Optik - International Journal for Light and Electron Optics 261 (2022) 169086

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Optik - International Journal for Light and Electron

Optics
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijleo

Original research article

Some novel mathematical analysis on a corneal shape model by

using Caputo fractional derivative
Vedat Suat Erturk a , Asghar Ahmadkhanlu b , Pushpendra Kumar c ,∗, V. Govindaraj c
a Department of Mathematics, Ondokuz Mayis University, Atakum 55200, Samsun, Turkey
b Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science, Azarbaijan Shahid Madani University, Km 35 Tabriz-Maragheh roads, Tabriz, Iran
c
Department of Mathematics, National Institute of Technology Puducherry, Karaikal 609609, India

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: In this article, we solve a fractional boundary value problem (FBVP) for modeling the human
Corneal shape corneal shape dynamics. We use the Caputo fractional derivative having singular type kernel.
Boundary value problem We propose some novel simulations to prove the existence of a unique solution of the given
Mathematical model
FBVP. The numerical solution of the proposed problem is derived by using a polynomial least
Caputo fractional derivative
squares method. We do a number of graphical observations at various values of the given model
Polynomial least squares method
Graphical simulations
parameters along with the orders of considered fractional derivative. The main motivation of
this research article is to specify the possibilities that the corneal shape may slightly differ to the
shapes which were investigated in various past studies at any fixed set of available parameters.
The given model was not generalized before by using any fractional derivative which is the
main reason for the proposal of this study as well as the novelty of the work.

1. Introduction

One of the most delicate elements of the human body is the cornea. Many vision problems are caused by irregularities in corneal
geometry. Common illnesses like myopia, hyperopia, and astigmatism, for example, are caused by incorrect corneal geometry. The
dynamics of corneal topography and models described in [1] is critical for the success of refractive surgery and the accurate fitting
of contact lenses. As a result, the correct description of corneal shape (Fig. 1) is critical for optical and opthalmologic purposes.
There are various different types of cornea mathematical models in use today. Surfaces of revolution are the most prevalent, with
meridians being conic sections (mainly parabolas and ellipses) [2]. Regrettably, they are often considered without much physical
reason or justification. Some researchers have been proposed that this conics can be extended by applying variable eccentricity [3].
Aside from these models, there is a collection of shell theory-based models. They are typically pretty complicated, but they go into
great detail into physics [4]. There have also been several computational models of corneal biomechanics defined via finite element
methods developed [5]. There are additional models that use Zernike polynomial approximations to characterize cornea [6]. With
regard to a certain scalar product, they are orthogonal polynomials. They are used to describe corneal or lens aberrations. Further
models store and compress information about the corneal surface gathered during videokeratoscopy using rational functions created
using Zernike polynomials [7].
The cornea is thought to be responsible for around two-thirds of the eye’s refractive power. ‘‘The anterior surface of the human
cornea is a key refractive element’’, according to [8]. The rigid gas permeable (RGP) contact lens and corneal laser refractive surgery
require a thorough understanding of the corneal shape (LASIK).

∗ Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: vserturk@omu.edu.tr (V.S. Erturk), ahmadkhanlu@azaruniv.ac.ir (A. Ahmadkhanlu), kumarsaraswatpk@gmail.com (P. Kumar),
govindaraj.maths@gmail.com (V. Govindaraj).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijleo.2022.169086
Received 26 December 2021; Accepted 8 April 2022
Available online 21 April 2022
0030-4026/© 2022 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved.
V.S. Erturk et al. Optik 261 (2022) 169086

Fig. 1. Human corneal shape.

We are primarily directed to a model of the topography of the human cornea in our research. This physically based model was
first proposed in [9], and it accurately described the curvature of the cornea. Authors in [9] was proposed the following boundary
value problem (BVP) to define the topography of the human cornea:
𝑏
−𝑦′′ (𝑡) + 𝑎𝑦(𝑡) = √ , (1)
1 + (𝑦′ (𝑡))2
𝑦′ (0) = 0, 𝑦(1) = 0. (2)
Here the curve 𝑦(𝑡) is a meridian of a surface of revolution describing corneal geometry, 𝑡 is a distance from the center of symmetry
and 𝑎 and 𝑏 are the positive constants significantly defined in Ref. [9].
The existence and uniqueness results obtained in [9] for the given BVP (1)–(2) were generalized previously in [10]. An efficient
semi-analytical solution of the given BVP model has been derived in Ref. [11]. Recently, in Ref. [12], an approximate analytical
solution of the given BVP has been investigated using linear solution and Taylor series method.
In the all above mentioned works, the given BVP is considered in the sense of integer-order derivatives. Nowadays, fractional-
order operators are also very useful tools to solve number of real-world problems, mathematically [13,14]. Various types of fractional
derivatives are available in the literature along with many recent developments [15,16]. Also, number of numerical methods have
been proposed by the researchers in the sense of fractional-order operators [17,18]. Recently, fractional-order operators have been
used in number of areas like, epidemiology [19,20], ecology [21,22], physics [23], psychology [24], etc. In [25], some novel analysis
on the existence and uniqueness of a non-linear q-difference boundary value problem of non-integer order are obtained.
The motivation behind the generalization of the classical differential systems into non-integer order sense by using fractional
time derivatives always be to incorporate a history dependence into the dynamics which is called memory effects. Fractional calculus
is strongly associated to many adaptive systems with memory and hereditary characteristics, which largely exist in our real-life. In
this concern, we propose the generalization of the above given integer-order BVP (1)–(2) into the fractional-order sense as follows:
𝑏
𝑐
𝐷0𝜇 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑎𝑦(𝑡) − √ , 𝑡 ∈ (0, 1), (3)
1 + (𝑐 𝐷0𝜈 𝑦(𝑡))2

𝑦′ (0) = 0, 𝑦(1) = 0. (4)

Here 𝑐 𝐷𝜇
is the Caputo fractional derivative of the function 𝑦(𝑡) of order 1 < 𝜇 ≤ 2 and 𝑐 𝐷𝜈
is the Caputo fractional derivative of
0 0
the function 𝑦(𝑡) of order 0 < 𝜈 ≤ 1. The proposed Caputo fractional derivative used in the generalization is defined as follows:

𝑑 is defined by
Definition 1 ([14]). The Caputo fractional derivative of a function  ∈ 𝐶−1
⎧ 𝑑 𝑞 (𝑡)
⎪ 𝑑𝜁 𝑞
, 𝜚=𝑞∈N
𝐷𝑡𝜚  (𝑡) =⎨ 1 𝑡
(5)
𝑞−𝜚−1 (𝑞)
⎪ 𝛤 (𝑞−𝜚) ∫0 (𝑡 − 𝜗)  (𝜗) 𝑑𝜗, 𝑞 − 1 < 𝜚 < 𝑞 , 𝑞 ∈ N.
⎩
The given study is formulated in number of sections. In Section 2, we prove the existence of a unique solution in the sense of
given fractional operator. In Section 3, we derive the numerical solution of the given BVP (3)–(4) by using polynomial least squares
scheme. In Section 4, we perform number of graphs to justify the novelty of the work experimentally. At the end, we conclude our
findings.

2
V.S. Erturk et al. Optik 261 (2022) 169086

2. Existence and uniqueness analysis

Firstly, we recall the main problem (3)–(4) as follows:

𝑏
𝑐
𝐷0𝜇 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑎𝑦(𝑡) − √ , 𝑡 ∈ (0, 1), 1 < 𝜇 ≤ 2, 0 < 𝜈 ≤ 1, (6)
1 + (𝑐 𝐷0𝜈 𝑦(𝑡))2

𝑦′ (0) = 0, 𝑦(1) = 0. (7)

We will prove that the solution of the fractional boundary value problem (FBVP) (6)–(7) exists and is unique. To do this, we
need some facts about the function given in the right-side of Eq. (6). It is clear that the function given in the right-side of (6)
is continuous. Now let (𝐽 ) be the space of continuous functions defined on 𝐽 = [0, 1]. One can easily show that the space
 = {𝑦 ∶ 𝑦 ∈ (𝐽 ), 𝑐 𝐷0𝜈 ∈ (𝐽 ), 0 < 𝜈 < 1} defined with the norm ‖𝑦‖ = sup𝑡∈𝐽 |𝑦(𝑡)| + sup𝑡∈𝐽 |𝑐 𝐷0𝜈 𝑦(𝑡)| is a Banach space.

Lemma 1. Let 𝐽 = [0, 1], ℎ ∈ (𝐽 ) and 1 < 𝜇 ≤ 2, then the unique solution of the problem
𝑐
𝐷0𝜇 𝑦(𝑡) = ℎ(𝑡), (8)
′
𝑦 (0) = 0, 𝑦(1) = 0, (9)

is given by
1
𝑦(𝑡) = 𝐺(𝑡, 𝑤)ℎ(𝑤)𝑑𝑤, (10)
∫0
where
⎧ (𝑡−𝑤)𝜇−1 −(1−𝑤)𝜇−1
⎪ 𝛤 (𝜇)
, 0 ≤ 𝑤 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 1,
𝐺(𝑡, 𝑤) = ⎨ 𝜇−1
(11)
⎪ −(1−𝑤) , 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑤 ≤ 1.
⎩ 𝛤 (𝜇)

Proof. By taking the 𝜇th order integration of Eq. (8), we have

𝑡
1
𝑦(𝑡) = (𝑡 − 𝑤)𝜇−1 ℎ(𝑤)𝑑𝑤 + 𝑐0 + 𝑐1 𝑡. (12)
𝛤 (𝜇) ∫0
The boundary condition 𝑦′ (0) = 0 implies that 𝑐1 = 0 and using the boundary condition 𝑦(1) = 0, we get
1
1
𝑐0 = − (1 − 𝑤)𝜇−1 ℎ(𝑤)𝑑𝑤. (13)
𝛤 (𝜇) ∫0
So,
𝑡 1
1 1
𝑦(𝑡) = (𝑡 − 𝑤)𝜇−1 ℎ(𝑤)𝑑𝑤 − (1 − 𝑤)𝜇−1 ℎ(𝑤)𝑑𝑤
𝛤 (𝜇) ∫0 𝛤 (𝜇) ∫0
1
= 𝐺(𝑡, 𝑤)ℎ(𝑤)𝑑𝑤. □
∫0

Corollary 1. The function 𝑦 ∈  is a solution of the problem (6)–(7) if 𝑦 is a solution of the integral equation
1
𝑏
𝑦(𝑡) = 𝐺(𝑡, 𝑤)(𝑎𝑦(𝑤) − √ )𝑑𝑤. (14)
∫0
1 + ( 𝐷0𝜈 𝑦(𝑤))2
𝑐

𝑏
Proposition 1. There exist a constant 𝛾 > 0, such that |𝑎𝑦(𝑡) − √ | ≤ 𝑎|𝑦| + 𝑏|𝑐 𝐷0𝜈 𝑦|𝛾 .
1+(𝑐 𝐷0𝜈 𝑦(𝑡))2

Theorem 1. The given fractional boundary value problem exists a solution.

Proof. We define the operator

1
(𝛹 𝑦)(𝑡) = 𝐺(𝑡, 𝑤)𝑓 (𝑤, 𝑦(𝑤), 𝑐 𝐷0𝜈 𝑦(𝑤))𝑑𝑤, (15)
∫0
𝑏
where 𝑓 (𝑤, 𝑦(𝑤), 𝑐 𝐷0𝜈 𝑦(𝑤)) = 𝑎𝑦(𝑤) − √ and 0 < 𝜈 ≤ 1. It is well known that the fixed points of the operator 𝛹 is the
1+(𝑐 𝐷0𝜈 𝑦(𝑤))2
solutions of the FBVP (6)–(7). Now we will apply the Schauder fixed point theorem to prove the existence of fixed points of the
operator (15). This can be done in the following several steps:
Step 1. 𝛹 is a continuous operator.

3
V.S. Erturk et al. Optik 261 (2022) 169086

It is concluded from the continuity of 𝑓 and 𝐺.

For convenience we assume
𝑎‖𝑦‖ 𝑏‖𝑦‖𝛾
𝑟1 = + ,
𝛤 (𝜇 + 1) 𝛤 (𝜇 + 1)

𝑎‖𝑦‖ 𝑏‖𝑦‖𝛾
𝑟2 = + .
𝛤 (𝜇 − 𝜈 + 1) 𝛤 (𝜇 − 𝜈 + 1)

Step 2. 𝛹 is a self-map.
We choose 𝜌 ≥ max{2𝑟1 , 2𝑟2 }. Let 𝑀 = {𝑦 ∈  ∶ ‖𝑦‖ ≤ 𝜌, 𝑡 ∈ 𝐽 }
| 1 |
| |
|(𝛹 𝑦)(𝑡)| ≤ | 𝐺(𝑡, 𝑤)𝑓 (𝑤, 𝑦(𝑤), 𝑐 𝐷0𝜈 𝑦(𝑤))𝑑𝑤|
|∫0 |
| |
1 1
≤ 𝑎 |𝐺(𝑡, 𝑤)‖𝑦(𝑤)|𝑑𝑤 + 𝑏 |𝐺(𝑡, 𝑤)‖𝑐 𝐷0𝜈 𝑦(𝑤)|𝛾2 𝑑𝑤
∫0 ∫0
1 1
≤ 𝑎‖𝑦(𝑤)‖ |𝐺(𝑡, 𝑤)|𝑑𝑤 + 𝑏‖𝑦(𝑤)‖𝛾 |𝐺(𝑡, 𝑤)|𝑑𝑤
∫0 ∫0
1
≤ (𝑎‖𝑦(𝑤)‖ + 𝑏‖𝑦(𝑤)‖𝛾 )
𝛤 (𝜇 + 1)
≤ 𝑟1 ,

and
1
|(𝑐 𝐷0𝜈 𝛹 𝑦)(𝑡)| ≤ |𝑐 𝐷0𝜈 𝐺(𝑡, 𝑤)𝑓 (𝑤, 𝑦(𝑤), 𝑐 𝐷0𝜈 𝑦(𝑤))𝑑𝑤|
∫0
1
(𝑡 − 𝑤)𝜇−1
≤ |𝑐 𝐷0𝜈 𝑓 (𝑤, 𝑦(𝑤), 𝑐 𝐷0𝜈 𝑦(𝑤))𝑑𝑤|
∫0 𝛤 (𝛼)
1
1
≤ (𝑡 − 𝑤)𝜇−𝜈−1 (𝑎|𝑦(𝑤)| + 𝑏|𝑐 𝐷0𝜈 𝑦(𝑤)|𝛾2 )𝑑𝑤
𝛤 (𝜇 − 𝜈) ∫0
‖𝑦‖ ‖𝑦‖𝛾
≤ 𝑎 +𝑏
𝛤 (𝜇 − 𝜈 − 1) 𝛤 (𝜇 − 𝜈 − 1)
≤ 𝑟2 .
𝜌 𝜌
Therefore ‖(𝛹 𝑦)(𝑡)‖ ≤ 2
+ 2
= 𝜌. Thus 𝛹 ∶ 𝑀 → 𝑀.

Step 3. 𝛹 is a completely continuous operator.

Let 𝑁 = sup0≤𝑡≤1 |𝑓 𝑡, 𝑦(𝑡), 𝑐 𝐷0𝜈 𝑦(𝑡)| + 1, for 𝑦 ∈ 𝑀 and 0 < 𝑡1 < 𝑡2 < 1, then we have

|(𝛹 𝑦)(𝑡2 ) − (𝛹 𝑦)(𝑡1 )|

𝑡2 𝑡1
≤ | 𝐺(𝑡2 , 𝑠)𝑓 (𝑤, 𝑦(𝑤), 𝑐 𝐷0𝜈 𝑦(𝑤))𝑑𝑤 − 𝐺(𝑡1 , 𝑤)𝑓 (𝑤, 𝑦(𝑤), 𝑐 𝐷0𝜈 𝑦(𝑤))𝑑𝑤|
∫0 ∫0
2 𝑡 1 𝑡
1 1
≤ | (𝑡2 − 𝑤)𝜇−1 𝑓 (𝑤, 𝑦(𝑤), 𝑐 𝐷0𝜈 𝑦(𝑤))𝑑𝑤 − (𝑡 − 𝑤)𝜇−1 𝑓 (𝑤, 𝑦(𝑤), 𝑐 𝐷0𝜈 𝑦(𝑤))𝑑𝑤|
𝛤 (𝜇) 0∫ 𝛤 (𝜇) 0 1
∫
1 𝑡
1
≤ | [(𝑡2 − 𝑤)𝜇−1 − (𝑡1 − 𝑤)𝜇−1 ]𝑓 (𝑤, 𝑦(𝑤), 𝑐 𝐷0𝜈 𝑦(𝑤))𝑑𝑤|
𝛤 (𝜇) ∫0
2 𝑡
1
+ | (𝑡 − 𝑤)𝜇−1 𝑓 (𝑤, 𝑦(𝑤), 𝑐 𝐷0𝜈 𝑦(𝑤))𝑑𝑤
𝛤 (𝜇) ∫𝑡1 2
2𝑁
≤ (𝑡 − 𝑡1 )𝜇 .
𝛤 (𝜇 + 1) 2
So, 𝛹 𝑀 is equicontinuous, Also 𝛹 𝑀 is uniformly bounded set and 𝛹 𝑀 ⊂ 𝑀. Applying the Arzela–Ascoli theorem 𝛹 ∶ 𝑀 → 𝑀 is
completely continuous. Hence, Schauder fixed point theorem gives the existence of solution in 𝑀 for the boundary value problem
(6)–(7). □
( )
max{𝑎, 2𝑏
√ }
3 3
Theorem 2. If min{𝛤 (𝜇+1),𝛤 (𝜇−𝜈+1)}
< 1, then the solution of the problem (6)–(7) is unique.

1 2
Proof. At first we note that, if we set 𝑃 (𝑡) = √ , one can see 𝑃 is a Lipschitz continuous. In fact |𝑃 (𝑡) − 𝑃 (𝑤)| ≤ √ |𝑡 − 𝑤|. Now
1+𝑡2 3 3
2𝑏
if we set 𝑘 = max{𝑎, √ } we will have the following estimates.
3 3

|(𝛹 𝑦1 )(𝑡) − (𝛹 𝑦2 )(𝑡)|

4
V.S. Erturk et al. Optik 261 (2022) 169086

| ⎛ ⎞||
|
1 | ⎜ 1 1 ⎟||
≤ |
|𝐺(𝑡, 𝑤)| |𝑎(𝑦1 − 𝑦2 ) + 𝑏 ⎜ √ −√ ⎟| 𝑑𝑤
∫0 |
| ⎜ 1 + (𝑐 𝐷𝜈 𝑦1 )2 1 + (𝑐 𝐷0𝜈 𝑦2 )2 ⎟||
| ⎝ 0 ⎠|
[ ]
1
2𝑏
≤ |𝐺(𝑡, 𝑤)| 𝑎|𝑦1 − 𝑦2 | + √ |𝑐 𝐷0𝜈 𝑦1 − 𝑐 𝐷0𝜈 𝑦2 | 𝑑𝑠
∫0 3 3
1 [ ]
≤ 𝑘|𝐺(𝑡, 𝑤)| |𝑦1 − 𝑦2 | + |𝑐 𝐷0𝜈 𝑦1 − 𝑐 𝐷0𝜈 𝑦2 | 𝑑𝑤
∫0
1
≤ 𝑘‖𝑦1 − 𝑦2 ‖ |𝐺(𝑡, 𝑤)|𝑑𝑤
∫0
𝑘
≤ ‖𝑦 − 𝑦2 ‖.
𝛤 (𝜇 + 1) 1

|(𝑐 𝐷0𝜇 𝛹 𝑦1 )(𝑡) − (𝑐 𝐷0𝜇 𝛹 𝑦2 )(𝑡)|

| ⎛ ⎞||
|
1
𝑡
𝜇−𝜈−1 |
| ⎜ 1 1 ⎟||
≤
𝛤 (𝜇 − 𝜈) ∫0
(𝑡 − 𝑤) |𝑎(𝑦1 − 𝑦2 ) + 𝑏 ⎜ √ −√ ⎟| 𝑑𝑤
| ⎜ 1 + (𝑐 𝐷𝜈 𝑦1 )2 1 + (𝑐 𝐷0𝜈 𝑦2 )2 ⎟||
| ⎝ ⎠|
| 0
[ ]
𝑡
1 2𝑏
≤ (𝑡 − 𝑤)𝜇−𝜈−1 𝑎|𝑦1 − 𝑦2 | + √ |𝑐 𝐷0𝜈 𝑦1 − 𝑐 𝐷0𝜈 𝑦2 | 𝑑𝑤
𝛤 (𝜇 − 𝜈) ∫0 3 3
1
𝑡 [ ]
≤ (𝑡 − 𝑤)𝜇−𝜈−1 𝑘 |𝑦1 − 𝑦2 | + |𝑐 𝐷0𝜈 𝑦1 − 𝑐 𝐷0𝜈 𝑦2 | 𝑑𝑤
𝛤 (𝜇 − 𝜈) ∫0
𝑡
1
≤ 𝑘‖𝑦1 − 𝑦2 ‖ (𝑡 − 𝑤)𝜇−𝜈−1 𝑑𝑤
𝛤 (𝜇 − 𝜈) ∫0
𝑘
≤ ‖𝑦 − 𝑦2 ‖.
𝛤 (𝜇 − 𝜈 + 1) 1
( )
max{𝑎, 2𝑏
√ }
3 3
Hence, we can conclude that ||(𝛹 𝑦1 )(𝑡) − (𝛹 𝑦2 )(𝑡)| ≤ 𝜉‖𝑦1 − 𝑦2 ‖, where 𝜉 = min{𝛤 (𝜇+1),𝛤 (𝜇−𝜈+1)}
< 1. So by contraction mapping
principle, the FBVP (6)–(7) has a unique solution. □

3. Numerical solution of the model

Now we derive the solution of the given problem by using well-known polynomial least squares scheme. Some applications of
this method can be seen from Ref. [26–28].

3.1. The polynomial least squares scheme

Related to the FBVP (6)–(7), we consider the operator

𝑏
𝐷 (𝑦) = 𝐷𝜇 𝑦 (𝑡) − 𝑎𝑦 (𝑡) + √ . (16)
1 + 𝐷𝜈 𝑦 (𝑡)2
Let 𝑦̃ is an approximate solution of Eq. (6). The error evaluated by shifting the exact solution 𝑦 with the approximation 𝑦̃ is specified
by the remainder:
( ) ( )
𝑅 𝑡, 𝑦̃ = 𝐷 𝑦̃ (𝑡) , 𝑡 ∈ [0, 1] . (17)

For 𝜖 ∈ R+ , we will find the approximate polynomial solutions 𝑦̃ of the FBVP (6)–(7) on the interval [0, 1]. We consider the following
conditions for 𝑦̃:
| ( )|
|𝑅 𝑡, 𝑦̃ | < 𝜖, (18)
| |

𝑦̃′ (0) = 0, 𝑦̃ (1) = 0. (19)

Definition 2. We define an 𝜖-approximate polynomial solution of the FBVP (6)–(7) and an approximate polynomial solution 𝑦̃
following the inequalities (18)–(19).

Definition 3. We call a weak 𝜖-approximate polynomial solution of the FBVP (6)–(7) and an approximate polynomial solution 𝑦̃
following the inequality

| ( ) |
1
|𝑅 𝑡, 𝑦̃ 𝑑𝑡| ≤ 𝜖, (20)
∫0 | |

5
V.S. Erturk et al. Optik 261 (2022) 169086

along with the boundary conditions (19).

Definition 4. Let 𝑃𝑞 (𝑡) = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑡 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑞 𝑡𝑞 , 𝑎𝑖 ∈ R, 𝑖 = 0, 1, … , 𝑞 be a sequence of polynomials following the conditions

𝑃𝑞′ (0) = 0, 𝑃𝑞 (1) = 0. (21)

( )
We say that the sequence of polynomials 𝑃𝑞 (𝑡) converge to the solution of the FBVP (6)–(7) if lim𝑞→∞ 𝐷 𝑃𝑞 (𝑡) = 0.
We remark from the hypothesis of the FBVP (6)–(7) that there exists a sequence of polynomials 𝑃𝑞 (𝑡) which converges to the
solution of the given FBVP.
Now we will investigate a weak 𝜖-polynomial solution of the type
∑
𝑞
𝑦̃ (𝑡) = 𝑐𝑘 𝑡𝑘 , (22)
𝑘=0

where the constants 𝑐0, 𝑐1,…, 𝑐𝑞 are founded by following the given steps:

• By putting the approximate solution (22) in Eq. (6), we get the following inequality:
( ) ( ) 𝑏
R 𝑡, 𝑐0, 𝑐1,…, 𝑐𝑞 = 𝑅 𝑡, 𝑦̃ = 𝐷𝜇 𝑦̃ (𝑡) − 𝑎̃
𝑦 (𝑡) + √ . (23)
1 + 𝐷𝜈 𝑦̃ (𝑡)2
( )
If we could calculate 𝑐0, 𝑐1,…, 𝑐𝑞 such that R 𝑡, 𝑐00 , 𝑐10 , … , 𝑐𝑞0 = 0 for any 𝑡 ∈ [0, 1] and the equivalents of (7):

𝑦̃′ (0) = 0, 𝑦̃ (1) = 0, (24)

and also satisfied, then by substituting 𝑐00 , 𝑐10 , … , 𝑐𝑞0 in (22), we get the exact solution of (6)–(7).
• Next, we associate to the FBVP (6)–(7), the following real functional:
( ) 1 ( )
𝐽 𝑐2 , 𝑐3, … , 𝑐 𝑞−1 = R2 𝑡, 𝑐0, 𝑐1,…, 𝑐𝑞 𝑑𝑡, (25)
∫0
where 𝑐1 and 𝑐𝑞 are taken as functions of 𝑐2 , 𝑐3, … , 𝑐 𝑞−1 by using the boundary conditions (24).
• We calculate 𝑐20 , 𝑐30 , … , 𝑐𝑞−1
0 as the weights giving the minimum of the functional (25) and the values of 𝑐00 , 𝑐𝑞0 again as the
functions of 𝑐20 , 𝑐30 , … , 𝑐𝑞−1
0 from the boundary conditions (24).
• Taking the constants 𝑐00 , 𝑐10 , … , 𝑐𝑞0 , we define the polynomial:
∑
𝑞
𝑇𝑞 (𝑡) = 𝑐𝑘0 𝑡𝑘 . (26)
𝑘=0

The following convergence theorem holds:

Theorem 3. The sequence of polynomial 𝑇𝑞 (𝑡) from (26) follows the characteristic
1 ( )
lim 𝑅2 𝑡, 𝑇𝑞 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 = 0. (27)
𝑞→∞ ∫0

Moreover, ∀ 𝜖 > 0, ∃𝑞0 ∈ N such that ∀𝑞 ∈ N, 𝑞 > 𝑞0 it follows that 𝑇𝑞 (𝑡) is a weak 𝜖-approximate polynomial solution of (6)–(7).

Proof . As per the polynomials 𝑇𝑞 (𝑡) are calculated and considering the inequalities (23)–(26), the following constraint is satisfied:
1 ( ) 1 ( )
0≤ 𝑅2 𝑡, 𝑇𝑞 (𝑡) dt ≤ 𝑅2 𝑡, 𝑃𝑞 (𝑡) dt, ∀𝑞 ∈ N, (28)
∫0 ∫0
where 𝑃𝑞 (𝑡) is the sequence of polynomials given in Definition 4.
It follows that
1 ( ) 1 ( )
0 ≤ lim 𝑅2 𝑡, 𝑇𝑞 (𝑡) dt ≤ lim 𝑅2 𝑡, 𝑃𝑞 (𝑡) dt = 0. (29)
𝑞→∞ ∫0 𝑞→∞ ∫0

We get
1 ( )
lim 𝑅2 𝑡, 𝑇𝑞 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 = 0. (30)
𝑞→∞ ∫0

From this limit, we get that ∀ 𝜖 > 0, ∃𝑞0 ∈ N such that ∀ 𝑞 ∈ N, 𝑞 > 𝑞0 , it follows that 𝑇𝑞 (𝑡) is a weak 𝜖-approximate polynomial
solution of the FBVP (6)–(7). □

Remark 1. We note that any 𝜖-approximate polynomial solution of the FBVP (6)–(7) is also a weak 𝜖 2 -approximate polynomial
solution, but the converse is not always correct. It satisfies that the set of weak approximate solutions of (6)–(7) also exists the
approximate solutions of the problem.

6
V.S. Erturk et al. Optik 261 (2022) 169086

Fig. 2. Numerical solution of the FBVP with 𝑎 = 1, 𝑏 = 1 at various fractional order values.

From the given remark, in order to calculate 𝜖-approximate polynomial solutions of the FBVP (6)–(7) by using the polynomial
| ( )|
least squares scheme, we will first find the weak approximate polynomial solutions, 𝑦̃. If |𝑅 𝑡, 𝑦̃ | < 𝜖, then 𝑦̃ is also an 𝜖-approximate
| |
polynomial solution of the FBVP.

3.2. Application to the FBVP (6) –(7)

Applying the polynomial least squares scheme, we derive a solution (22) of the type 𝑦̃ (𝑡) = 𝑐0 + 𝑐1 𝑡 + 𝑐2 𝑡2 + ⋯ + 𝑐60 𝑡60 .
This solution should satisfy the two point boundary conditions given in (7). Taking the relative boundary ′
∑ ( conditions )𝑦̃ (0) =
0, 𝑦̃ (1) = 0, we get 𝑐1 = 0, 𝑐60 = −𝑐0 − 60 and the approximation becomes: 2 + ⋯ + 𝑐 𝑡59 + −𝑐 − ∑59 𝑐 60
𝑐
𝑞=2 𝑞 𝑦
̃ (𝑡) = 𝑐0 + 𝑐2 𝑡 59 0 𝑞=2 𝑞 𝑡 .
The corresponding remainder (23) is:
( )
( ) 𝛤 (59) 58−𝜇 𝛤 (60) 59−𝜇 ∑59
𝛤 (61) 60−𝜇
𝑅 𝑡, 𝑦̃ = 𝑐59 𝑡 + 𝑐59 𝑡 + −𝑐0 − 𝑐𝑘 𝑡
𝛤 (59 − 𝜇) 𝛤 (60 − 𝜇) 𝑘=2
𝛤 (61 − 𝜇)
( ( ( 59 )) )
∑
− 𝑎 𝑐0 + 𝑐58 𝑡58 + 𝑐59 𝑡59 + −𝑐0 − 𝑐𝑘 𝑡60 (31)
𝑘=2
𝑏
+ √
( ( ∑ ) )2
𝛤 (59) 58−𝜈 𝛤 (60) 59−𝜈 𝛤 (61) 60−𝜈
1 + 𝑐58 𝛤 (59−𝜈) 𝑡 + 𝑐𝑞−1 𝛤 (60−𝜈) 𝑡 + −𝑐0 − 59
𝑘=2 𝑐𝑘 𝛤 (61−𝜈)
𝑡

Next we compute the functional (25) and minimizing it and then getting the values 𝑐0 , 𝑐2 , … , 𝑐60 (too large to be included here).

4. Simulation results

As we know that an early identification of certain eye disorders and monitoring the postoperative results of refractive surgery
can both benefit from a precise assessment of the corneal shape and prediction of changes in the corneal geometry. The corneal
Eqs. (6)–(7) contain two constant parameters, 𝑎 and 𝑏, which are affected by physical and biological factors such as the elasticity
coefficient, surface tension, and corneal radius, as well as intraocular pressure. These characteristics alter in disorders of the cornea
and might reflect the state of the cornea’s health. They also differ from one individual to the next. The nonlinearity of the problem
and the acceptable zone in which a solution is valid are determined by these crucial factors. Now we plot the number of graphs
for the above given solution of the FBVP (6)–(7) by using the various numerical values of parameters 𝑎 and 𝑏 which was estimated
in [9] from real data-fittings. Fig. 2 defines the structure of the corneal shape 𝑦(𝑡), respect to the distance 𝑡 at 𝑎 = 1, 𝑏 = 1 for
different pairs of fractional order values 𝜇 and 𝜈. When we compare our Fig. 2 with the Fig. 2 of Ref. [9], then we get that the
integer-order case 𝜇 = 2, 𝜈 = 1 satisfies the previous solution of [9]. But when we use the different values of orders 𝜇, 𝜈, we get
some changes in the corneal shape at same values of parameters 𝑎 and 𝑏. Fig. 3 shows the dynamics of the corneal shape 𝑦(𝑡) at
𝑎 = 1.72, 𝑏 = 1.60, which can be compared with Fig. 2 of Ref. [12]. Fig. 4 specifies at 𝑎 = 1.38, 𝑏 = 1.31. Fig. 5 defines the curve of
𝑦(𝑡) at 𝑎 = 1.6, 𝑏 = 1.7 which can be compared with Fig. 2 of Ref. [10,11]. Where integer-order cases 𝜇 = 2, 𝜈 = 1 are approximately
same but curve of shape 𝑦(𝑡) goes to higher values on y-axis when fractional-order decreases.
From the above given plots, we observe that as compare to the previous studies [9–12], our solutions are advanced because when
we fix the orders 𝜇 = 2, 𝜈 = 1, then all previous integer-order simulations of the considered model are received. Also, fractional

7
V.S. Erturk et al. Optik 261 (2022) 169086

Fig. 3. Numerical solution of the FBVP with 𝑎 = 1.72, 𝑏 = 1.60 at various fractional order values.

Fig. 4. Numerical solution of the FBVP with 𝑎 = 1.38, 𝑏 = 1.31 at various fractional order values.

Fig. 5. Numerical solution of the FBVP with 𝑎 = 1.6, 𝑏 = 1.7 at various fractional order values.

8
V.S. Erturk et al. Optik 261 (2022) 169086

order simulations provide the different possibilities of the changes in the corneal shape 𝑦(𝑡) at any fixed set of parameters (𝑎, 𝑏)
which cannot be observed in the previous given studies. The implementation of the given polynomial least squares method is done
by using Mathematica software.

5. Conclusion

In this paper, we have proposed a fractional boundary value problem for studying the dynamics of human corneal shape. We
have used the Caputo fractional derivative to achieve our results. We have proved that the given FBVP model exists a unique solution
under the applications of Arzela–Ascoli and Schauder fixed point theorems. The numerical simulations for the proposed problem
have been made by using the polynomial least squares method. We have performed a number of graphs at various values of the
parameters along with the different fractional order values. The main target of this research study was to specify the role of fractional
derivatives. We have investigated that at any fixed set of available parameters, the corneal shape may differ slightly to the shapes
which have been justified in other past studies. First time generalization of the corneal shape model in fractional sense makes this
study more visible to the literature. In future, some other fractional derivatives can be implemented to solve the proposed fractional
order model.

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Vedat Suat Erturk: Conceptualization, Investigation, Software, Writing – review & editing. Asghar Ahmadkhanlu: Concep-
tualization, Investigation, Software, Writing – review & editing. Pushpendra Kumar: Investigation, Formal analysis, Resources,
Visualization, Writing – original draft. V. Govindaraj: Conceptualization, Investigation, Writing – review & editing.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
to influence the work reported in this paper.

Data availability statement

The data used in this study are mentioned/available in the manuscript.

References

[1] W.T. Mahavier, J. Hunt, An alternative mathematical algorithm for the photo-and videokeratoscope, Nonlinear Anal. RWA 7 (5) (2006) 1223–1232.
[2] H.T. Kasprzak, D. Robert Iskander, Approximating ocular surfaces by generalised conic curves, Ophthalmic Physiol. Opt. 26 (6) (2006) 602–609.
[3] M.A. Rosales, M. Juárez-Aubry, E. López-Olazagasti, J. Ibarra, E. Tepichín, Anterior corneal profile with variable asphericity, Appl. Opt. 48 (35) (2009)
6594–6599.
[4] K. Anderson, A. El-Sheikh, T. Newson, Application of structural analysis to the mechanical behaviour of the cornea, J. R. Soc. Interface 1 (1) (2004) 3–15.
[5] A. Elsheikh, Finite element modeling of corneal biomechanical behavior, J. Refract. Surg. 26 (4) (2010) 289–300.
[6] D.R. Iskander, M.J. Collins, B. Davis, Optimal modeling of corneal surfaces with Zernike polynomials, IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng. 48 (1) (2001) 87–95.
[7] M. Schneider, D.R. Iskander, M.J. Collins, Modeling corneal surfaces with rational functions for high-speed videokeratoscopy data compression, IEEE Trans.
Biomed. Eng. 56 (2) (2008) 493–499.
[8] S. Zheng, J. Ying, B. Wang, Z. Xie, X. Huang, M. Shi, Three-dimensional model for human anterior corneal surface, J. Biomed. Opt. 18 (6) (2013) 065002.
[9] W. Okrasiński, Płociniczak, A nonlinear mathematical model of the corneal shape, Nonlinear Anal. RWA 13 (3) (2012) 1498–1505.
[10] L. Płociniczak, W. Okrasiński, J.J. Nieto, O. Dominguez, On a nonlinear boundary value problem modeling corneal shape, J. Math. Anal. Appl. 414 (1)
(2014) 461–471.
[11] M. Abukhaled, S. Khuri, An efficient semi-analytical solution of a one-dimensional curvature equation that describes the human corneal shape, Math.
Comput. Appl. 24 (1) (2019) 8.
[12] H. Moghadas, Approximate analytical solutions for a nonlinear differential equation of the corneal geometry, Inform. Med. Unlocked 20 (2020) 100410.
[13] A. Kilbas, H.M. Srivastava, J.J. Trujillo, Theory and Applications of Fractional Differential Equations, Elsevier Science, 2006.
[14] I. Podlubny, Fractional Differential Equations: An Introduction to Fractional Derivatives, Fractional Differential Equations, to Methods of their Solution
and Some of their Applications, Elsevier, 1998.
[15] Z. Odibat, D. Baleanu, Numerical simulation of initial value problems with generalized caputo-type fractional derivatives, Appl. Numer. Math. (2020).
[16] M. Caputo, M. Fabrizio, A new definition of fractional derivative without singular kernel, Prog. Fract. Differ. Appl. 1 (2) (2015) 1–13.
[17] P. Kumar, V.S. Erturk, A. Kumar, A new technique to solve generalized Caputo type fractional differential equations with the example of computer virus
model, J. Math. Ext. (15) (2021).
[18] Z. Odibat, V.S. Erturk, P. Kumar, V. Govindaraj, Dynamics of generalized Caputo type delay fractional differential equations using a modified
predictor-corrector scheme, Phys. Scr. 96 (12) (2021) 125213.
[19] P. Kumar, V.S. Erturk, A. Yusuf, S. Kumar, Fractional time-delay mathematical modeling of oncolytic virotherapy, Chaos Solitons Fractals 150 (2021)
111123.
[20] K.N. Nabi, H. Abboubakar, P. Kumar, Forecasting of COVID-19 pandemic: From integer derivatives to fractional derivatives, Chaos Solitons Fractals (2020)
110283.
[21] P. Kumar, V.S. Erturk, Environmental persistence influences infection dynamics for a butterfly pathogen via new generalised Caputo type fractional
derivative, Chaos Solitons Fractals 144 (2021) 110672.
[22] P. Kumar, V.S. Erturk, R. Banerjee, M. Yavuz, V. Govindaraj, Fractional modeling of plankton-oxygen dynamics under climate change by the application
of a recent numerical algorithm, Phys. Scr. 96 (12) (2021) 124044.
[23] V.S. Erturk, E. Godwe, D. Baleanu, P. Kumar, J. Asad, A. Jajarmi, Novel fractional-order Lagrangian to describe motion of beam on nanowire, Acta Phys.
Pol. A 140 (3) (2021) 265–272.

9
V.S. Erturk et al. Optik 261 (2022) 169086

[24] P. Kumar, V.S. Erturk, M. Murillo-Arcila, A complex fractional mathematical modeling for the love story of Layla and Majnun, Chaos Solitons Fractals
150 (2021) 111091.
[25] Z. Bekri, V.S. Erturk, P. Kumar, On the existence and uniqueness of a nonlinear q-difference boundary value problem of fractional order, Int. J. Model.
Simul. Sci. Comput. (2021) 2250011.
[26] C. Bota, B. Caruntu, Analytic approximate solutions for a class of variable order fractional differential equations using the polynomial least squares method,
Fract. Calc. Appl. Anal. 20 (4) (2017) 1043–1050.
[27] C. Bota, B. Caruntu, Analytical approximate solutions for quadratic Riccati differential equation of fractional order using the polynomial least squares
method, Chaos Solitons Fractals 102 (2017) 339–345.
[28] B. Caruntu, C. Bota, M. Lapadat, M.S. Paca, Polynomial least squares method for fractional Lane–Emden equations, Symmetry 11 (4) (2019) 479.

10