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2015
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Walden University
Tracy Hayes
Review Committee
Dr. Mohamad Hammoud, Committee Chairperson, Doctor of Business Administration
Faculty
Walden University
2015
Abstract
by
Walden University
December 2015
Abstract
In 2012, more than 25 million U.S. employees voluntarily terminated their employment
gender, income, and length of tenure are significant factors in employee turnover
intentions. The purpose of this study was to determine if a relationship existed between
age, education, gender, income, length of tenure, and employee turnover intention among
members who were full-time employees, residents of Texas, over the age of 18, not self-
employed, and not limited to a specific employment industry. For this study, a sample of
187 Survey Monkey® Audience members completed the electronic survey. Through the
proximal similarity model, the results of this study are generalizable to the United States.
The human capital theory was the theoretical framework. The results of the multiple
regression analysis indicated a significant relationship between age, income, and turnover
intentions; however, the relationship between education, gender, and length of tenure was
not statistically significant. As the Baby Boomer cohort prepares to transition into
performance initiatives to reward top performers with additional pay and incentives. The
social implications of these findings may reduce turnover, which may reduce employee
stress, encourage family well-being, and increase participation in civic and social events.
Demographic Characteristics Predicting Employee Turnover Intentions
by
Walden University
December 2015
Dedication
I dedicate this study firstly to my Lord and savior, and secondly to my parents. I
would also like to thank all of my family and friends for their encouragement and support
doctoral committee members, Dr. Alen Badal and Dr. Judith Blando. Thank you for
Hypotheses .....................................................................................................................5
Assumptions............................................................................................................ 9
Limitations ............................................................................................................ 10
Delimitations ......................................................................................................... 10
i
Demographic Characteristics ................................................................................ 32
Transition .....................................................................................................................51
Participants ...................................................................................................................54
Research Design.................................................................................................... 56
Population ....................................................................................................................57
Sampling ............................................................................................................... 58
Ethical Research...........................................................................................................59
Introduction ..................................................................................................................71
ii
Presentation of the Findings.........................................................................................71
Reflections ...................................................................................................................95
References ..........................................................................................................................98
iii
List of Tables
Table5. ANOVA.……………………………………………………………………...…80
iv
List of Figures
gender, income, and tenure on the dependent variable of turnover intention. .......78
v
1
Section 1: Foundation of the Study
because of its associated loss of valuable resources and human capital assets (Grissom,
Nicholson-Crotty, & Keiser, 2012; Kim, 2012; Lambert, Cluse-Tolar, Pasupuleti, Prior,
& Allen, 2012). Performance and profitability are fundamental factors in organizational
factors that have a significant potential to predict turnover, and to affect the performance
between an employee’s age, education, gender, income, or length of tenure with turnover
intentions, as well as antecedents to turnover (Chang & Lyons, 2012; Heavey, Holwerda,
employed with an organization (Ng & Feldman, 2010). In general, employees increase
their general and firm-specific human capital assets through educational attainment and
knowledge gained in the workplace (Islam, Khan, Ahmad, & Ahmed, 2013; Ng &
Feldman, 2010). Thus, individuals with advanced levels of education transfer among
human capital assets (Burdett, Carrillo-Tudela, & Coles, 2011). With the implementation
Mckay, Lee, & Mitchell, 2012). Organizational leaders benefit from research that was
indicative of the effects that income had on employee mobility among organizations
human capital investments and increased organizational expenditures (Batt & Colvin,
2011). In the United States, the cost to replace one employee is between 25%-500% of a
employee’s decision to leave the organization (Ballinger, Craig, Cross, & Gray, 2011;
Von Hagel & Miller, 2011). A significant depletion of financial and human resources
occurs as a result of expenses relating to (a) absenteeism, (b) recruitment, (c) new
employee screening and hiring, (d) orientation and training, and (e) temporary hires
(Hancock, Allen, Bosco, & Pierce, 2013; Llorens & Stazyk, 2011; Pitts, Marvel, &
Fernandez, 2011; Von Hagel & Miller, 2011). As a result, employee turnover intention is
generation (Ballinger et al., 2011; Llorens & Stazyk, 2011). Examples of this loss of
human capital include disruptions of formal and collaborative networks, and the
deterioration of employee expertise and client information (Ballinger et. al., 2011;
Llorens & Stazyk, 2011). Organizational leaders use research on the significance of
3
employee demographics to assist in the development of programs that address the
retention of human capital assets (Ballinger et al., 2011; Hancock et al., 2013).
leaders because this research enables the leaders to identify of associations between
Problem Statement
their employment with their respective organizations (Bureau of Labor and Statistics, U.
to employers, with costs to replace an employee averaging from 25% to as much as 500%
of an employee’s annual earnings (Ballinger et al., 2011). The general business problem
addressed in this study is the significant human capital losses associated with voluntary
an organization (Heavey et al., 2013). The specific business problem is that limited
whether an employee’s age, education, gender, income, or length of tenure are predictive
Purpose Statement
significant relationship existed between employees’ (a) age, (b) education, (c) gender, (d)
income, (e) length of tenure, and their turnover intentions. The study was specifically
suggested by Cardy and Lengnick (2011). The results of the regression analysis indicated
an employee’s age and education were predictors of the criterion variable of employee
turnover intention. The population for the survey included employees from different
industries within the state of Texas. Human resource practitioners reported that
reductions in turnover were consistent with fewer work-family conflicts and increased
A quantitative research method was more appropriate for this study than
exists between predictor and criterion variables (Fassinger & Morrow, 2013). The
understood by organizational leaders (Marais, 2012), which were valuable qualities for
my goal of informing organizational leaders and human resource practitioners who are
data to assist in the interpretation of the meaning or action within the context of a
phenomenon, from an insider’s point of view (Allwood, 2012; Marais, 2012). Qualitative
analysis was not appropriate for this study because the analysis of the phenomena was
from an outsider’s perspective (Marais, 2012). A mixed methods approach was rejected
Brown, & Bala, 2013). The inclusion of qualitative data was not appropriate for this
5
study because including an insider’s prospective would have limited the generalizability
this study. I did not choose experimental and quasi-experimental designs because this
study did not include random assignment or manipulation of variables, as would have
been the case with an experimental or quasi-experimental design (Cokley & Award,
2013). I employed quantitative research methods and a correlational research design. The
magnitude, nature, and strength of the relationship between the employee’s (a) age, (b)
education, (c) gender, (d) income, and (e) length of tenure and employee turnover
intentions.
Research Question
The primary research question for this study was: To what extent, if any, does a
relationship exist between the predictor variables of age, education, gender, income,
Hypotheses
Theoretical Framework
I applied the human capital theory developed by Gary S. Becker in 1962 as the
theoretical framework for this study. According to this theory, individuals possess human
capital assets: their abilities, competencies, experiences, and skills to generate economic
value (Becker, 1962). Human capital investments are the costs associated with the
development of the human capital assets; individual human capital investments are the
Investments in general human capital are transferable from one employer to another
1962). Burdett et al. (2011), Couch (2011), and Grissom et al. (2012) suggested the
human capital theory should be applied to employee turnover. Human capital theory was
relevant to this study because human capital assets are important factors in employee
turnover decisions.
human capital assets gained through working (Burdett et al., 2011). Organizational
investments into general human capital generally increase the rate of employee turnover
obtained additional human capital assets (Wright, Coff, & Moliterno, 2014). The loss or
gain of human capital assets has different outcomes for an organization and an employee
depending upon the employee’s age. Older employees with firm-specific knowledge are
less inclined to exit an organization voluntarily than younger employees are (Couch,
2011). An employee’s level of education has a varied effect on the individual and
organizational level. The costs associated with human capital losses have varying effects
than other workers have (Hancock et al., 2013; Kwon & Rupp, 2013).
8
Operational Definitions
involuntary, to fail to attend work during an obligatory period (Heavey et al., 2013).
characteristics used to distinguish groups of a population. For the purpose of this study,
the selected demographic groups of study were age, gender, level of education, income,
Firm-specific human capital asset: Firm-specific human capital assets are the
General human capital asset: According to Couch (2011) general human capital
assets such as education are transferable from one organization to another organization
Human capital asset: Human capital assets are resources that emerge from of
one’s acquired or useful competency, skill, or ability; these may include education and
that compel the employee to remain employed with an organization relate to feelings
Assumptions
Assumptions in research are issues the researcher believes to be valid, but proof
of the issues does not exist (Locke, Spirduso, & Silverman, 2014). The assumptions
relevant to this study concerned (a) Internet accessibility, (b) participant integrity, and (c)
researcher objectivity. The first assumption was that all participants had access to the
Internet and answered the survey questions honestly. Each of the study participants
answered the survey questions using an electronic device with Internet access. This
assumption of participant honesty was a critical aspect of this study because I analyzed
Audience does not release personally identifiable information of the study participants to
result, participants had no incentive for responding in a dishonest manner, supporting this
assumption.
Second, I assumed I would need to have the survey open for 4 weeks to achieve
an a priori sample size of 162. However, the use of SurveyMonkey® Audience provided a
10
sufficient number of usable responses within three days. Third, I assumed the responses
to the survey questions were objective. To help assure response objectivity, study
participants did not personally receive any monetary gain for their responses to the
survey questions.
Limitations
Limitations are the constraints to the generalizability and application of the study
findings (Locke et al., 2014). The utility of the study findings may be restricted because
of economic conditions during the study period. Because of the rates of unemployment
and economic situation within Texas may not be the same as the rest of the United States,
the study results may not be generalizable. Additionally, the use of convenience sampling
techniques may restrict the generalizability of the study results to study population, as
Delimitations
Delimitations are the boundaries of the study (Locke et al., 2014). The population
for this study was restricted to full-time employed workers who were over the age of 18,
not self-employed, and residing in the state of Texas, without regard to their specific
employment industries.
intent will assist in the identification of trends throughout the labor force or within a
the demographics of the population will inform human resource practitioners and
organizational leaders about methods to develop policies that include factors that
influence employee perceptions. This study included information on the manner in which
The significance of this study was the identification of the role that an employee’s
age, education, gender, income, and length of tenure had in employee turnover may help
human resource practitioners can develop retention policies commensurate with increases
for employee retention (Burdett et al., 2011). Organizational leaders can use sustainable
policies to assist in leveraging their human capital assets. Considering the current multi-
generational workforce, effective human resource practices have the potential to generate
some of the best returns for the organization’s human capital investments (Couch, 2011
and programs which benefit the community as well as the organization (Luhmann, Lucas,
Eid, & Diener, 2012; Ng & Feldman, 2012; Nguyen, 2013; Williams & Glisson, 2013).
Policies that are beneficial to the organization include supportive work environment
the community level, employees are encouraged to participate in volunteer activities (Ng
& Feldman, 2012). Organizational leaders that implement family-support initiatives have
lower instances of employee turnover (Wayne, Casper, Matthews, & Allen, 2013).
Wayne et al. (2013) posited that employers empowered employees by using supportive
work environments to promote a sense of fulfillment and meaning among the employees.
the employee’s home environment. A sense of empowerment was associated with the
employee’s ability to reduce the amount of stress related to work-family conflicts (Wayne
et al., 2013). Luhmann et al. (2012) noted that empowered employees had more life
satisfaction, and were more likely to get married or become a parent than employees with
turnover intentions were. The social implications of employee turnover had different
Turnover for teachers and child welfare workers related negatively to academic
achievement and subsequent allegations of child neglect. Turnover for teachers was
(Ronfeldt et al., 2013). Teacher turnover related to a 6%-9.6% decrease in students’ math
and language arts scores. Negative outcomes for youth existed in child welfare cases of
abuse and neglect. For child welfare workers, turnover related negatively to the amount
of investigations for emergency responses for child neglect (Nguyen, 2013). The findings
of a comparison of California counties indicated that high turnover counties had 250%
13
more substantiated re-abuse and re-neglect allegations than low turnover counties
(Nguyen, 2013).
The research techniques for this study’s literature review included bibliographic
electronic library to access peer-reviewed journals and scholarly articles using the
Online. I also used Google Scholar for searches, identifying many references that I
accessed through these research databases. I used Boolean search phrases to combine my
primary search keywords with the variable terms of age, education, gender, income, and
The literature search identified a large body of studies that examined employee
the human resource experience existed. The purpose of this study was to determine if
demographic characteristics could predict employee turnover intent. The literature review
was indicative of the importance that an employee’s age, gender, level of education,
income, and length of tenure had as it pertained to antecedents to turnover and turnover
intentions. The antecedents to turnover included in the review of the literature were job
embeddedness, job satisfaction, and organizational justice, as these antecedents were the
The organization of this literature review includes categorical themes that were
significant to the study. The literature review is an examination of 177 studies, of which
94% are peer-reviewed; 97% of these studies have a publication date between 2011 and
2014 to ensure a focus on recent literature. These studies document relevant theories,
turnover. The theories that were germane to this study were the social capital theory,
leader-member exchange theory, knowledge management theory, and the human capital
theory.
the literature review process were job embeddedness, job satisfaction, and organizational
justice. The demographic variables chosen for this study to examine, based on the
literature reviewed, were (a) age, (b) gender, (c) education, (d) income, and (e) length of
tenure. As such, a review of the variables occurred in each of the categories and a portion
of the literature review included the examination of the relationship between the
individual variables and employee turnover. The review of the literature consisted of the
Relevant Theories
relationship between employee perceptions and employee turnover. Theories such as the
leader-member exchange theory and the social capital theory are useful for understanding
15
how social interactions relate to employee turnover intentions. Knowledge management
theorists provide insight into how employee turnover could affect the competitiveness
knowledge management theories are relevant for examining the relationship between
socialization on turnover. Human capital theory research was more appropriate for
Social capital theory. Social capital theorists describe social capital as resources
such as network associations, norms, and trusts that facilitate collective actions of a group
(Michael, 2011). Human capital differs from social capital, as human capital resources
employer (Ployhart, Nyberg, Reilly, & Maltarich, 2014). Human capital references
include individual characteristics and social capital references are pertinent to members
of a group. To demonstrate the differences between human and social capital, researchers
argued that the mediators for social exchanges are employee perceptions of organization
support and leader-member exchanges (Colquitt et al. 2013; Michael, 2011). Social
capital includes references to the shared trust among members of the organization, and
exchanges (Park & Shaw, 2013). Research on social exchanges is illustrative of how the
partners (Colquitt et al., 2013). Park and Shaw explained the social capital theory using
16
social exchanges, and Colquitt et al. explained the concepts of social exchange as the
2011). The quality of the exchanges is a representation of the relationship between the
interpersonal exchanges between the leader and the subordinate (Haynie, Cullen, Lester,
obligated to reciprocate the support of their leaders (DeConinck, 2011). High leader-
commitment is the psychological bond the employee has with the organization (Garg &
exchange relationships (Chen, Mao, Hsieh, Liu, & Yen, 2013). Organizational justice is a
Richey, & Castro, 2011). The type and amount of communication a leader has with his or
communications and increased employee job dedication (Michael, 2011). Quality leader-
(Michael, 2011).
attitudes and behaviors that concern job satisfaction, task performance, and turnover
(Michael, 2011). A direct relationship exists between procedural justice and leader-
18
member exchange (Chen et al., 2014). As such, turnover intentions are low for employees
Michael, 2011). However, poor quality social exchange relationships have a negative
According to Chen et al. (2014) and Bernardin et al. (2011), quality leader-
organization. DeConinck (2011), Michael (2011), and Haynie et al. (2014) postulated that
exchanges. Conversely, Michael (2011) and Hau et al. (2013) determined that poor
profitability. The findings of Ng and Feldman’s (2010) study were consistent with Garg
and Dhar (2014) who suggested that leader-member exchanges were antecedents to
organizational commitment.
19
Knowledge management theory. Knowledge management is the process of
using, sharing, and developing intellectual capital for organizational use (Hau et al.,
perspective as well as a knowledge loss perspective (Durst & Wilhelm, 2013; Hau et al.,
2013). Tacit and explicit are the two types of knowledge that are relevant to this study.
The loss of tacit and explicit knowledge from employee turnover impedes an
organization’s competitiveness (Durst & Wilhelm, 2013; Hau et al., 2013). Tacit
knowledge is the knowledge that an individual possesses which causes the person to
behave or work in a particular manner (Scully, Buttigieg, Fullard, Shaw, & Gregson,
simultaneously (Durst & Wilhelm, 2013). Turnover intentions by individuals that possess
tacit and explicit knowledge are disadvantageous to a firm of any size. The knowledge
loss associated with employee turnover is more detrimental for smaller firms than
knowledge loss is for larger firms (Durst & Wilhelm, 2013). To mitigate the effects of
knowledge loss due to turnover, firm leaders should increase the amount of knowledge
sharing within the firm. Increased social capital, reciprocity, and enjoyment are
contributing factors for knowledge sharing intentions (Hau et al., 2013). Organizations
benefit from tools that increase the knowledge sharing efforts of the organization’s
members (Durst & Wilhelm, 2013; Hau et al., 2013). Durst and Wilhelm determined
knowledge loss was an inhibiting factor for the competitiveness of the organization,
20
while Hau et al. suggested using social exchanges to develop knowledge sharing
Human capital theory. A tenet of the human capital theory is that an individual’s
knowledge, skills, and abilities can generate income (Ng & Feldman, 2010). An
potential (Ng & Feldman, 2010). There is an assumption that an employee should receive
and education contributes to employee success (Ng & Feldman, 2010). Because
education is a general human capital asset, the investment into the employee’s education
may have varied effects on the employee’s turnover intention. Organizations benefit from
advances in individual human capital assets. Knowledge gained from increases in general
productivity (Ng & Feldman, 2010). However, an employee may exhibit turnover
relationship exists between increased human capital and turnover intentions (Wright et
al., 2014). In order for employers to get the positive returns from human capital
investments, the employer should impose mobility constraints. When employers impose
21
mobility constraints for employees that receive tuition reimbursement, turnover is less
promotional potential and earnings, Wright et al. surmised that increases in human capital
mobility constraints on employees who benefited from the organizational human capital
A tenet of the human capital theory is that wages increase during a worker's life
cycle because of the knowledge and skills the worker gained through employment
(Burdett et al., 2011). New market entrants often terminate employment for better paying
occupations once they gain work experience, thus, new market entrants experience higher
turnover rates than experienced workers (Burdett et al., 2011; Hokanson et al., 2011). As
such, turnover may occur more often in the Millennial generation than in the Baby
Boomer generation. Organizational leaders need to address the retention concerns of the
significant percentage of wage increases occur when individuals change jobs (Burdett et
al., 2011).
Burdett et al. and Hokanson agreed that an employee’s age and salary were
predictors of the employee’s turnover intention. The average employee length of tenure
of Generations X and Y was three years (Hokanson et al., 2011). Individuals that
graduated from high school demonstrated a 50% wage increase during the first ten years
of their working life (Burdett et al., 2011). As employees grow older, more opportunities
22
exist for the employee to remain employed with the same organization. The older-aged
work groups averaged 15 years employment with the organization (Hokanson et al.,
2011). Younger workers with low levels of knowledge were associated with shorter
length of tenure than older workers were (Hokanson et al., 2011). As workers gained
more experience, the workers sought better-paying occupations than workers with less
profitability (Bryant & Allen, 2013). The loss of human capital associated with employee
turnover may affect the profitability of the organization for various reasons. The
consequences of turnover are organizational disruption, loss of human and social capital,
increased recruitment cost, and costs associated with newcomer training (Hancock et al.,
2013). To decrease the costs associated with turnover, organizational leaders should
implement strategies that are conducive to employee retention. Increased training and
development opportunities are associated with low levels of turnover (Kim, 2012).
Retention strategies such as training and development are associated with increased
Antecedents to Turnover
development of programs that reduced the costs associated with employee turnover
(Chang, Wang, & Huang, 2013). The antecedents to turnover related to the employee’s
performance and employee turnover (Bouckenooghe, Raja, & Butt, 2013; Gillet, Gagne,
Sauvagere, & Fouquereau, 2013; Karatepe, 2013; Robinson, Kralj, Solnet, Goh, &
Callan, 2014; Wayne et al., 2013). Mediating variables, such as job embeddedness, can
explain why turnover occurs within an organization. Moderating variables, such as age,
education, and gender, can explain when turnover is likely to occur. Researchers used the
significance of the variables (Heavey et al., 2013; Regts & Molleman, 2013). The
moderating effects are indicative of when the events in the study would hold true (Collins
& Mossholder, 2014; Harris, Li, & Kirkman, 2013; Sun, Chow, Chiu, & Pan, 2013).
enmesh with the organization and the community where the organization operates
(Collins, Burrus, & Meyer, 2014). Organizational leaders use job embeddedness
themselves to their employment agency, fewer incidents of turnover occur within the
organization (Heavey et al., 2013). Organizational leaders need to adopt strategic human
environment for job embeddedness (Selden, Schimmoeller, & Thompson, 2013). Without
(Heavey et al. 2013). Therefore, when job embeddedness does not exist in the
rates than employees that were not in entry-level positions (Tews, Michel, & Ellingson,
2013). The increase in turnover rates for entry-level employees may have been a result of
the employee’s age .The three critical events that have an effect on an employee’s
decision to exit an organization are external personal events, external professional events,
and internal networks (Tews, Stafford, & Michel, 2014). Constituents, or coworkers,
have a significant role in a young workers attitude about job embeddedness (Tews et al.,
2013; Tews et al., 2014). As such, it is likely that older workers, or individuals that were
not in entry-level positions, would exhibit fewer turnover intentions. Positive internal
work events and constituent attachment have a negative relationship with turnover, while
external personal and professional events, both positive and negative, have a positive
24% decrease in turnover (Tews et al., 2014). Constituent attachment has a positive
relationship with retention within the organization (Tews et al. 2013). In order to retain
(Tews et al., 2014). Young workers use the positive interactions of emotional support as a
coping mechanism, as the support helps to relieve burnout and exhaustion, as well as
foster an environment for job embeddedness (Tews et al., 2013). Emotional support is
associated with reduced turnover for younger workers, because the development of
friendships is fundamental to the growth of adult identity for the younger worker group
turnover is less likely to occur when fewer alternatives for employment exist. Ng and
The researchers for both studies had similar hypotheses regarding job embeddedness.
Marckinus-Murphy et al. (2013) examined the antecedents to job embeddedness and the
manner in which job embeddedness affected an employee’s attitudes and actions. Ng and
Feldman (2010) examined the relationship between organization length of tenure and job
employees experienced longer lengths of tenure with their organization when fewer job
opportunities were available. However, a negative relationship existed between the length
of tenure and employee performance. Accentuating factors for employee length of tenure
26
are core-task performance, citizenship behavior, and counterproductive behaviors (Ng &
Feldman, 2010). Core tasks are the behaviors required to fulfill the requirements of an
occupation whereas, citizenship behaviors are additional duties that employees performed
to promote teamwork and organizational effectiveness (Ng & Feldman, 2010). The
studies conducted by Marckinus-Murphy et al. and Ng and Feldman had similar results.
The lack of core task performance, citizenship behavior, or perceptions of job insecurity
citizenship performance (Ng & Feldman 2010). Employee perceptions of job insecurity
employees with longer lengths of tenure exhibit more counterproductive behaviors than
their counterparts exhibit (Ng & Feldman 2010). Employees with organizational length of
tenure are less likely to conform to group norms because of the senior employee’s
regarding the employee’s occupational experiences (Abii, Ogula, & Rose, 2013; Liu,
Mitchell, Lee, Holtom, & Hinkin, 2012). Researchers that categorized job turnover by the
specific reason analyzed the effects of job satisfaction as it related to the turnover reason
(Lee, 2013). External factors such as family well-being and job alternatives are relevant
to an employee’s level of job satisfaction. Turnover reasons include individuals that quit-
for family reasons, -to look for a job, and-to take another job (Lee, 2013). Data analysis
for a two-year period was sufficient to examine the relationship between job satisfaction
and employee turnover (Lee, 2013; Liu et al., 2012). To determine whether job
satisfaction was a predictor of employee turnover, Lee (2013) analyzed different types of
turnover. Liu et al. (2012) analyzed changes in the job satisfaction trajectory and
turnover, but the level of dissatisfaction varies between the types of turnover (Lee, 2013).
Job alternatives were better predictors of turnover than family well-being was.
Individuals that quit their jobs to look for another, and those that left to take another job
were twice as likely to quit when compared to employees who quit for family reasons
(Lee, 2013). The type of shift an employee worked was another predictor of job
employees, the researchers found employees that worked mixed, afternoon, and night
28
schedules had a 136% higher risk of turnover than employees that worked day shift
differences occurred through the analysis of work attitudes, job satisfaction, job security,
and turnover intentions (Mencl & Lester, 2014). The analysis of employee work
schedules was beneficial for determining the level of job satisfaction (Pitts et al., 2011).
For job satisfaction, Mencl and Lester did not find generational differences; however,
Pitts et al. did find differences within the generational cohorts. There were more
generational similarities than differences for job satisfaction, satisfaction with pay, and
turnover intentions (Mencl & Lester, 2014). In the federal government, employees that
transition to jobs within the government are able to transfer benefits such as vacation time
and sick leave. Middle-aged federal employees were more likely to seek new
employment within the federal government, but less likely to leave for employment
opportunities outside of the government (Pitts et al., 2011). As job satisfaction increased,
turnover intentions decreased (Pitts et al., 2011). There were slight differences in the
generational perceptions of job security (Mencl & Lester, 2014). Mencl and Lester (2014)
noted the millennial generation was more satisfied with career development and
advancement opportunities than the other generations. Workplace satisfaction was the
2011).
29
Factors such as perceptions of fair pay, stress, and length of tenure are moderators
& Asok, 2013). Job satisfaction is a mediator in the relationship between employee
promotions, pay for performance, and pay growth are motivating factors for high-
performers to stay with an organizations (Bouckenooghe et al., 2013). A good fit exists
when an employee’s needs and desires are compatible with the employee’s occupation.
An association exists between increases in fit and support with decreases in turnover
intentions for academia (Nitesh et al., 2013). When comparing fit, support, and
satisfaction with employment in other institutions, the statistical relationship did not have
the same results. Neither fit nor support, nor satisfaction had a significant relationship
with turnover intention for employment with other institutions (Nitesh et al., 2013).
Perceived pay for performance highly correlated with the employee’s job satisfaction
et al., 2013).
fairness (Collins & Mossholder, 2014). The three types of organizational justice are
Prathamesh, 2012). Fairness perceptions relate to the employee’s attitude concerning the
between procedural justice and employee perceptions of fair practices without regard to
30
the employee’s personal benefit (Prathamesh, 2012). For distributive justice the focus is
followed to arrive at a decision is irrelevant, as long as the employee perceives that the
outcome is fair. Last, interactional justice is the employee’s perception of the amount of
dignity and respect given to the employee in the decision-making process (Collins &
Mossholder, 2014).
Interactional justice has more of an effect on turnover intentions than the other
types of justices (Prathamesh, 2012). The level of job embeddedness may decrease for
individuals that have unfair justice interactions. A relationship exists between embedded
employees that receive fair treatment and increased levels of organization citizenship
that have unfair interactions also have increased undesirable behaviors (Collins &
Mossholder, 2014). The correlation between distributive and procedural justice is a result
assessments as mitigating factors (Kim & Mor-Barak, 2014; Sun et al., 2013). To
intention Kim and Mor-Barak, and Sun et al. examined the leader-member dyad and the
assess the moderating effects of procedural fairness in the relationship between leader-
The results of the studies were indicative of results from previous research
distributive justice (Sun et al., 2013). A negative relationship exists between distributive
justice and turnover intentions; however, a positive association exists between procedural
al., 2013). A strong procedural fairness climate is a moderator of the effects that leader-
within an organization (Jepsen & Rodwell, 2012; Nishii, 2013). Jepsen and Rodwell, and
Nishii conducted an analysis of the differences between male and female perceptions of
Organizational leaders should develop policies that are consistent with treating
In inclusive climates, fair treatment of each member of the group exists, as does the
inclusion of each member in the decision-making process (Nishii, 2013). Through the
32
development of inclusive climates, organizational leaders reduce concerns of gender
In inclusive climates, fewer gender disparities existed. For males and females,
commitment (Jepsen & Rodwell, 2012). Procedural justice was a predictor of turnover
intentions for only the male respondents (Jepsen & Rodwell, 2012). For male and female
respondents, informational justice was a predictor of job satisfaction, and for female
& Rodwell, 2012). Climate inclusion was a moderator of gender diversity and
relationship conflict as well as the relationship between gender diversity and task conflict
(Nishii, 2013). Because of the significance of the relationships between variables, climate
inclusion had positive effects on job satisfaction and negative effects on employee
Demographic Characteristics
employee demographics, that effected turnover intentions within the organization (Walsh
& Bartikowski, 2013). Work outcomes had varying effects at different periods in an
employee’s lifetime (Zaniboni, Truxillo, & Fraccaroli, 2013). Therefore, the attainment
levels of education were general human capital assets as well as opportunities for
personal development (Hofstetter & Cohen, 2014). The length of tenure with an
satisfaction and employee length of tenure (Michel et al., 2013). To determine the
conditions that effect turnover intentions, researchers must control for moderating
contracts and turnover intentions (Walsh & Bartikowski, 2013). Differences in expected
Osafuke, Fishman, Moore, & Dyrenforth, 2014). The expectations were, by 2020 more
than 3.6 million people in the United States would exit the workforce because of age or
transfer strategies to prepare for the exit of experienced employees from the workforce.
Furthermore, human resource practitioners should develop retention strategies that are
consistent with the needs and desires of younger workers. Between the years 1998 and
2010, individuals aged 18-25 changed jobs an average of 6.3 times (U. S. Department of
Labor, 2013). In many cases, older employees thought fewer job opportunities were
available and chose to remain employed with an organization (Wren, Berkowitz, &
force mobility and turnover intentions (Bjelland et al., 2011; Couch, 2011; Lopina,
Rogelberg, & Howell, 2012). The number of employee separations declined for
34
employees that were 50-60 (Bjelland et al., 2011). Differences existed between United
States workers and workers in Germany. Workers in the United States had shorter median
employment length of tenure and higher labor turnover than workers in Germany (Couch,
2011). Beyond the age range of the mid-30s, German workers started fewer new jobs
than American workers did (Couch, 2011). Because American workers experienced more
turnover, the years of tenure for American workers was shorter than their German
counterparts. In the later working years of life, German workers experienced longer
lengths of tenure than American workers experienced (Couch, 2011). For workers aged
18-34, 33% of the study population voluntarily terminated employment within six months
(Lopina et al., 2012). Bjelland et al., Lambert et al., and Monks conducted similar studies
and found older employees were more likely to stay employed with their organization
Employee turnover intention relates to internal and external factors such as the
intent occurred prior to voluntary turnover and was a cognitive, thought process related to
desires to quit, plans to leave, quitting, or searching for alternative employment (Lambert
et al., 2012; Monks, 2012). Turnover intent was the largest predictive factor for voluntary
turnover (Lambert et al., 2012). The direct causes of turnover were personal
For individuals with college degrees, turnover intentions were different when assessing
the type of degree the employee attained. Two significant determinants of turnover
intentions were age and the education degree field of university presidents (Monks,
35
2012). Presidents with a degree in social science or business were more likely to turnover
than those with a degree in education were (Monks, 2012). Individuals with degrees
outside of the education realm had opportunities for employment in fields not related to
correlated with turnover (Lambert et al., 2012). Factors such as length of tenure, age,
and work environment were potential turnover antecedents (Lambert et al., 2012).
Differences existed between public and private academic institution presidents. Older
presidents were not likely to maintain employment with the same university beyond five
years (Monks, 2012). Private university presidents were less likely to leave office than
pay/benefits satisfaction had the largest effect on turnover intention (Lambert et al.,
2012). Private university leaders attracted and retained talented executives and
among older employees and those that had more tenure with the organization (Lambert et
al., 2012). Supervisors were less likely to express turnover intentions than those that were
employees gained education, they often sought employment with new organizations
(Wren et al., 2014). Increased turnover intention among employees with college degrees
36
is consistent with the human capital theory. Employees with college degrees were
knowledge, or high quality, workers and high-performing teams decreased the likeliness
of turnover within the organization (Jayasingam & Yong, 2013). Jayasingam and Yong
found lower instances of turnover among knowledge workers but Islam et al. found
turnover intentions were more likely for individuals with advanced levels of education.
education level and supervisory status (Islam et al., 2013). Well-educated workers and
the results found by Jayasingam and Yong, Ramamoorthy et al. postulated that high-
performing work teams related to reduced instances of turnover for knowledge workers.
Increases in performance of top performers on the team were associated with decreases in
was a factor in the employee’s turnover intention decision. Individuals that liked their job
and were committed to the organization, developed strong relationships, and opted to
maintain employment with the organization (Islam et al., 2013). When viewing the
effects of education, individuals with college degrees were more likely to leave the
organization than employees that did not have degrees were (Islam et al., 2013).
37
Conversely, supervisors chose to remain employed with the organization (Islam et al.,
2013).
analysis of the relationship between public sector managers’ gender and their employees’
job satisfaction and turnover (Grissom et al., 2012). Botsford-Morgan and King examined
gender congruence through the employee’s external role while Grissom examined gender
parent was a factor that was relevant to mothers with young children. As such,
psychological contracts had an effect on turnover intentions for mothers with infant
children (Botsford-Morgan & King, 2012). There was a possibility that a supervisor’s
gender and leadership style was a pivotal factor for turnover intention (Grissom et al.,
employee’s preference for the supervisor’s leadership style also affected turnover
intentions (Grissom et al., 2012). Employees had fewer turnover intentions when the
supervisor had a similar leadership style as the supervised employee. Some employees
preferred a democratic leadership style associated with femininity, while other employees
perceptions and individuals who had supervisors of the opposite gender. A psychological
contract was a person’s perception of obligation concerning the terms and conditions of a
explanation for turnover intentions was shared gender between the supervisor and the
employee (Grissom et al., 2012). The interrelationship gender was noteworthy because
same sex relationships were associated with improved relations (Grissom et al., 2012).
mother’s turnover intention (Botsford-Morgan & King 2012). Job satisfaction was
contract, supervisors must appropriately address the concern in a manner that the
King, 2012). The supervisor’s ability to mitigate the adverse effects was a fundamental
King, 2012). The most significant factor that affected turnover was the relationship
for promotion (Speck et al., 2012; Troutman, Burke, & Beeler 2011). An individual’s
personality traits were factors of considerations when analyzing the employee’s response
to stress. In similar studies, Speck et al., and Troutman et al., identified stress as a
predictor of turnover intention yet, Speck et al., related turnover intention to the
attainment of human capital assets. Stressors in public accounting were conflicts in work-
39
life balances, workload, and opportunities for advancement (Troutman et al., 2011).
Imbalances in work-family life, and the absence of development programs were reasons
for the departure of medical school faculty (Speck et al., 2012). A need existed to analyze
the relationship between turnover intentions and self-efficacy, assertiveness, stress, and
experienced and the employee’s decision to exit the organization (Troutman et al., 2011).
No difference existed in the levels of assertiveness between males and females but
females with high levels of assertiveness had higher turnover intentions (Troutman et al.
2011). The departure rates of men and women appointed to the tenure track for medical
faculty members were the same (Speck et al., 2012). Males with high levels of self-
efficacy were associated with higher intentions to turnover than females (Troutman et al.,
2011). Gender disparities existed due to external factors regarding human capital assets.
The differences in appointment tracks and advancements were because of the educational
differences for each gender (Speck et al., 2012). Sixteen percent of men had both a
2012).
compensation. Chief executive officers used the labor market rate to assess the fairness in
compensation (Rost & Weibel, 2013). Llorens and Stazyk, and Messersmith, Guthrie, Ji,
and Lee postulated that the employee’s level of compensation could have significantly
intentions (Llorens & Stazyk, 2011). Chief executive officer compensation was an
influential factor in voluntary turnover and the profitability of the firm (Messersmith et
al., 2011).
significant predictor of employee turnover for state and federal employees (Llorens &
Stazyk, 2011). Underpaid chief executive officers were more likely to exit the firm
voluntarily than chief executive officers that received the labor market rate (Messersmith
et al., 2011). However, salary compensation was not a predictor of turnover intentions
when assessing public and private wage equity. No statistically significant relationship
existed between public-private wage equity and voluntary separation (Llorens & Stazyk,
2011). Aggregate wage equity could not predict employee turnover (Llorens & Stazyk,
2011). A disaggregation of age and gender could have provided different results (Llorens
& Stazyk, 2011). Underpaid chief executive officers were associated with significant
increases in firm profitability when compared to chief executive officers that received fair
compensation (Lin, Hsien-Chang, & Lie-Huey, 2013). Increases in the profitability of the
firm were precursors to intrinsic and extrinsic rewards for the chief executive officer;
chief executive officers thought the increases were rectifications for unfair perceptions
Similar to Llorens and Stazyk, Carnahan et al. found there was no significance in
wage equity on employee turnover, but a significant relationship existed between the
reward, and thus, had high salary expectations (O'Neil, Stanley, & O'Reilly, 2011). High
positive affect employees exhibited turnover intentions when employers failed to meet
perception of the world (O’Neil et al., 2011). Individuals with high positive affect were
confident, optimistic, had a strong sense of self-efficacy and high expectations for his or
At the height of their careers, individuals with high positive affect expected to
earn $100,000 more than other employees earned (O’Neil et al., 2011). High positive
affect employees experienced more job satisfaction when the pay satisfaction existed.
experienced fewer instances of turnover (Carnahan et al., 2012). Low performers in firms
with high compensation dispersion were more likely to exit the organization (Carnahan et
al., 2012). The distorted perceptions of high positive affect employees affected turnover
decisions and job satisfaction (O’Neil et al., 2011). For employees with high positive
affect, there was a significant relationship between low initial salary and frequent
Kaplan, Wiley, and Maertz (2011), and Ryan, Healy, and Sullivan suggested
employee perceptions and attitudes were mediating factors for turnover intentions.
benefits for remaining employed with an organization (Kaplan et al., 2011). Supervisor
organization valued employee contributions and cared about employee well-being (Ryan
et al., 2012). Employees that were committed to the organization performed better, had
fewer absences, and were less likely to terminate employment voluntarily (Ryan et al.,
to the organization. A relationship existed between pay and normative and affective
(Ryan et al., 2012). Kaplan et al. and Ryan et al., noted dissimilar results in the
relationship between pay and turnover intention. Pay could have been a factor in
employee retention for employee morale and emotional reasons (Ryan et al., 2012). A
initiatives existed (Kaplan et al., 2011). Kaplan et al. (2011) were not able to establish a
Tenure. Human capital theorists associated increased length of tenure with the
employee’s value in the labor market (Ng & Feldman, 2013). Job tenure is the lengths of
time that employees spend at the occupation they currently have (Ng & Feldman, 2013;
tenure, human resource practitioners must develop retention strategies that afford the
employee the opportunity to remain employed with the organization as well as reward the
2013). Employee thoughts about affective commitment were associated with decisions to
remain with an organization (Dinger, Thatcher, Stepina, & Craig, 2012). Human capital
theorists posited that long-tenured employees are reluctant to leave the organization
with an organization (Dinger et al., 2012). Avery, McKay, Wilson, Volpone, and Killham
commitment, and job satisfaction are mediating factors for turnover intentions. Long-
tenured employees exhibit higher levels of job satisfaction and job embeddedness
or her occupation to society, and was associated with increased job satisfaction (Dinger et
al., 2012). Long-tenured employees demonstrate more professionalism than their short-
tenured counterparts demonstrate, and are less aware of job alternatives outside of the
tenure and job performance. Long-tenured employees experience fewer absences and can
implement and facilitate change more efficiently than short-tenured employees can (Ng
perception of autonomy (Butler et al., 2014). The predictors of length of tenure are
consistent with human capital theory. Low pay, inconsistent work hours, and poor
communication with organizational leaders are motives for regular job changes for
associated with lower turnover intentions when the fulfillment of the psychological
contracts occurs (Bal, De Cooman, & Mol, 2013). Psychological contracts are the
employee’s belief in relation to the expectations of the exchanges between the employee
factor for decisions to exit the organization (Butler et al., 2014). Even when the
occupation is consistent with the employees’ needs and desires, younger workers choose
to leave (Butler et al., 2014). When no alignment exists between the job-related needs of
pursue other occupations (Maden, 2014). Human resource managers must be cognizant of
employees that experience broken promises thought the organizational leaders did not
value the employee’s work (Butler et al., 2014). Employees with high work involvement
and high tenure develop valued skills as well as extensive knowledge of the organizations
operations (Maden, 2014). Dinger et al., and Maden determined when employees perform
jobs that match the employees’ needs and desires, turnover is less likely to occur.
45
Employee length of tenure is a moderating variable in the relationship between
employee voice and turnover intentions (Avery et al., 2011). Perceptions of voice are less
significant for long-tenured employees than for newcomers (Avery et al., 2011).
Employee voice is the employee’s opportunity to express concerns and views regarding
outcomes in the workplace (Avery et al., 2011). The employee perceptions associated
with employee voice concern the employee’s ability to influence the organizational
moderating effects of voice between long and short tenured employees. Long-tenured
employees are not as dependent on exchange relationships because the employee is aware
employees are more likely to have adequate person-organization fit (Bal et al., 2013). A
relationship exists between long tenure and employee contributions and employee
Maertz, Allen, & Griffeth, 2013). When employee’s perceptions deemed the employer
(Shuck et al., 2011). When an employee believed their managers were unwilling to listen
and respond to the employee’s needs, the morale of the organization was diminished
(Chang & Lyons, 2012). Employees who felt they had no voice also experienced feelings
turnover (Chang & Lyons, 2012). The compounded effects of low morale caused
46
employees to voluntarily turnover in clusters, which could have affected organizational
need to develop programs and initiatives to address the needs of the organization’s
The employee's perception of the line manager was an important factor in the
responses from employees were associated with fewer turnover intentions. Affective
commitment, job fit, and psychological climate were negatively associated with turnover
supervisor support and the employee's perception of human resource practices (Campbell
et al., 2013). Employee perceptions of the psychological climate of the organization also
The use of exit surveys from departing employees and training exercises provided
organizational leaders with insight on how to mitigate the risks associated with employee
turnover. Quits and dismissals had similar antecedents in human resource practices (Batt
& Colvin, 2011). Employers that had high-involvement, work organizations also had
lower quits, dismissals and total turnover (Batt & Colvin, 2011). Similar to prior research
and enhanced job satisfaction (Chang, Wang, & Huang, 2013). Intensive performance
with high quits, dismissals and total turnover (Batt & Colvin, 2011). Managers that
term incentives such as internal promotion opportunities, pension plans, and increased
levels of pay were associated with low levels of turnover (Batt & Colvin, 2011).
turnover intentions (McClean, Burris, & Detert, 2013). The loss of fundamental structural
and relational network leaders resulted in lower firm performance (Kwon & Rupp, 2013).
High-performers possessed increased levels of human capital. Kwon and Rupp, and
McClean et al. deduced that high-performer exits and manager indecisiveness negatively
affected the performance of the organization. The negative effects were more severe
when a high-performer left the firm than when a low-performer left (Kwon & Rupp,
2013). Because employees were not able to fix problems or pursue opportunities,
performance (Kwon & Rupp, 2013). Turnover for employees that were not high-
performers did not significantly predict firm performance (Kwon & Rupp, 2013). Human
resource practitioners should attempt to replace individuals that were poor performers
significantly affected the entire unit in a positive manner (McClean et al., 2013). The
amount of turnover intention was contingent upon the employee voice and the
48
management motivation and ability to change and address concerns (McClean et al.,
2013).
Employee Behaviors
rewards, and merit-based promotions (Kehoe & Wright, 2013). Human resource
organizational citizenship behaviors included the development of social activities for the
school and listening to student concerns during scheduled faculty breaks (Shapira-
Lishchinsky & Tsemach, 2014). Work hour congruence is associated with positive
Work hour congruence occurs when the amount of hours the employee desires to
work is equal to the actual number of hours an employee works (Lee et al., 2014). Human
absenteeism exist for employees that achieve work hour congruence (Lee et al., 2014).
Shapira-Lishchinsky and Tsemach, and Lee et al., examined the relationship between
organizational citizenship behavior, work hour congruence, and job satisfaction. When
2014). Job satisfaction is a positive attribute that occurs because of work hour congruence
(Lee et al., 2014). As such, employees who seek fewer hours and work fewer hours
demonstrate a decrease in the number of absences (Lee et al., 2014). Employees who
achieve work hour congruence experience improved job satisfaction (Lee et al., 2014).
For employees who did not achieve work hour congruence and wanted more
hours, there was no increase in job satisfaction (Lee et al., 2014). Organizational leaders
must be aware of new employee behaviors that are not consistent with normal behaviors
of the employee. Stress is a mitigating factor for employees that exhibit organizational
Tsemach, 2014). Teachers who organized social activities were absent from work
because of the demands of their job (Shapira-Lishchinsky & Tsemach, 2014). A negative
Withdrawal behaviors are adverse behaviors such as arriving to work late and
exists between employees whose leaders present ethical behaviors with job satisfaction,
lower turnover intentions, and lower job search behaviors (Palanski, Avery, & Jiraporn,
2014). Palanski et al., and Kehoe and Wright examined deviant work place behaviors for
supervisors and subordinates. High turnover intentions and job search behaviors are
common among employees that indicate their leaders are unethical or abusive (Palanski
50
et al., 2014). Unethical behavior includes acts of dishonesty and the improper issuance of
rewards and punishment (Palanski et al., 2014). Abusive leadership is the subordinates’
perception of the leaders’ display of hostile verbal or nonverbal behaviors (Palanski et al.,
negatively affect organizational performance (Kehoe & Wright, 2013). Employees that
have less job satisfaction also have high turnover intentions, and increased job search
Similar to the study conducted by Kehoe, Christian and Ellis, and Liu and Berry
deduced that a relationship existed between deviant behaviors and turnover intention.
Deviant behaviors include moral disengagement, theft, vandalism, and lateness (Christian
& Ellis, 2014). Time theft is a deviant work behavior characterized by the amount of time
that an employee spends conducting activities not in the job description (Liu & Berry,
2013). Examples of time theft activities include monitoring social media websites,
leaving work early, abuse of sick leave, and taking unauthorized breaks (Liu & Berry,
2013). Employees that encounter unfair treatment lack moral engagement and thus
the supervisor for destructive behaviors (Christian & Ellis, 2014). Employees that exhibit
likely to exhibit time theft behaviors. Time theft is different from other deviant behaviors
as the organization is the perceived agent instead of the organizational members (Liu &
Berry, 2013). Time theft occurrences are the result of the employees’ receipt of
compensation while not accomplishing any work (Liu & Berry, 2013). Turnover
the organizational deviance behavior (Christian & Ellis, 2014). Employees with turnover
Transition
Section 1 was an introduction to the manner in which a person’s (a) age, (b)
education, (c) gender, (d) income, or (e) length of tenure can predict employee turnover
2013; Kim, 2012). The replacement costs of lost human capital assets relate to
expenditures for recruiting, training, and hiring of new employees (Llorens & Stazyk,
2011; Von Hagel & Miller, 2011). The loss of human capital investments significantly
$1 million for the mitigation of the effects of employee turnover (Ballinger et al., 2011;
Von Hagel & Miller, 2011). Understanding the relationship between demographic
characteristics and turnover could assist in the assessment of demographic trends used for
knowledge of demographic trends within the labor force (Buttner et al., 2012). As Baby
Boomers near retirement age, a need exists for organizational leaders to develop
knowledge transfer strategies for the Millennial generation, as the Millennials are one of
the largest generational cohorts in the labor force (Burdett et al., 2011; Hokanson et al.,
2011; Toosi, 2012). Organizational leaders must develop retention strategies to retain the
knowledge workers of the workforce (Hokanson et al., 2011; Jayasingam & Yong, 2013;
al., 2011; Hokanson et al., 2011). Section 2 includes a description of the methods used to
gather and collect data on the relationship between an employee’s age, education, gender,
income, length of tenure, and employee turnover intentions. The section includes
information concerning the data collection instruments and analysis techniques. Section 3
Employee turnover is a part of the business cycle (Jiang et al., 2012). Turnover is
(Ballinger et al., 2011; Iverson & Zatzick, 2011; Llorens & Stazyk, 2011). Human
resource managers and organizational leaders use information that they acquire about
factors associated with turnover and use this information to craft organizations’ retention
strategies (Chang et al., 2013; Harris et al., 2013). Some demographic characteristics
have a significant impact on employee turnover; related research findings can inform
management efforts to lead a diverse workforce (Harris et al., 2013). This chapter
provides a detailed description of the specific research methods and design procedures
used in this study to examine the relationship between turnover and an employee’s age,
Purpose Statement
significant relationship existed between employees’ (a) age, (b) education, (c) gender, (d)
income, (e) length of tenure, and their turnover intentions. The study was specifically
located in the state of Texas. The study produced results for organizational leaders and
suggested by Cardy and Lengnick (2011). The results of the regression analysis indicated
an employee’s age and education were predictors of the criterion variable of employee
turnover intention. The population for the survey included employees from different
54
industries within the state of Texas. Human resource practitioners reported that
reductions in turnover were consistent with fewer work-family conflicts and increased
Morrow, 2013). My personal interests did not create any bias in the outcome of the study
because I was not employed by a civilian organization, unlike all of the participants. I
complied with the guidelines established in the Belmont Report, including respect for
2011). The participants for the study were employees of nongovernmental agencies; I had
no actual or potential influence over the study participants because I did not have access
administer each of the surveys to the participants, then collected, organized, and analyzed
Participants
employees within the state of Texas, as suggested by Wissmann, Stone, and Schuster
for this study is Texas. The eligibility criteria for participating in this study were that
participants must have been over 18 years of age, employed full-time, not self-employed,
I obtained all of the collected survey data from voluntary participants who used
the survey instrument. I closed the survey after 3 days, because I obtained the desired
amount of usable responses. Usable surveys, for the purposes of this study, consisted of
Transparency in research emanates from the logic and premises that researchers
use to generate conclusions for their inquiries (Ketokivi & Choi, 2014). Quantitative,
qualitative, and mixed research methods are indicative of distinctive characteristics for
examining and exploring concepts and theories (Cokley & Awad, 2013). A description of
the research method and design was justification of the appositeness of quantitative
Research Method
test this study’s hypotheses. Quantitative researchers use frequency, intensity, or numbers
to derive broad concepts into specific conclusions and to explain variances among groups
(Cokley & Awad, 2013). As such, quantitative researchers can reject or accept a
hypothesis and use sample sizes sufficient to support the generalizability of the study
results to a specific population (Cokley & Awad, 2013; Hitchcock & Newman, 2013).
56
Deductive methods are essential in quantitative research. Quantitative research methods
were appropriate for this study. I did not choose qualitative or mixed methods for this
Research Design
West, & Aiken, 2013). In the research arena, the terms correlation and association are
synonymous (Bishara & Hittner, 2012). The need to examine the relationship between an
employee’s (a) age, (b) education, (c) gender, (d) income, and (e) length of tenure and the
employee’s turnover intention was consistent with a correlational design. The sample
population was also relevant to the variables of the study, which was also a trait
relationship between the predictor variables and the criterion variable (Cokley & Awad,
2013). In this study, the predictor variables were an employee’s age, education, gender,
income, and length of tenure. The criterion variable was an employee’s turnover
intention.
the differences among variables for more than one group (Yan, Ding, Geng, & Zhou,
2011); I did not elect to use causal-comparative research methods. The population for this
study consisted of one group. As such, I used the research question and hypotheses to
examine the amount of criterion variable variance accounted for by predictor variables
57
(Tonidandel & LeBreton, 2011). Quasi-experimentalists do not allocate random
assignment of the subjects to the control groups and treatment groups exists (Cokley &
Awad, 2013). Correlational research was appropriate for this study because correlational
Population
draw conclusions concerning a large population (Uprichard, 2013). From 2011 until
2013, the average number of employees within the state of Texas was approximately 10.5
million annually (Bureau of Labor and Statistics, 2014). I selected 162 residents of Texas
who were employed full-time, were 18 years of age or older, employed by another
individual or business and were not self-employed, who also used SurveyMonkey®
Audience (SurveyMonkey®, 2014c). Lyness, Gornick, Stone, and Grotto (2012) defined
full-time employees as individuals that worked 40 or more hours per week. In the context
of this study, I deemed full-time employees as the most appropriate population because
these employees were likely to possess information that was relevant to turnover
intentions.
58
Sampling
strategies may be less expensive than other sampling strategies (Bornstein et al., 2013).
I used G*Power 3.1.9.2 to perform an a-priori sample size evaluation for random
effects, multiple linear regression analysis (Faul, Erdfelder, Buchner, & Lang, 2009). The
parameters for performing exact distribution test for the two-tailed, linear multiple
regression random model, a priori sample size calculation were (a) the effect size, (b) the
number of tails, (c) the number of predictor variables, (d) the power level, and (e) the
significance level (Fritz, Cox, & MacKinnon, 2013). A medium effect size, ρ2 = .13, was
appropriate for this study based on the analysis of two research studies in which turnover
intention was the outcome measurement (Islam et al., 2013; Suresh & Chandrashekara,
2012; Yucel, 2012). The alpha level was .05 for other research studies that included the
3-item turnover intention questionnaire (Buttigieg & West, 2013). An alpha level of .05
means there is a 5% probability of a Type I error, or rejecting the null hypothesis when
the null hypothesis is true (Farrokhyar et al., 2013). The power level of .95 is associated
with the probability of Type II errors, or the failure to reject the null hypothesis when the
59
null hypothesis is false (Farrokhyar et al., 2013). For five predictor variables, (a) age, (b)
education, (c) gender, (d) income, and (e) length of tenure, a power level of 1 – β = .95, a
medium effect size of .15, and α = .05, the estimated sample size is 162 (Faul et al.,
2009).
Ethical Research
to take part in the study were required to complete a survey consent form prior to
accessing the actual survey (see Appendix A). Additionally, SurveyMonkey® Audience
provided an option for nonparticipation with the invitation to participate in the survey
(SurveyMonkey®, 2014c). Participants may have chosen to withdraw from the study, or
SurveyMonkey® Audience members have the option to choose to have a donation of $.50
donated to the charity of the member’s choice, or the member may choose to enter a
did not collect the survey participant’s name, email address, Internet, protocol address, or
any other information that could have identified the individual participant.
To ensure the ethical protection of the survey participants, prior to conducting the
survey, I disabled the tracking mechanism feature for storing and accessing the Internet
survey responses on a data server that had firewall protection and 24-hour per day
2014d). Additionally, I maintained the data in a safe place for 5 years prior to shredding
the data.
The survey instrument consisted of (a) eligibility questions that reference the
participant’s age and employment status; (b) a query of the participants’ age, education,
gender, income, length of tenure; and (c) the 3-item turnover intention questionnaire (see
Appendix B). In 1978, Mobley, Horner, and Hollingsworth developed the 3-item
turnover (Walker, 2013). I assessed employee turnover intention using the responses to
the following statements: (a) I often think of leaving the organization, (b) it is possible
that I will look for a new job within the next year, and (c) if I could choose again, I would
not work for the same organization (Mobley et al., 1978). The rationale for using these
three items to measure turnover intention is because of three reasons. First, employees
that have frequent thoughts of leaving an organization tend to show increased rates of
turnover behavior (Mobley et al., 1978). Second, the availability of job alternatives is an
important factor in the decision to leave one’s job (Yucel, 2012). Third, employees who
are affectively committed to the organization show lower rates of turnover intention
61
(Choudhury & Gupta, 2011). I used each question to measure the employee’s turnover
nor disagree, 4 = agree, 5 = strongly agree). The points along a rating scale may not
represent equal intervals; however, rating scale data are closer to interval than ordinal
scale data and researchers may use rating scale data as interval data in statistical analyses
(Meyers, Gamst, & Guarino, 2013). I assessed turnover intention using an interval scale.
When added together, scores on the 3-item turnover intention questionnaire ranged from
a low score of 3 to a high score of 15, with higher scores indicating higher intention to
leave one’s job and lower scores indicating lower intention to leave.
The analysis included ratio-scaled predictor variables of (a) age, (b) education, (c)
income, and (e) length of tenure. Gender was a dichotomously scored, nominal variable
and the criterion variable was turnover intention. I measured the participant’s age using a
ratio scale by asking participants to report their age in years. I provided two response
options for the gender variable. The binary data score was 0 = female and 1 = male. I
queried the participant’s level of education by asking the participants to report the
highest-grade level of formal education that the participant has attained without regard to
the country of educational attainment. A query of the precise grade level afforded the
(Barro & Lee, 2013). I measured the participant’s income using a ratio scale level by
62
asking participant to record their annual income for the previous year. I measured a
participant’s length of tenure using a ratio scale by asking participant to indicate the
number of years of employment the participant has with their current employer.
Researchers established the reliability and validity of the 3-item turnover intention
instrument (Buttigieg & West, 2013; Yin-Fah et al., 2010; Yucel, 2012). Cronbach’s
alpha is a commonly accepted measure of inter item test reliability (Tavakol & Dennick,
2011). Cronbach’s alpha is equivalent to the average of all possible split-half reliability
correlations (Tavakol & Dennick, 2011). Ideally, Cronbach’s alpha will be .90 or above,
but values between .70 and .95 are acceptable (Tavakol & Dennick, 2011). Other
researchers using different samples have reported values of Cronbach’s alphas within the
Buttigieg and West (2013) examined the effect of quality leadership on social
support and job design of 65,142 healthcare employees. The researchers reported a
Cronbach alpha of .92 for the turnover intention scale (Buttigieg & West, 2013). At the
significance level of p < .01 a positive relationship existed between quantitative overload
(r = .16) and hostility (r = .22) and the criterion variable of turnover intention.
interpreted as intent to leave, .920 on a job alternatives factor, and .846 on a factor named
63
thoughts of quitting (Yucel, 2012). A negative relationship existed between turnover
intention and job satisfaction (-.364), affective commitment (-.077), and continuance
commitment, job stress, job satisfaction, and turnover intention for 120 Malaysian
relationship existed between turnover intention and job satisfaction, r = -.447, p < .01.
Because of the established reliability and validity measurements, I did not make any
adjustments or revisions to the turnover intention model (see Appendix B). The raw data
for the survey will be available for five years after the termination of the research, by
The questions of the survey were formatted using page-skip logic. The use of
well as disqualify any participants who do not meet the established criteria for survey
participation (see Appendices A and B). I used questions 1-3 to determine the
participants' eligibility. To participate in the survey the participant must have resided in
Texas, been 18 or older, employed at the time of the survey, and not self-employed.
Participants who provided a disqualifying answer to any of the three questions were not
allowed to complete the survey. I used survey items 4-8 to determine the participants’
64
demographic characteristics, which included references to the participant’s (a) age (b)
education, (c) gender, (d) income, and (e) length of tenure. For items 9-11, I asked the
participants to use a Likert-type scale to identify their level of agreement with each item
1 million panel members are accessible using the participant pool (Brandon, Long,
SurveyMonkey® Audience was more economical than Qualtrics was (Brandon et al.,
2014). Qualtrics price quotes varied based on survey length and the amount of incentive
the researcher was willing to pay (Brandon et al., 2014). In some instances, researchers
paid between $7.00 and $15.00 as an incentive to complete a survey (Brandon et al.,
2014). SurveyMonkey® Audience charges researchers $1.00 per each response (Brandon
et al., 2014).
administering the survey, I validated the collector account by using the preview/test
option to ensure that all survey design options were functioning properly. I submitted the
custom targeting criteria categories were (a) age, (b) education, (c) gender, (d) household
income, and (e) employment status (SurveyMonkey®, 2014c). The cutoff date to receive
responses was 4 weeks after the initial opening of the survey. I reviewed the number of
usable surveys daily, and I planned to extend the cutoff time to meet the required sample
65
size of 162. There was no pilot study of the survey as other researchers established the
reliability and validity statistics for the survey instrument (Buttigieg & West, 2013; Yin-
Data Analysis
To what extent, if any, does a relationship exist between the predictor variables of
age, education, gender, income, length of tenure, and the criterion variable employee
turnover intention?
independent variables, an employee’s (a) age, (b) education, (c) gender, (d) income, (e)
length of tenure, and the dependent variable of turnover intention. Multiple regression
variables to the total variance of the dependent variable (Cohen et al., 2013). I assessed
the amount of variance that age, education, gender, income, or length of tenure explains
turnover intentions using multiple regression analysis. I used multiple regression analysis
to assess the direction, magnitude, and nature of the relationship between and among
variables (Cohen et al., 2013). Additionally, the multiple regression analysis was
indicative of whether two or more of the predictor variables were redundant (Cohen et al.,
2013).
inferences regarding the variables (Cohen et al., 2013). Collinearity occurs when a strong
relationship exists among the predictor variables (Cohen et al., 2013). Inflation of the
67
standard error may occur if collinearity exists (Cohen et al., 2013). Inflation of the
standard error may result in the determination of statistical insignificance when the
diagnostics within the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) software to
identify collinearity among the variables. I exported the results of the survey into the
SPSS software was that Walden University provides access to the software package free
of charge to students.
In the SPSS software, I calculated the tolerance and variance inflation factor
(VIF) collinearity statistics. A VIF statistic of 1 means there are no correlated predictor
greater than 5 are associated with collinearity (Cohen et al., 2013). Other assumptions
associated with multiple regression analysis include the normal distribution, linear
researcher can visually assess normal distribution and the presence of a linear relationship
by observing a standardized residual plot and looking for outliers (Green & Salkind,
2011). The output parameters for the power analysis were a lower critical R2 value of
.005 and an upper critical R2 value of .078. Therefore, I accepted the null hypothesis
when the sample R2 was between .005 and .078 (Faul et al., 2009). However, when the
sample R2 was larger, I found the results to be significant and rejected the null hypothesis
levels of the predictor variables (Cohen et al., 2013). I used p-p plots to assess the
(Aguinis, Gottfredson, & Joo, 2013). When a nonlinear trend existed, I used a
nonparametric method to assess the data (Aguinis et al., 2013). When using
Camblor & Corral, 2012). Researchers use bootstrapping techniques to estimate reliable
statistics when data normality assumptions are not met (Martinez-Camblor & Corral,
2012). Bootstrapping is useful when there are questions regarding the validity and
accuracy of the usual distribution and assumptions that limit the behavior of the results
(Cohen et al., 2013). The use of bootstrapping techniques addressed potential concerns
with the standard errors of the regression coefficients (Aguinis et al., 2013).
Study Validity
the results of this study did not establish causation. Threats to internal validity were not
applicable (Venkatesh et al., 2013). To assess the inferences among variables, statistical
To assure statistical conclusion validity, the statistical power for the study was .95
relationship if a relationship exists, or not detecting a relationship when one does not
69
exist (Becker, Rai, Ringle, & Volckner, 2013). A power designation of .95 reduced the
the .05 level to mitigate the risk of Type I errors to 5% (Farrokhyar et al., 2013). The 5-
predictor variables for the study were (a) age, (b) education, (c) gender, (d) income, and
(e) length of tenure. An increased chance of Type I errors associated with an increased
problems, the researcher must control for the family-wise error rate (Cohen et al., 2013).
The Bonferroni correction adjustment procedure is the most commonly used method for
controlling family-wise error rates (Cohen et al., 2013). A family-wise error rate is the
probability of making one or more Type I errors (Cohen et al., 2013). Using the concept
of the gradient of similarity from the proximal similarity model, I generalized the study
findings to United States citizens (Palese, Coletti, & Dante, 2013). The proximal
similarity model was appropriate for considering the generalizability of study results to
members of a similar group (Palese et al., 2013). I expected the study findings of the
turnover intentions of full-time employees from Texas to be similar to study findings for
to examine the extent and nature of the relationship between the predictors, (a) age, (b)
education, (c) gender, (d) income, and (e) length of tenure and criterion variable turnover
turnover intentions (see Appendix B). Information gleaned from the study was indicative
of the role that an individual’s (a) age, (b) education, (c) gender, (d) income, or (e) length
the relationship among the independent and criterion variables. In Section 3, I present the
study findings and identify areas for future research based on the study results.
71
Section 3: Application to Professional Practice and Implications for Change
Introduction
resource managers with information for predicting and addressing employee turnover
intentions. I did so using the three-item Turnover Intention questionnaire, for which I
received permission from Dr. Mobley, the original author of the instrument (Appendix
C). I conducted an online survey using SurveyMonkey® Audience and the Turnover
Intention questionnaire, receiving 205 responses in three days. Of the 205 responses, 18
individuals failed to answer all of the questions for the survey. The a priori sample-size
calculation was for 162 participants; as a result, the post-screening total of 187 eligible
sets of participant data met this established criteria. The results of the study were
generational cohorts and individuals with varying income levels. The results of the study
findings did not indicate a statistically significant relationship between the predictor
variables of education, gender, length of tenure, and the criterion variable of turnover
intention.
model fit and to determine the amount of variance an employee’s (a) age, (b) education,
72
(c) gender, (d) income, and (e) length of tenure had on the employee’s turnover
existed between the predictor variables and the criterion variable. Because I had more
participants than the estimated sample size, I included the full set of 187 completed
surveys in the data analysis and discarded the results of surveys with missing data.
existed. The VIF statistic for each of the variables ranged between 1.03 and -1.24,
indicating the predictor variables measured different items (Table 1). I determined the
Coefficientsa
-
Age -.045 .023 -.162 .045 .804 1.244
2.020
-
Income -.260 .120 -.169 .032 .852 1.173
2.161
Table 2
Model Summaryb
from Texas who were at least 18 years of age at the time of the survey participation. The
participant pool included 97 (51.9%) women and 90 (48.1%) men (Table 3). The ages of
the participants ranged from 22 to 76 years of age, with a mean age of 46.89 years, and
an SD score of 11.91. The participant education level ranged from 11 years of education
to 26 years. The median years of education for the participants were 16.09 and the SD
was 3.19. The midpoint income mean of the participants was $87,500, with annual
salaries ranging from $5,000 to more than $200,000. While some participants had a
length of tenure at their workplace of less than one year, other employees had 35 years of
tenure. The mean amount of tenure for the participants was 11.18 years, and the SD was
Gender Frequencies
Descriptive Statistics
Bootstrap
95% Confidence Interval
Variables Statistic Bias SE Lower Upper
N 187 0 0 187 187
Minimum 22
Age Maximum 76
M 46.89 -.01 .88 45.18 48.55
SD 11.913 -.038 .506 10.857 12.855
N 187 0 0 187 187
Minimum 11
Education Maximum 26
M 16.09 .00 .23 15.64 16.56
SD 3.194 -.011 .193 2.804 3.569
N 187 0 0 187 187
Minimum 1
Income Maximum 10
M 5.33 .00 .16 5.02 5.65
SD 2.167 -.010 .103 1.952 2.350
N 187 0 0 187 187
Minimum .5
Tenure Maximum 35.0
M 11.187 -.006 .680 9.872 12.529
SD 9.3451 -.0603 .4813 8.3351 10.2227
N 187 0 0 187 187
Minimum 3.00
Total_turnover_intention Maximum 15.00
M 7.7219 -.0017 .2430 7.2461 8.1818
SD 3.33565 -.01359 .14180 3.04951 3.59945
Valid N (listwise) N 187 0 0 187 187
p < .05; a – Unless otherwise noted, bootstrap results are based on 2000 bootstrap
samples.
I used G*Power 3.1.9.2 to conduct a post hoc analysis (Faul et al., 2009). The
input parameters for the two-tailed, linear multiple regression model were p2 = .013, α =
.05, N = 187, and 5 predictor variables. The output parameters were lower critical R2
value = .004, upper critical R2 = .067, and a power designation of .976. The power
designation indicated there was a 97.6% chance of correctly rejecting the null hypothesis
distribution of the data, (b) linear relationship, (c) accuracy of measurement, and (d)
homoscedasticity (Green & Salkind, 2011). The data for this study had nonnormal
distributions, and a linear relationship was not present between the predictor variables
and the criterion variable (see Figure 1). The variance around the regression line was not
the same for all values of the predictor variables. A violation of the assumptions
associated with multiple regression analysis existed. To address this violations of the
of resampling the sample data and the use of bootstrapping is appropriate when violations
of normality exist (Aguinis et al., 2013). I performed 2,000 iterations of the bootstrap
The primary research question for this study was: To what extent, if any, does a
relationship exist between the predictor variables of age, education, gender, income,
examine the efficacy of (a) age, (b) education, (c) gender, (d) income, and (e) length of
79
tenure in predicting turnover intention. The predictor variables were (a) age, (b)
education, (c) gender, (d) income, and (e) length of tenure. The criterion variable was
turnover intention. The null hypotheses were that (a) age, (b) education, (c) gender, (d)
income, and (e) length of tenure would not significantly predict turnover intention. The
alternate hypotheses were that (a) age, (b) education, (c) gender, (d) income, and (e)
linearity, and homoscedasticity of the residuals were met; violations were noted (see
Figure 1). The model was able to significantly predict turnover intention F (5, 181) =
2.305, p = .046, adjusted R2 = .034 (see Table 2 and Table 5). The adjusted R2 (.034)
accounted for by the linear combination of the predictor variables of (a) age, (b)
education, (c) gender, (d) income, and (e) length of tenure. In the final model, age and
income were statistically significant, with income (β = -.169, p = -.032) accounting for a
higher contribution to the model than age (β =- .162, p = -.045; see Table 6). A negative
indicative of an inverse relationship between the predictor variable and the criterion
variable. Therefore, for each SD unit of increase in turnover intention, the variable of age
decreased by -.162, and income decreased by -.169 when the other four predictor
the predictor variables of age and income and the criterion variable of turnover intention.
I rejected the null hypotheses for the variables of age and income. Education, gender, and
80
length of tenure did not provide any significant variation in turnover intention. For the
variables of education, gender, and length of tenure, I failed to reject the null hypotheses
Table 5
ANOVAa
Model SS df MS F Sig.
Bootstrapa
95% Confidence
Interval
Sig. (2-
Model B Bias SE tailed) Lower Upper
(Constant) 9.389 -.071 1.546 .000 6.302
Age -.045 .001 .023 .054 -.090
1 Education .103 .002 .075 .171 -.042
Gender .254 .000 .487 .607 -.666
Income -.260 .001 .118 .032 -.492
Tenure .006 8.231E-005 .028 .847 -.047
a
p < .05; – Unless otherwise noted, bootstrap results are based on 2000 bootstrap
samples.
between age and turnover intention and the results were similar to the results of peer-
and the employee’s turnover intention (see Table 8). Thus, as an employee’s age
increased, turnover intentions were less likely to occur. Similarly, the results of previous
(Bjelland et al., 2011; Couch, 2011; Lopina et al., 2012). Individuals below the age of 35
were more likely to turnover than their older counterparts (Lopina et al., 2012). Lambert
et al. (2012) surmised that decreases in turnover for older workers related to the workers
employee’s level of education was not a predictor of turnover intention. Similarly, when
addressing turnover intention using personal and contextual factors, education and gender
were not significant predictors (Joo, Hahn, & Peterson, 2015). The results of this study
may have indicated that education was not a factor for turnover intention because the
84% (see Table 8). The study findings may extend knowledge of the human capital
theory by assessing the differences in turnover intentions for individuals with varying
showed that turnover was less likely when the knowledge workers received opportunities
to advance their skills and develop mentoring relationships (Jayasingam & Yong, 2013).
84
Table 8
Education Frequencies
significant relationship did not exist between gender and turnover intention when
considering the moderating variables of proactive personality traits and job characteristics
(Joo et al., 2015). Similarly, Tschopp, Grote, and Gerber (2014) postulated that an
regardless of the employee’ gender. As such, loyal employees that experience low levels
independent career orientation (Tschopp et al., 2014). The results disconfirm the findings
of the peer-reviewed studies in the literature review that were indicative of gender
disparities. Grissom et al. (2012) postulated that a supervisor’s leadership style and job
satisfaction were predictive factors for gender disparities as the disparities related to
turnover intention. Similarly, psychological contracts between the employee and the
Green and Salkind (2011) described correlation coefficients of .10, .20, and .30 as
weak, moderate, and strong respectively. A negative, weak, correlation (r -.166) existed
between an employee’s level of income and the employee’s turnover intention (Green &
Salkind, 2011; see Table 9). Thus, as the variable of income increased, turnover
intentions decreased. The significant relationship that existed between income and
turnover intention may relate to perceptions of fairness. Similarly, Ryan et al. (2012)
lower levels of turnover (Carnahan et al., 2012; Llorens & Stazyk, 2011).
Table 9
employee turnover intention. Length of tenure was not a predictive factor for turnover
intention, because the relationship was not statistically significant (see Table 10). The
87
findings were not consistent with the human capital theory. Ng and Feldman (2013)
suggested that researchers examine the relationship between length of tenure and
turnover using moderating variables. The findings of this study were consistent with the
findings of a study conducted Ng and Feldman (2013) that included employee motivation
statistically significant relationship between length of tenure and turnover intention (Bal
et al., 2013). In this study, length of tenure may not have been a predictive factor for
offer incentives to retain high performers. High performers provide a positive return on
investment for the organization because of the positive relationship between human
capital assets and organizational profitability (Kwon & Rupp, 2013). The profitability of
89
the return on investment associated with turnover of high performers is dependent upon
the costs associated with the human capital investments used to generate employee
resource practitioners must make economically just decisions. The classification for
Functional turnover occurs when organizational leaders replace low performers with
performers with low performers (Wallace & Gaylor, 2012). From a human capital
performers with low performers. Thus, dysfunctional turnover is more likely to occur
when employees from the Millennial generation replace members of the Baby Boomer
generational cohort. Baby Boomers have more experience, and therefore, have more
human capital assets than their younger counterparts have (Wallace & Gaylor, 2012).
Millennials that exit the organization with Baby Boomer generation employees.
between an employee’s age and the employee’s turnover intention. The practical
implications concerning age involve members of the Baby Boomer generation, born
between 1946-1964, and the Millennial generation, born after 1980 (Tang, Cunningham,
Frauman, Ivy, & Perry, 2012). Additionally, it is imperative that human resource
practitioners manage employee turnover through the development of strategies that are
90
conducive to the retention of top performers and the termination of ineffective employees
employee behaviors.
Millennials change jobs on average every 18 months and are not willing to make
personal sacrifices for a career (Festing & Schafer, 2014). However, Baby Boomers are
process-oriented, loyal employees that willingly sacrifice their personal needs for the
good of the employment organization, and experience longer tenure (Saber, 2013). In
instances when downsizing is necessary, the human resource practitioner will need to
make employee reduction decisions that do not impede the efficiency of the organization.
For underperforming employees, it may be more cost-effective for the human resource
Baby Boomer. Due to the attitudes and values of members of the Baby Boomer cohort,
when they feel there is no opportunity for promotion or increases in pay within the
The results of this study indicated the existence of a weak, statistically significant,
negative relationship between income and turnover intentions. In order to retain top
performers, organizational leaders should evaluate salary increases and wage allocations.
Human resource practitioners must develop compensation strategies for attracting and
91
retaining top performing Baby Boomers and Millennials (Panaccio, Vandenberghe, &
Ayed, 2014).
and are consistent with reductions in turnover intentions (Johnson & Ng, 2015). Johnson
and Ng (2015) found that when Millennials feel they receive fair compensation, they are
less likely to seek employment outside of the organization. Similarly, Baby Boomers that
experience pay satisfaction have increased tenure. One method for human resource
practitioner the opportunity to reward top performers with additional pay or incentives
(Fang & Gerhart, 2012). Millennials have more technological savvy, and adapt to change
quicker than their older counterparts (Thompson & Gregory, 2012). Therefore, when
Millennials experience satisfaction with pay, they exhibit less turnover intention, and
have the potential to the changing needs of the organization. When assessing the effects
practitioners may find that it is more advantageous to retain top performing Millennials
The results of this study indicated that younger employees are more likely to have
turnover intentions than their older counterparts are. Millennials have fewer turnover
intentions when employed by organizations with human resource practices that are
consistent with the employee’s psychological needs (Festing & Schafer, 2014). Human
92
resource practices that are appealing to the motivational needs of employees include
benefits that extend to the employees’ family and community. Millennial motivations
Campbell, & Freeman, 2012). Human resource practitioners can implement work-life
balance initiatives to attract and retain members of the Millennial generational cohort (Lu
Work-life balance initiatives are organizational resources that align with the social
and culture goals of the employee (Wang & Verma, 2012). Work-life balance initiatives
include flexible work hours, employee assistance programs, childcare programs, and
elder care programs (Wang & Verma, 2012). Families benefit from work-life balance
initiatives because the Millennial employee can reduce the household expenses by using
flexible work hours and on-site childcare program assistance. Members of the Millennial
generation are more socially conscious than their predecessors. Therefore, when the
social and civic causes such as environmental clean-up activities, and volunteering in
The results of the study indicated an inverse relationship existed between income
and turnover intentions for Baby Boomers and Millennials. Baby Boomers experience
longer tenure and are less likely to terminate employment with an organization. Human
organizations exhibited fewer turnover intentions when the employee experienced pay
93
satisfaction. The advantages of employee retention of Millennials in nonprofit
In this study, age and income were the significant predictor variables for turnover
intention. The variables that did not have a statistically significant relationship with
turnover intention were education, gender, and length of tenure. Organizational leaders
and human resource practitioners can replicate the study for their specific organization.
The results of this study would be beneficial to organizational leaders and human
benefit from the development of strategies that are consistent with maintaining
operational efficiency (Fang & Gerhart, 2012). When generational differences exist,
human resource practitioners must determine the motivating factors concerning the
top performers and justify the dismissal of poor performers (Laird, Harvey, & Lancaster,
feel deserving of praise and have a sense of entitlement (Laird et al., 2015. As such,
turnover intentions increase more for Millennials than Baby Boomers when the employee
receives a poor performance appraisal (Laird et al., 2015). When establishing pay
I viewed the effects of age, education, gender, income, and length of tenure on
employee turnover using a human capital theorist viewpoint. The limitations of this study
were (a) the use of a convenience sample, (b) I did not include antecedents to turnover
intention, (c) I did not include employee perceptions, and (d) the results did not establish
causation. Each of the survey participants resided in Texas, according to the proximal
similarity model; the results of the study are generalizable to employees in the United
States (Palese et al., 2013). Each of the limitations is an opportunity for future research.
industry. Researchers may benefit from using qualitative exploration to determine the
qualitative study may indicate why age and income were predictive factors of turnover
intention as well as why education, gender, and length of tenure were not. It is possible
that the inclusion of employee perceptions could yield different results. The results of this
95
study did not establish causation. Future researchers may use job satisfaction and
turnover intentions.
Reflections
Prior to conducting the research for this study, I had preconceived ideas that each
mitigate any risks associated with my personal biases. Upon completion of the study, I
realized that the results of the study could provide a foundation for future qualitative
intentions.
It is possible that the predictor variables of education, gender, and length of tenure
could have significant effects if a researcher replicated the study using different
statistical relationship between education and turnover intention. However, the majority
of the sample, 84%, attended college. When researchers grouped employees by degrees
(associates, masters, and bachelors), Islam et al. (2013) found differences in turnover
intentions. The results of a future study may have different indications if there is equal
member exchanges may relate to turnover. Grissom et al. (2012) postulated that turnover
intentions were lower when gender congruence between the leader and the member
96
existed. Similarly, researchers should study length of tenure using moderating variables.
Perceptions of autonomy, older age, and higher wages are predictors of increased tenure
(Butler et al., 2014). Therefore, researchers that use pay satisfaction as a moderator may
find that a statistically significant difference exists between age and turnover intention.
Employee turnover is costly to organizations. The loss of human capital can cause
and organizational leaders need to implement policies and practices that are instrumental
are tools that useful in attracting and retaining top performers. A review of the literature
significant relationship did not exist between an employee’s (a) education, (b) gender or,
(c) length of tenure and turnover intention. Human resource practitioners should consider
and retain top performers, as well as identify and dismiss poor performing employees.
97
When assessing generational differences, Millennials are two to three times as likely to
turnover within a year as compared to Baby Boomers (Laird et al., 2015). Furthermore,
Millennials have a sense of entitlement, or feel deserving of praise and rewards, without
regard to actual performance (Laird et al., 2015). The sense of entitlement is associated
with job exhaustion, job stress, and low levels of job satisfaction when the Millennial
When experiencing job exhaustion, poor performers of the Millennial cohort were
more likely to turnover than their Baby Boomer counterparts (Lu & Gursoy, 2013). The
higher levels of turnover occur because of the Millennial’s emphasis on work-life balance
and leisure and the Baby Boomer’s emphasis on hard work and occupational achievement
(Lu & Gursoy, 2013). Human resource practitioners should understand that Millennial
poor performers are likely to seek other employment opportunities when faced with
human resource practitioners to terminate poor performers from the Millennial generation
than the Baby Boomer cohort. The development of strategies that provide supportive
organizational cultures, retention of top performers, and the dismissal of poor performers
turnover process will reduce the effects of dysfunctional turnover within an organization.
98
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126
Appendix A: Informed Consent
age, education, gender, income, or length of tenure are predictive factors for turnover
student at Walden University. The anticipated benefit of the research is human resources
human resource practices that reduce the consequences associated with employee
turnover.
I invite you to participate in this research project because you are a full-time
employed citizen residing in Texas, and at least 18 years of age. If you do not meet the
established criteria for study participation, i.e. employed full-time, resident of Texas, at
least 18 years old, then you may elect to terminate participation by clicking the disagree
Your participation in this research study is voluntary. There are minimal risks
associated with survey participation and you will not receive monetary compensation for
your participation. You may choose not to participate. If you decide to participate in this
research survey, you may withdraw at any time. If you decide not to participate in this
study or if you withdrawal from participating at any time, you will not be penalized.
The procedure involves completing an online survey that will take approximately
five minutes. Your responses will be confidential, and we do not collect identifying
information such as your name, email address, or IP address. The survey questions will
password protected electronic format. To help protect your confidentiality, the surveys
will not contain information that will personally identify you. The results of this study
will be used for scholarly purposes only and may be shared with Walden University
If you have any questions about the research study, please contact Tracy M.
Walden University IRB procedures for research involving human subjects. The IRB
approval number is 05-05-15-0390582. If you have questions about your rights, please
contact Walden University IRB at irb@waldenu.edu. Please print a copy of this page for
your records.
If you do not wish to participate in the research study, please decline participation
by clicking on the "disagree" button. Clicking on the “disagree” button indicates one of
the following:
° Agree
° Disagree
129
Appendix B: Survey Questions
Questions 1-3 will inquire about your age and current employment status to determine
a. I am currently unemployed.
3. Please choose one of the following options that most closely describes the nature
a. I am self-employed.
Demographic Information
Questions 4-8 will provide demographic background information. Please answer all
items candidly and honestly, remembering that your responses are anonymous and
confidential.
4. At the time of this survey, how many years old are you?
a. Female
b. Male
130
6. What is the highest-grade level of formal education that you have completed,
8. How many years have you been employed by your current employer?
A. Strongly disagree
B. Disagree
D. Agree
E. Strongly agree
10. It is possible that I will look for a new job within the next year.
11. If I could choose again, I would not choose to work for the same organization.
131
Appendix C: Instrument Permission Request
responses to three statements derived from the turnover intention model developed by
organize the statements in the following manner; (a) I often think of leaving the
organization, (b) it is possible that I will look for a new job within the next year, and
(c) if I could choose again, I would not work for the same organization. I propose to
use a Likert-type scale to examine the responses in which low scores will indicate low
turnover intentions, and high scores will indicate high turnover intentions.
is Tracy.hayes2@waldenu.edu.
Sincerely,
Tracy M. Hayes
Dear Tracy,
You have my permission to use the behavioral intention scale described in your
Bill