Notes in GE 5 – Ethics

Part I
THE MORAL AGENT

Lesson 1
CULTURE IN MORAL BEHAVIOR

CULTURE: SOME DEFINITIONS

Culture denotes the practices, beliefs and perceptions of a given society.
a. Culture refers to the cumulative deposit of knowledge, experience, beliefs, values,
attitudes, meanings, hierarchies, religion, notions of time, roles, spatial relations,
concepts of the universe, and material objects and possessions acquired by a group
of people in the course of generations through individual and group striving.
b. Culture consists of patterns, explicit and implicit, of and for behavior acquired and
transmitted by symbols, constituting the distinctive achievement of human groups,
including their embodiments in artifacts.
The essential core of culture consists of traditional ideas and especially their
attached values; culture systems may, on the one hand, be considered as products of
action, on the other hand, as conditioning influences upon further action.
c. Culture is the sum total of the learned behavior of a group of people that are
generally considered to be the tradition of that people and are transmitted from
generation to generation.
d. Culture is cultivated behavior; the totality of a person’s learned, accumulated
experience which is socially transmitted, or more briefly, behavior through social
learning.
e. Culture is symbolic communication.
Some of its symbols include a group’s skills, knowledge, attitudes, values, and
motives. The meanings of the symbols are learned and deliberately perpetuated in a
society through its institutions.
Culture includes all the things individuals learn while growing up among
particular groups:
- Attitudes
- Standards of morality
- Rules of etiquette
- Perceptions of reality
- Language
- Notions about the proper way to live
- Beliefs about how females and males should interact
- Ideas about how the world works, etc.
All of these are called CULTURAL KNOWLEDGE.

CULTURE’S ROLE IN MORAL BEHAVIOR

A culture is a “way of life” of a group of people, and this so-called “way of life”
actually includes moral values and behaviors, along with knowledge, beliefs, symbols
that they accept, “generally without thinking about them, and that are passed along by
communication and imitation from one generation to the next.”
Many aspects of morality are learned from transmitters of culture: respective
parents, teachers, novels, films, and television. Observing or watching them, people
develop a set idea of what is right and wrong, what is acceptable or not.
Even experientially, it is improbable, if not impossible, to live in a society
without being affected by its culture. It is hard to grow up in a particular culture
without being impacted by how it views morality, or what is ethically right or wrong.
SOCIAL LEARNING is the process by which individuals acquire knowledge
from others in the groups where they belong, as a normal part of childhood.

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Notes in GE 5 – Ethics
ENCULTURATION or SOCIALIZATION is the process by which infants and children
socially learn the culture, including morality, of those around them.

MORAL STANDARDS AS SOCIAL CONVENTION

CONVENTION means those things agreed upon by people, like through their
authorities. It also refers to the usual or customary ways through which things are done
within a group.
To say that moral standards are social convention is to claim that human beings
had just made moral standards up for themselves and might have been different had
they liked.

Basis
Morality is something that is handed down to us primarily by education or
socialization, either through parents and elders or through teachers.

Analysis
Just because something is learned at homes or schools does not necessarily mean
that it is a social convention. Mathematical operations, geographical facts and scientific
laws are real truths and not mere conventions.
According to C. S. Lewis, morality belongs to the same class as mathematics for
two reasons.
a. Although there are differences between the moral ideas of one time or country and those of
another, the differences are not really very great.
Essentially, we can recognize the same moral law running through them all.
b. We affirm that the morality of one people is better or worse than that of another, which means
that there is a moral standard or rule by which we measure both moralities and that standard
is real.
Progress means positive development or development toward achieving a goal
or reaching a higher standard. Moral progress means not just changing, but
changing for the better. Now, if no set of moral ideas were truer or better than any
other, there would be no sense in preferring civilized morality to savage morality.

THE SOCIAL CONDITIONING THEORY

Morality is nothing but an effect of social conditioning. Moral consciousness, the
feeling that we are obliged to act morally, is nothing but an outcome of social
conditioning (Richard Robinson).

Analysis
There are plenty of situations where a person, although conditioned and
influenced by his/her culture to adopt a particular course, feels the moral obligation to
take an entirely different action.
Social conditioning affects our ethical knowledge. Nevertheless, it is the intellect
which can be molded or socially conditioned, not the sense of moral obligation nor
conscience.

MORAL RELATIVISM
MORAL RELATIVISM is a theory in ethics which holds that ethical judgments
have their origins either in individual or cultural standards. It fundamentally believes
that no act is good or bad objectively, and there is no single objective universal standard
through which we can evaluate the truth of moral judgments.
MORAL SUBJECTIVISM holds that ethical judgments have their origins in
individual standards.
CULTURAL RELATIVISM holds that ethical judgments have their origins in
cultural standards.
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Notes in GE 5 – Ethics
CULTURAL RELATIVISM
CULTURAL RELATIVISM, the most dominant form of moral relativism, defines
‘moral’ as what is ‘socially approved’ by the majority in a particular culture. It
maintains that an act is ethical in a culture that approves of it, but immoral in one that
disapproves of it.

Bases
Societies fundamentally disagree about ethical issues. Morality differs in every
society as concepts of right and wrong vary from culture to culture.

Implications
There are no moral truths that hold for all peoples at all times. Every standard is
culture-bound.
Ethics is merely a matter of societal convention. The moral code of our own
society is merely one among many.

ANALYSIS OF CULTURAL RELATIVISM

Lessons
Moral relativism encourages tolerance which is necessary for people of different
cultural origins to co-exist and live peacefully in society.
Moral relativism also teaches us to be open-minded, thereby being more open to
discovering the truth.

Faults
Cultural relativism discourages analytical thinking and independent decision-
making in Ethics as it requires unsuspecting compliance and subscription to social
norms.
Cultural relativism is inconsistent in promoting tolerance while teaching that no
culture is morally superior or more progressive than others.
Cultural relativism is practicable only if people do not belong to more than one
institution.
Moral relativism is essentially inconsistent for one cannot support relativism
with a non-relative statement.

Rachels’ Evaluation of Cultural Relativism

Rachels logically analyzed the cultural relativism’s line of thinking. He explains
that the cultural relativists approach is to argue from facts about the differences
between cultural outlooks to a conclusion about the status of morality.

Cultural Differences Argument

The Greeks believed it was wrong to eat the dead, whereas the
Callatians (an Indian tribe) believed it was right to eat the dead.
Therefore, eating the dead is neither objectively right nor
objectively wrong.
It is merely a matter of opinion, which varies from culture to
culture.
The Eskimos see nothing wrong with infanticide, whereas we
believe infanticide is immoral.
Therefore, infanticide is neither objectively right nor objectively
wrong.
It is merely a matter of opinion, which varies from culture to
culture.
General Form of the Cultural Differences Argument:
Different cultures have different moral codes.
Therefore, there is no objective “truth” in morality.
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Notes in GE 5 – Ethics
Right and wrong are only matters of opinion, and opinions vary
from culture to culture.
Counterargument to Cultural Differences Argument:
People in some primitive tribes believe that the earth is flat,
whereas Europeans hold that the Earth is (roughly) spherical.
Therefore, there is no “objective truth” in geography.
Belief in the shape of the earth is only a matter of opinion, and
opinions vary from culture to culture.

The Disagreements Among Cultures

Cultural relativism capitalizes on the observation that cultures differ
dramatically in their views of right and wrong.
Yet, the difference lies in BELIEF SYSTEMS, not in VALUES.
The difference in customs may be because of some other aspects of social life. It is
wrong to conclude that there is a disagreement about values and morality just because
customs differ.

The Case of the Callatians

The Callatians’ funerary practice could be understood as a sign of respect.
“Eating the dead is a symbolic act that says: we wish this person’s spirit to dwell within
us.”

The Case of the Eskimos

The Eskimos are popular for killing perfectly normal infants, especially girls,
because they live in a harsh environment where food is in short supply that “life is
hard, and the margin of safety small.”
Unable to farm, Eskimos must move about in search of food and infants must be
carried. There are limits to the number of infants that a mother can sustain.
Infant girls are more readily disposed of because males are the primary food
providers/hunters and they suffer a high casualty rate.
Nevertheless, adoption is common and killing is only the last resort.

Bad Consequences of Cultural Relativism

a. We could no longer say that the customs of other societies are morally inferior to our own.
Cultural relativism teaches that no culture is morally superior or progressive
than others so that racism, oppression, slavery etc. are morally acceptable.
b. We could decide whether actions are right or wrong just by consulting the standards of our
society.
Cultural relativism endorses traditionalism so that one is not supposed to think
for himself or herself.
c. The idea of moral progress is called into doubt.
In cultural relativism, there is no standard by which we judge new ways as better
or progressive.

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Notes in GE 5 – Ethics
ASIAN MORAL UNDERSTANDING
Because culture has a major impact on morality, people from different cultures
appear to have seemingly, but not essentially, different sets of ethics. This is particularly
apparent in ethics of groups of people from the Eastern or Asian culture as compared to
those from the Western culture.

Western Thought versus Eastern Thought

WESTERN THOUGHT
Individualist
Dualistic or Fragmentary
Linear view of life and universe based on
the philosophy that everything has a
beginning and an end.
Focus on “I” in finding truth and meaning.
Religion is independent of philosophy.
Action is not necessarily a translation of
the mind.
“Me” is given and does not have to be
cognizable.
Events are treated as happenings by
themselves.
Focus on searching outside the self
through research and analysis.
The truth needs to be proved.
EASTERN THOUGHT
Collectivist
Wholistic
Circular/cyclic view of life and universe
based on the perception of eternal
recurrence.
Focus on “We” in finding truth and
meaning.
Religion and philosophy are one.
Action is the extension of the mind.
“Me” is to be discovered from liberation
from attachment to material things.
Events are treated as interconnected
to/with each other.
Focus on searching inside the self through
meditation and right living.
The truth is given and does not have to be
proved.

Western Ethics versus Eastern Ethics

WESTERN ETHICS EASTERN ETHICS
Focus Finding Truth Protocol and Respect
Basis Rational Thought Religious Teachings
Emphasis Logic, Cause and Effect Respect Towards Family
Athens, Rome, Judaeo- Hinduism, Buddhism,
Roots
Christianity Confucianism, Taoism
Approach Rational Holistic, Cultural
Good and Bad, Light and
Good must triumph over
Conflict and Harmony Dark all exist in
Evil
equilibrium

Morality in Confucian Thought

Confucianism focuses on the cultivation of virtue and maintenance of morality.
Yi is the upholding of righteousness and the moral disposition to do good.
Ren is an obligation of altruism and humaneness for other individuals. Ren is the
character of the self that sincerely shows compassion for others.
Li is a system of norms and propriety that determines how a person should
properly act in everyday life. Li is both the restraining and the refinement of the self.

FILIPINO MORAL CHARACTER: STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES

Filipino cultural morality, especially that which concerns social ethics, centers on
ideally having a smooth interpersonal relationship (SIR) with others. The definition of SIR
in Philippine culture is principally supported by and anchored on at least six basic
Filipino Values:
- Pakikisama - Utang na loob
- Hiya - Filipino hospitality
- ‘Amor Proprio’ - Respect for elders

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Notes in GE 5 – Ethics
1. Pakikisama is having and maintaining “good public relations”. It characterizes both a
value and a goal that involves keeping good feelings in all personal interactions and
getting along with others, oftentimes, at all costs.
To elude open displays of conflicts, clashes, and confrontations, Filipinos,
because of pakikisama, may submit to group opinion, praise one another
overgenerously, use metaphorical language rather than candid terms, conceal
negative feelings or unhappy spirits underneath a pleasant demeanor, smile even
when things go wrong, avoid to say ”no”, and refrain from venting anger or losing
temper
2. Hiya is described as a feeling of lowliness, shame or embarrassment, and inhibition
or shyness which is experienced as somewhat distressing.
The unique Filipino concept of hiya encompasses being afraid to do bad things as
it may damage one’s reputation in the sight of other people. Too much hiya,
nonetheless, may lead to having inferiority complex and losing self-confidence.
3. Amor propio is commonly translated as “self-respect” or ”self-esteem”. It has been
characterized as the high degree of sensitivity that makes a person intolerant to
criticism and causes him/her to have an easily wounded pride.
Amor propio comes from the person’s tendency to protect his or her dignity and
honor. Because of amor propio, a person may refuse offers even if he/she really wants
to accept them.
4. Utang na loob is a fundamental aspect of upholding group harmony and
relationships that demand the balancing of obligations and debts. It involves the
concept of “reciprocity” or returning received favors.
5. Filipino hospitality refers to the innate ability and trait of Filipinos to be courteous
and entertaining to their guests. Filipinos are hospitable as they are internationally
known to be warm, welcoming and accommodating. This trait, however, makes
Filipinos prone to being abused or maltreated.
6. Filipinos are not only respectful to elders, but also have unique ways of expressing
this respect to elders by means of using po and opo when talking to elders and
pagmamano or putting the elder’s hand to one’s forehead. When excessive,
nonetheless, respect to elders make one dependent or irrationally obedient to
parents or elders.

Sikolohiyang Pilipino (also called Filipino Psychology or Indigenous Filipino

Psychology) is a psychology of, about, and for Philippine peoples. It is the psychology
rooted on the ideas, experiences, and cultural orientation of the Filipino people.
There are at least three main core values under Sikolohiyang Pilipino:
1. Pakikipagkapwa (shared identity) entailed moral or normative elements that
mandated people to treat one another as fellow human beings, and therefore as
equal.
2. Pakikiramdam (sensitivity or shared inner perception) is usually depicted as a vital
“shared inner perception” and as “heightened awareness and sensitivity.”
3. Bahala na (tacit trust) have long been misunderstood by outsiders as they view it as
merely exhibiting the fatalism of easy-going people. Bahala na, with its sacred
undertones and origins, implies Filipino courage in the face of various odds and
possible failure, as the one saying it is willing to take the risk, believing that Bathala
shall back him or her up.

Smooth interpersonal relationship, together with pakikipagkapwa-tao, has been

deemed as a central core of essential cultural traits that form and define an almost
stereotypic Filipino character and moral behavior.

UNIVERSAL VALUES
Universal values are values generally shared by cultures. The existence of
universal values is a strong proof that cultural relativism is wrong.

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Notes in GE 5 – Ethics
Universal Values According to James Rachels
Truth-telling is indispensable in the existence of a society, for without it, there
would be no reason to pay attention to what anyone communicates with anyone.
Because complex societies cannot exist without communication among their members,
the very existence of these societies proves that truthfulness is valued in those cultures.
Respecting life necessitates the prohibition on murder. In a society where no one
thought there was anything wrong with killing others at will, avoiding people would
become a mechanism for survival and large-scale societies would therefore be
impossible.
“There are some moral rules that all societies will have in common, because
those rules are necessary for society to exist.” “Cultures may differ in what they regard
as legitimate exceptions to the rules, but this disagreement exists against a background
of agreement on the larger issues.”

Universal Values According to the United Nations

• Values enshrined in the United Nations Charter
- Respect for fundamental human rights
- Social justice and human dignity
- Respect for the equal rights of men and women
• Values Needed in the Age of Globalization According to Former Secretary
General Kofi Annan
- Progress
- Equal Rights
- Human Dignity
• Values mentioned in the Millennium Declaration as essential to international
relations in the twenty-first century
- Freedom - Tolerance
- Equality - Respect for Nature
- Solidarity - Shared Responsibility

Main Reference:
ETHICS: Principles of Ethical Behavior in Modern Society
by Jens Micah De Guzman et al.
Culture in Moral Behavior, pages 15 – 37
Appendix J – Sikolohiyang Pilipino, pages 247, 249 – 252

Prepared by:
MICHAEL ANGELO F. EMPIZO
Saint Louis College, City of San Fernando, La Union
Memorial of the Most Holy Name of Mary
September 12, 2020

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