Notes in GE 5 – Ethics

Part III
FRAMEWORKS AND PRINCIPLES
BEHIND OUR MORAL DISPOSITIONS

Lesson 1
BASIC THEORIES AS FRAMEWORKS IN ETHICS

FRAMEWORK
It can be defined as a basic structure underlying a system or concept.
Contextually, in Ethics, it refers to "a set of assumptions, concepts, values, and practices
that constitutes a way of viewing reality.”
Personally held frameworks and principles in Ethics dictate one’s moral
disposition or the way a person resolves moral dilemmas. Hence, it is important to learn
the basic moral theories which are espoused or held by many people. This lesson
provides an overview on the fundamental moral principles, concepts, and theories.

1. META-ETHICS
It is the branch of ethics that studies the nature of morality. It talks about the
meaning, reference, and truth values of moral judgements. It also explains what
goodness and wickedness mean and how we know about them. It studies the methods
for choosing ethical principles and doing normative ethics.
Meta-ethics deals with the following questions:
- Are there objective moral truths?
- What do the words “good”, “bad”, “right” and “wrong” mean?
- Are moral judgments a matter of subjective personal feeling?
- How can we know if something is right or wrong?
- How may ethical propositions be supported or defended?

1.1 Semantic Classification

a. COGNITIVISM
It states that moral judgments convey propositions – are “truth bearers” or are
either true or false. Most ethical theories are cognitivist as they contend that right and
wrong are matters of fact.
MORAL REALISM claims that the existence of moral facts and the truth (or
falsity) of moral judgments are independent of people’s thoughts and perceptions. It
maintains that morality is about objective facts.
ETHICAL SUBJECTIVISM holds that the truth (or falsity) of ethical propositions
are dependent on the attitudes or standards of a person or group of persons.

b. NON-COGNITIVISM
It denies that moral judgments are either true or false. It claims that ethical
sentences do not convey authentic propositions.
EMOTIVISM is the most popular form of non-cognitivist theory. It submits that
moral judgments are mere expressions of our emotions and feelings.

1.2 Substantial Classification

a. MORAL UNIVERSALISM/ MORAL OBJECTIVISM
It theorizes that moral facts and principles apply to everybody in all places.
It claims that a universal ethic exists and this applies to all similarly situated
persons, regardless of any differentiating factor. It submits that if something is right for
one, then it its right for another. It is very much compatible with moral realism.

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Notes in GE 5 – Ethics
b. MORAL RELATIVISM
It submits that different moral facts and principles apply to different persons or
group of individuals.
It also maintains that ethical standards also change over time even in the same
culture. It holds that all moral norms are equally true and morals are mere preferences.
It is very much compatible with ethical subjectivism.

1.3 Epistemological Classification

a. MORAL EMPIRICISM
It is a meta-ethical stance which states that moral facts are known through
observation and experience.
Some forms of moral empiricism hold that moral truths are reducible to matters
about people’s opinions or cultural conventions and thus are recognizable by
observation of their conventions.

b. MORAL RATIONALISM
It contends that moral facts and principles are knowable a priori (by reason alone
and without reference to experience).
Most forms of moral rationalism purport that moral facts are known through
rational inferential process.

c. MORAL INTUITIONISM
It submits that moral truths are knowable by intuition (immediate instinctive
knowledge without reference to any evidence).
It insists that the moral value of actions may be known intuitively, even if their
consequences have not been uncovered.

2. NORMATIVE ETHICS
It is the branch of ethics that studies how man ought to act, morally speaking. It
examines ethical norms (those guidelines about what is right, worthwhile, virtuous, or
just).
It evaluates standards for the rightness and wrongness of actions and determines
a moral course of action. Prescriptive in nature, it addresses specific moral questions
about what we should do or believe. It deals with issues like “What ought one to do?”

2.1 DEONTOLOGY
It is an ethical system that bases morality on independent moral rules or duties.
The term came from the Greek word deon, which means “duty”, implying the
foundational nature of man’s duties or obligations. This system equates behaving
morally with adherence to duties or moral rules, and acting morally with failure to obey
them. Also called nonconsequentialism, the system’s principles are submitted as
obligatory, regardless of the consequences that actions might produce.

2.2 TELEOLOGY
It refers to a moral system that determines the moral value of actions by their
outcomes or results.
From the Greek word “telos”, which means “end”, it takes into account the end
result of the action as the exclusive consideration of morality.
It deems an action as morally right if its favorable consequences are greater than
its adverse outcomes. Its most famous form is consequentialism, which proposes that
morality is determined solely by a cost-benefit evaluation of the action’s consequences.

2.3 VIRTUE ETHICS

As a moral system, it places emphasis on developing good habits of character,
like kindness and generosity, and avoiding bad character traits or vices, such as greed
or hatred.
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Notes in GE 5 – Ethics
It gives importance to moral education which molds individuals to habitually act
in a virtuous manner. It focuses on the character of the agent and describes right actions
as those chosen and performed by a suitably virtuous person.

3. APPLIED ETHICS
It philosophically examines specific, controversial moral issues. Using
philosophical methods, it attempts to determine the ethically correct course of action in
specific realms of human action.
For a subject to be considered as an applied ethical issue, not only must it be a
matter of moral judgment, but also it has to be controversial - there must be
considerable groups of people both for and against the issue.

3.1 BIOETHICS
It concerns ethical issues pertaining to life, biomedical researches, medicines,
health care, and medical profession.
It deals with the following controversies: surrogate mothering, genetic
manipulation of fetuses, stem cell research, use of human embryos in research, in-vitro
fertilization, abortion, euthanasia, suicide, patient rights, confidentiality of patient’s
records, physician’s responsibilities, and mandatory medical screening.

3.2 ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS

It deals with moral issues concerning nature, ecosystem, and its nonhuman
contents.
This includes issues such as animal rights, animall experimentation, endangered
species preservation, pollution control, and sustainable development.

3.3 BUSINESS ETHICS

It examines moral principles concerning business environment which involves
issues about corporate practices, policies, business behaviors, and the conduct and
relationships of individuals in the organizations.
It investigates ethical controversies such as those about social responsibility of
businesses, employee rights, harassment, labor unions, misleading advertising, job
discrimination, and whistle blowing.

3.4 SEXUAL ETHICS

It studies moral issues about sexuality and human sexual behavior.
It examines topics like homosexuality, lesbianism, polygamy, pre-marital sex,
marital fidelity, extra-marital sex, non-marital procreation, loveless sexual relations, safe
sex, and contraceptive use.

3.5 SOCIAL ETHICS

It deals with what is right for a society to do and how it should act as a whole.
Some of the issues under social ethics are those about racial discrimination, death
penalty, nuclear weapon production, gun control, drug use for fun and welfare rights.

Main Reference:
ETHICS: Principles of Ethical Behavior in Modern Society
by Jens Micah De Guzman et al.
Basic Theories as Frameworks in Ethics, pages 84 – 92

Prepared by:
MICHAEL ANGELO F. EMPIZO
Saint Louis College, City of San Fernando, La Union
Memorial of Saint Ignatius of Antioch, Bishop and Martyr
October 17, 2020
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