terminal voltage
and try to operate the machine at constant
voltage.

The combination of a series generator and a

shunt generator gives the characteristic of a
cumulative compound wound generator.
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External characteristic of DC compound wound generator

By adjusting the no. of amp-turns in the series field winding we can get following
external characteristics:
1. If the series turns are so adjusted that with the increase in load
current the terminal voltage also increases, then the generator is
called over compounded. (Curve AB). When the load current
increases then the flux provides by the series field also increases.
It gives the additional generated voltage. If the increase in
generated voltage is greater than the voltage drops due to
armature reaction and ohm drop then, terminal voltage of the
generator is increased.

2. If the series turns are so adjusted that with the increase in load current the terminal voltage remains
constant, then the generator is called flat compounded. (Curve AC). When the load current
increases then the flux provides by the series field also increases and gives the additional generated
voltage. If the increase in generated voltage is equal to the voltage drops due to armature reaction
and ohmic drop then, rated terminal voltage of the generator remains same as no load voltage.

 3. If the series field winding has lesser no. of turns then the rated terminal voltage becomes less than the
no load voltage, then the generator is called under compounded. Because, the increase in generated
voltage is lesser than the voltage drops due to armature reaction and ohmic drop. (Curve AD)

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