Notes in GE 5 – Ethics

Introduction
KEY CONCEPTS IN ETHICS

MORALITY AND ETHICS

Morality is the rightness or wrongness of human conduct. It speaks of a code or
system of behavior in regards to standards of right or wrong behavior.
Ethics is derived from the Greek ethos which means “character” or “manners”. It
is the branch of philosophy that studies morality. As a branch of philosophy, it stands to
queries about what there is reason to do.
Ethics deals with human actions and reasons for action. It is also concerned with
character.
Ethics is also called moral philosophy since it evaluates moral concepts, values,
principles and standards. It is considered a normative study of human actions because
it is concerned with norms of human conduct.
Some questions that are ethical in nature are:
- What is good?
- Who is a moral person?
- What are the virtues of a human being?
- What makes an act right?
- What duties do we have to each other?
The two terms, ethics and morality, especially their adjective form, ethical and
moral, are oftentimes used interchangeably.

The Importance of Ethics

Emphasizing the importance of Ethics in our life, the famous philosopher John
Stuart Mill pointed out that, “From the dawn of philosophy, the question concerning
the foundation of morality has been accounted the main problem in speculative
thought.” W. D. Falk declared that the importance of knowing the correct foundation of
morality is “the problem of moral philosophy.”
The collapse of standards of morality observed in contemporary societies
prompts the need to reassess and rebuild the dominant edifices of morality. Building
sensible edifices of morality however requires constructing a reasonable ethical
superstructure of morality.
To put up this kind of superstructure, the very foundations of morality must be
examined meticulously. Interestingly enough, this course in Ethics deals not only with
prominent foundations of morality but also with famous theories and explanations
usually put forward concerning morality.

The Need to Study Ethics

Studies show that more and more people today, especially among the youth, are
either unable or unwilling to act in an ethical manner, or just confused on what should
be considered as moral. Rutgers University conducted a study and found out that:
- Over 70% of all university students admitted they have cheated at least once
- 19% admit they have faked a bibliography
- 14% say they have handed in a computer program written by someone else
Numerous crimes committed yearly on or near school property result in students
becoming scared and anxious about going to school and many teachers leaving the
profession. (William Kilpatrick, Why Johnny Can’t Tell Right from Wrong) “Students come
to college today as moral stutterers. They have not been taught much respect for what I
call ‘plain moral facts’, the need for honesty, integrity, responsibility… Students don’t
reason morally. They don’t know what that means.” (Marquand, philosophy professor
at Clark University)
“Far too many young people have abandoned traditional ethical values in favor
of self-absorbed, win-at-any-cost attitudes that threaten to unravel the moral fabric of
American society.” (Michael Josephson, founder and president of the Josephson Institute

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Notes in GE 5 – Ethics
for the Advancement of Ethics) This “self-absorbed” attitude is explained as that which is
based on a whole new set of assumptions about how people should adopt their values
and the right of individuals to construct their own values.
Ethical vacuum in society is caused by a value system without a solid
foundation. If there were so-called ethical systems at work in contemporary societies,
perhaps, they are anchored on unstable, if not totally erroneous, foundations and
theories.

THE IMPORTANCE OF RULES TO SOCIAL BEINGS

Rules refer to explicit or understood regulations or principles governing conduct
within a specific activity or sphere. Rules tell us what is or is not allowed in a particular
context or situation. In many ways, rules serve a foundation for any healthy society.

1. Rules protect social beings by regulating behavior.

Rules are usually coupled with means to impose consequences on those who
violate them.

2. Rules help to guarantee each person certain rights and freedom.

Rules form frameworks for society (e.g. Constitutions of nations)

3. Rules produce a sense of justice among social beings.

Rules are needed in order to keep the strong from dominating the weak, that is,
to prevent exploitation and domination.

4. Rules are essential for a healthy economic system.

Rules are needed to maintain competition; ensure product safety, employee
safety, and product quality; protect intellectual property; keep the banking system
stable etc.

Society could not soundly function without rules and regulations. Rules are
necessary to protect the greater good.

MORAL vs. NON-MORAL STANDARDS

Morality may refer to the standards that a person or a group has about what is
right and wrong, or good and evil.
Not all rules are moral rules. Not all standards are moral standards.
Moral standards are those concerned with or relating to human behavior,
especially the distinction between right and wrong (or good and bad behavior). Moral
standards involve
- Rules people have about the kinds of actions they believe are morally right and
wrong (Principles)
- Values people place on the kinds of objects they believe are morally good and
morally bad.
Non-moral standards refer to rules that are unrelated to moral or ethical
considerations. Either these standards are not necessarily linked to morality or by
nature lack ethical sense. Examples of non-moral standards:
- Rules of etiquette
- Fashion standards
- Rules in games
- Various house rules
Nevertheless, there are non-moral principles that can be ethically relevant
depending on some factors and contexts
- Religious rules
- Some traditions
- Legal statutes (i.e. laws and ordinances)
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Notes in GE 5 – Ethics
1. Moral standards involve serious wrongs or significant benefits.
Many non-moral standards do not necessarily affect one’s life or well-being.

2. Moral standards ought to be preferred to other values.

Moral standards have overriding character or hegemonic authority. Moral
standards are not the only rules or principles in society, but they take precedence over
other considerations.

3. Moral standards are not established by authority figures.

Ideally, these values ought to be considered in the process of making laws. The
validity of these standards lies on the soundness or adequacy of the reasons that are
considered to support and justify them.

4. Moral standards have the trait of universalizability.

Everyone should live up to moral standards. Moral principles must apply to all
who are in the relevantly similar situation.
- Golden Rule
- Principle of Justice

5. Moral standards are based on impartial considerations.

Impartiality is usually depicted as being free of bias or prejudice. Impartiality in
morality requires that we give equal and/or adequate consideration to the interests of
all concerned parties.

6. Moral standards are associated with special emotions and vocabulary.

Prescriptivity indicates the practical or action-guiding nature of moral standards.
Retroactively, this feature is used to evaluate behavior, to assign praise and blame, and
to produce feelings of satisfaction or of guilt.

DILEMMAS AND MORAL DILEMMAS

Dilemmas refer to situations in which a tough choice has to be made between
two or more options, especially more or less equally undesirable ones.
Moral dilemmas, dlso called ethical dilemmas or ethical paradoxes, are situations
in which a difficult choice has to be made between two courses of action, either of
which transgresses a moral principle. At the very least, a moral dilemma involves
conflict between moral requirements.
In each ethical dilemma, an agent regards himself/herself as having moral
reasons to do each of two actions, but doing both actions seems to be ethically not
possible.
Not all dilemmas are moral dilemmas. Although we face many problems in our
life, most of them come with relatively straightforward solutions. On the other hand,
ethical dilemmas are extremely complicated challenges that cannot be easily solved.
The key features of moral dilemmas are:
1. The agent is required to do each of two (or more) actions;
2. The agent can do each of the actions; but the agent cannot do both (or all) of the
actions. He/she is condemned to moral failure.
3. Neither of the conflicting moral requirements is overridden.

LEVELS OF MORAL DILEMMAS

1. PERSONAL DILEMMAS
These are experienced and resolved on the personal level. Many, if not most, of
moral dilemmas fall under, or boil down, to this level.
Examples:
- Making conflicting promises

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Notes in GE 5 – Ethics
- Choosing between the life of a child who is about to be delivered and the child’s
mother

2. ORGANIZATIONAL DILEMMAS
Ethical cases encountered and resolved by social organizations (business,
medical, public sectors)
Examples:
- Contractualization
- Withdrawing life support from a dying patient
- Whistle blowing

3. STRUCTURAL DILEMMAS
These are cases involving network of institutions and operative theoretical
paradigms.
Example: Expensive medicines in the Philippines

ONLY HUMAN BEINGS CAN BE ETHICAL

1. Only human beings are rational, autonomous and self-conscious.
Rational, autonomous and self-conscious beings are the only ones capable of
achieving certain values and goods.

2. Only human beings can act morally or immorally.

Human actions are the result of one’s choices. Animal actions are influenced by
their instincts.

3. Only human beings are part of the moral community.

Only human beings can communicate, and engage and form deep relationships
with each other in truly meaningful ways.

FREEDOM AS A FOUNDATION OF MORALITY

Basically, morality is a question of choice. Practically, morality is choosing ethical
codes, values, or standards to guide us in our daily lives. Philosophically, choosing is
impossible without FREEDOM.

MINIMUM REQUIREMENT FOR MORALITY

Moral judgments must be backed by sound reasoning and morality requires the
impartial consideration of all parties involved. (James Rachels, 1999)
Reason helps us to evaluate whether our feelings and intuitions about moral
cases are correct and defensible.
Impartiality (even-handedness or fair-mindedness) is a principle of justice
holding that decisions ought to be based on objective criteria.

Main Reference:
ETHICS: Principles of Ethical Behavior in Modern Society
by Jens Micah De Guzman et al.
Introduction: Key Concepts in Ethics, pages 1 – 14
Appendix A – Ethics: A Primer, pages 193 – 194

Prepared by:
MICHAEL ANGELO F. EMPIZO
Saint Louis College, City of San Fernando, La Union
Feast of the Nativity of the Blessed Virgin Mary
September 08, 2020
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