Chapter Five Reading for Function If you've already spent some time practicing for the reading section, you've most likely had the following experience: you see a question that asks you the primary purpose of a few lines or a paragraph. You go back, read the lines, and feel pretty confident that you understand what they’re saying. When you look at the answers, however, they don’t seem to have anything to do with what you've just read. You go back to the passage, frantically re- reading, trying to figure out what you've missed, then look back at the answers. Clear as mud. You get rid of a couple that are obviously wrong but find yourself stuck between (B) and (C), which both seem equally plausible. You remember hearing that (C) is the most common answer, so you decide to just pick it and hope for the best. ‘This scenario typically stems from the fact that most people don’t truly understand that function questions are not asking what the lines say but rather wiry they say it. One of the principle aims of the AP English Language and Composition Fixam is to test not only your ability to comprchend what is written in a passage but also how is written, Function questions play a key role in that framework. Unlike literal comprehension questions, which require you to identify a paraphrased version of an idea, these questions ask you to move beyond understanding an idea's literal meaning to understanding its rhetorical purpose within the larger context of the passage or paragraph. Frequently, when students are asked what role a particular piece of information is playing, ‘they either offer a play-by-play account of the content or a personal interpretation of its meaning, Let me be absolutely clear: content, interpretation, and function are completely different things, and you must understand the distinction between them. Content = literal meaning, Fanetion = the relationship between one idea and another, or the rhetorical purpose (e.g. support, refute, question) of a given word, phrase, section, or entire passage. Interpretation = explanation of the meaning or significance of a piece of information. Inshort, you cannot understand function without understanding content, but understanding content alone is insufficient to understand function. Furthermore, you will never be asked to interpret a passage beyond what is directly stated or implied in the text itself. Anything beyond that falls into the realm of speculation, and answers that involve this concept will always be incorrect. 4‘Types of Function Questions Fanction questions can ask about the role of virtually any aspect of a passage: + Single words + Punctuation (e.g., quotation marks) + Rhetorical devices + Phrases and sentences + Paragraphs + Entire passage ‘They are typically phrased in the following ways: + The primary purpose of the passage/ paragraph xis to... + The quotation/ phrase, ete. in lines x-y primarily serves to/is used to... +The author uses the passive voice ... + The funetion of lines x-y isto. + Whats the effect of the comparison in lines -y? And their answers fall into two groups: 41) Those that can be answered only by looking at the specific wording in the lines cited in the question. In such cases, the lines will typically contain punctuation, phrasing, or an important transition that points to a particular answer. 2) Those that cannot be obtained by looking at the lines cited in the question, but that instead depend on contextual information located either before or after. Particularly for function questions, line references simply tell you where the relevant information is located - they do not necessarily tell you the relationship of those lines to anything else in the passage. The information you need to determine the answer will often appear either before the line(s) referenced in the question or, less frequently, after, There is no way to tell upfront which category a particular question will fall into, and sometimes determining the answer will require elements of both. Consequently, when you encounter a function question, you should generally be prepared to read a sentence or two both before and after the lines provided, then go back and focus on the appropriate section more closely if necessary. Remember that if the lines cited in the question are relatively close to the beginning of a paragraph, you should back up and begin reading from there - topic sentences will nearly always give you the point of a paragraph, making it much easier for you to understand the role of a particular word or sentence within it, 92Understanding “Function” Answer Choices Function questions comprise a significant number of the questions in the xeading section, and they are at the heart of what the AP English Language and Composition Exam tests ~ namely, the ability to understand how arguments are organized and why authors choose to include particular words, phrases, information, and rhetorical strategies. These questions almost always require you to make a cognitive leap from concrete to abstract. You are expected to grasp not only the literal meaning of a passage or portion of a passage, but also to understand its more general relationship (supporting, refuting, illustrating, emphasizing, comparing, questioning) to the argument as a whole or to another idea presented in the passage. ‘While answers to function questions are based on the specific wording in the passage, the answer itself is not stated directly in the passage. In fact, the wording of the answer choices, will often be entirely unrelated fo the wording of the passage itself; a literal answer that simply rephrases the information presented in the passage - the answer that most people are expecting ~ will not appear at all. Instead, you are likely to see a series of general statements such as “define a term,” “defend a claim,” “analyze an action,” or “describe an outcome.” Sometimes, the answers will provide additional information, but other timés they will not. In addition (o including 2 function word such as “argue” or “criticize,” the correct answer will also typically refer to the topic of a passage or section of the passage in a more general manner. If a passage discusses Frederick Douglass, you should therefore look closely at an answer choice that simply refers to “an individual.” You should also never assume that an answer is correct simply because it does mention the subject of the passage by name. If anything, you should regard such answers with a healthy dose of suspicion. Why? Because the exam is set up to test your ability to match ideas from the passage to their rephrased, often more abstract, versions in the answer choices; it is not designed to test whether you can spot familiar words from the passage! If it were, the test would be too easy. For example, a primary purpose question about the Berthe Morisot passage on p. 84 might ook something like this: “The primary purpose of the passage is to (A) promote the work ofa formerly overlooked artist (B) explore some characteristics of Impressionist painting (C) lament the injustices suffered by women painters (D) refute a conventional interpretation of a particular artist’s works (B) compare the works of Berthe Morisot to those of other French Impressionists 93i 10 Note, first of all, that this is essentially the same question %) the big-picture (“passage 25 & whole’ question on p. 23 ~ the answer choices Have merely been adjusted to begin with Prnelfon derbs, Just looking atthe answer choices as such, wi Gt ‘notice that (B), (C) and (8) fl refer to broad categories (“Impressionist painting,” “women painters,” “French Impressionists"). In contrast, (A) and () ‘both indicate a narrow focus (“a formerly aoe eal artis” “a particular artist”) but notably, they do net ‘mention, Morisot’s actual a oee gnstead, they refer to her in a much more general Wey. (f) is the trick answer, first rare it mentions Morisot by name; and second, becouse ‘states something that does in fact oowur in the passage but that is not actually the Prima focus. (D) correctly identifies the actual goat of the passage: to refute the onventional idea that Morisot’s paintings were an expression of an essential femininity, “To be dear, approaching answer choices this way is nots surefire trick, Rather, it a tool that atlows you to quickly identify answers likely to bs corte’ ‘and minimize second-guessing. een if you ate reasonably certain, you should still 69 ‘back to the passage and check that Teen lower choiee in question truly does ft. Certain does not equal right. In addition, iti frequently helpful to keep the main point” 0 at the least the point of the paragraph ~ in mind when answering questions that ask about smaller sections of a passage Dian #0 will help you determine how the word/PhEse ‘you're asked about relates to it. If you can keep these things in mind from the moment you encounter a function question, you'll already be a step ahead. For example, consider the following: Jn an era when few men and no women: received such international renown, Dolley Madison's ven perplexed historians and modern Americans J, The auton mentions “ice cream” and “pack {oo associate her name with ice crear and line of pastries” (Tines 4-5) in order to packaged pastries). In our time, reality stars cam Become “fame-isht" overnight; but the people of the nineteenth century bestowed fame on individuals— mostly male—who they felt had made significant ‘contributions to history. Why did the residents of Washington City, the members of government and th families, and, indeed, all of | ‘America declare Dolley the nation’s “Queen”? What did they understand about ‘Dolley Madison that we don’t? (A) criticize a harmful development {(B) provide a historical perspective (C) deseribe an unexpected consequence (D) downplay an important distinction (©) indicate the magnitude of a shift Knowing the main point of the passage won't get you the exacl Smee but it can help. What the point? That DM was a “Queen” in the nineteenth century but today no one knows why. Now we have to figare out the relationship between the lines in question. and that fact. The aot thing we’ ze going to do is re-read the entire sentence in which those ‘words appear nan era when few men and no women recetved sch international renown, Doley ir atison' satare has perplexed historians and modern Americans (who associate her name with ice cream and a line of packaged pastries). 4 godSo the author mentions ice eream and pastries in order to show how Americans view Dolley Madison today - they associate her with junk food. Why is that important? Well, in the nineteenth century, the American people thought she was a pretty big deal ‘That's a dramatic change, to go from being internationally renowned, the nation’s “Queen,” to showing up on a junk food box. ‘A big change = magnitude of a shift. Again: same idea, different words. Hence (B). ‘Admittedly, the relationship between the main point and the answer to the question isn’t 100% straightforward. If you have trouble understanding the language of the passage or identifying the point, this strategy will be of minimal help. But the relationship is there, and if you can identify it, questions such as these become much more straightforward. You'll still hhave to put in some thought in order to make the leap - the answer probably won't jump off the page, which is to be expected since the test is designed to hide the correct answer - but at least you'll have a way of approaching things ina more logical manner. Transitions, Punctuation, and Key Words and Phrases ‘ince the AP English Language and Composition Exam is a test that deals with relationships between ideas, it follows that the majority of the questions are based on the places in the passage where ideas come into contact into with one another ~ that is, where new information is introduced, or where there is a change in focus, point of view, or tone. ‘The relationships between these ideas are sometimes indicated through the use of specific words and phrases ~ particularly transitions ~ as well as epecific kinds of punctuation. These words, phrases, and punctuation marks often correlate in turn with particular shotorical functions, The chart on the next page lists some of the more common key words, phrases, rhetorical figures, and types of punctuation, along with the functions to which they correspond. 95Functions of Key Words, Punctuation, and Rhetorical Figures Continuers Contradictors ‘Support, Illustrate, Bolster, Define Refute, Criticize, Challenge, Provide Evidence Dispute, Contrast That is (to say) | And Properly speaking Bat Furthermore Colon However Moreover Dash Yet Inaddition Parentheses (Aljthough/Even though Also On the contrary As well as Hypothesize, Speculate (On one hand/On the other hand First/In the first place In-contrast Next i Whereas Then May While Finally Maybe Despite For example Might Inspite of Forinstance Could Nevertheless (One reason/ another reason Perhaps Meanwhile Itis possible Instead Explain, Clarity’ Still Emphasize, Highlight, | Rather than Because Call Attention to, Underscore | Misguided ‘The reason is False The answer is a Thats, Thatis why Terme ee Question, Imply Skepticism Dash oe Butis it really true...? Capital letters Question mark Draw a Conclusion Exclamation point Quotation marks Repetition (of a word, phrase) | Accordingly Hyperbole (exaggeration) | qualify Asaresult | Consequently Indicate Importance Dashes So Parentheses ‘Therefore Important Thus Significant Thereby Essential Fundamental | Compare Central Key Similarly ‘The point is Like(wise) As Just as Much as/like Analogies 96scholars with important information on the ruling class. Playing Positive and Negative with Function Questions One of the simplest ways to approach function questions and eliminate answer choices quickly is to play positive/negalive. Positive passages or portions of passages tend to have positive answers (Yexplain,” “clarify,” “highlight"), whereas negative passages and portions bf passages tend to have negative answers ("imply skepticism,” “question,” “eriticize’). Keep in mind, however, that correct answers often contain function verbs more neutral than the words in the passage itself. This is particularly true for positive passages = negative passages are more likely to have questions whose answers are clearly negative, For Cxample, a passage whose author views the shift from paper to electronic books as problematic might be accompanied by a primary purpose question whose correct answer reads, “ctiticize a recent technological development.” Very Important: as is true for answers in general, function answers that contain extrente language, either positive or negative (eg, “condemn,” “attack,” “prove”, are usually incorrect. While this strategy will not work for every single function question - some passages will simply be t00 neuiral and some questions will contain all positive or all negative answers it dece work for many questions, and employing it when you are able to do 90 can help you to very quickly narrow down your choices. Tet's look at an example: For Egyptologists, the temple at Karnak offers a treasure trove of data on Egypt's evolution into an 1. The primary purpose of the passage is to: international power with great wealth, a unigue and mysterious religion, and a way of life centered on the (A) explain the significance of g place 5 ebb and flow of the Nile, which coursed through the {B) criticize the pharaohs for removing their country’s heart. One relief, for example, which lists ancestors? names pharaohs stretching back to the Old Kingdom, provides (©) describe ancient Egypt's ruling class Even destruction tells a tale: Some pharaohs chiseled Kingdom Ab sway their predecessors” names in an attempt to wipe outany memory of their existence and secomplishments. “The first sentence tells us that Kamak offers a treasure trove, indicating that the passage is ponitive, and nothings contradicts that first impression. Keeping that in mind, yout ci” Eiyminate (B) and (E) automatically - don’t read, just look at the first word, eee that i's negative, and cross it out, If nothing else seems to fit, you can always go back and reassess those answers. (That’s why it’s important to work in pencil!) ‘Phat leaves us with (A), (C), and (D), all of which are fairly neutral, The only semi-positive “cue” we have in any of those answer is the word “significance” in (A). Significance importance, and the passage isin fact explaining why Karnak is important, That makes the answer (A). 7 (D) explore how the Nile shaped life in the Old (©) bemozn the destruction of a portion of Kamakif you weren't sure, however, you could check (C) and (D) individually. (©) The passage only tells us that Karnak provides information about the ruling class ~ it doesn’ tactually describe that class. (D) Again, the passage only states that life in ancient Egypt centered on the Nile - it never actually explains how that river shaped Bgyptians’ lives. “The following page provides a chart of common answers to function questions, divided into positive, negative, and neutral. ‘A-note about proving and disproving: One common point of confusion concerns the terms “prove” and “disprove.” Most high school students are accustomed to hearing feachers tell them to “prove their thesis,” and so it seems logical that professional authors would de the same. “This, alas, is one of the major differences between high school and college-level works while hhigh school assignments tend to be framed in terms of black-and-white ( Prove your thesis!” “Knock down the opposition!”), the reality is that authors who write for adult readers are far more nuanced ~ that is, they discuss wories that can be supported, illustrated, challenged, ic, bat that cannot be definitively called either true or false. Proving and disproving are therofore far outside the bounds of what any author could accomplish in 100 lines or less. 8Common “Function” Answers Positive Negative Neutral ‘Support Refute Describe Mlustrate Criticize Discuss Provide an example Question, Present Provide evidence Challenge Characterize Exemplify Dismiss Portray Bolster Disparage Depict Substantiate Deery Represent ‘Advance (a claim) Contradict Bvoke ‘Affiem Deny ‘Trace Defend Imply ékepticisin Dramatize Claim Debate Show Prove® Dispel | Undermine Indicate Praise | Discredit Point out ‘Acknowledge Attack® poe Concede Condens Suueet isprove™ Offer ae Provide Warn Introduce | Raise concern Emphasize | shift Highlight Make fun of Change Call attention to pate Digress* eee Mock fac on Scoff at Restat uae Jeer at* Summarize Reinforce Exaggerate Paraphrase ee | ee Hypothesize Explain pestle Speculate ‘Account for Taivialize” gee Qualify Pramine Clarify Lament Fxplore Articulate | Bemoan Develop Specify | Explicate Aasras Consider Justify Reflestom Promote Attribute Encourage Cite ‘Advocate saeaa Persuade Hit at i Simulate’ Fora glossary of selected ferms, please see p. 119. “Signals a term that is unlikely to be correct 9950 55 10 1s Now let's look at some examples. (Note: to save you from having to wade through more information than is necessary, only the relevant sections of longer passages are printed here.) Example #1: Purpose of Punctuation : ‘The way physies has been going, realism is ‘The authors use quotation marks around the word becoming difficult to defend. In classical physies— “ealistic” (line 52) in order to the physics of Newton that so accurately describes our everyday experience—the interpretation of terms such (A) defend a controversial notion as object and position is for the most part in harmony (B) present a novel approach swith commonsense, “realistic” understanding of those (C) offer a hypothesis concepts, As measuring devices, however, we are (D) imply skepticism about a concept crude instruments. Physicists bave found that (E) cite an expert opinion everyday objects and the light we see them by are made from objects that we do not perceive directly. ‘Aside from the fact that “implying skepticism” (or “questioning”) is the function most commonly indicated by quotation marks, the easiest way to answer this question is to look at the topic sentence, which provides the point of the paragraph: Realism (ie, a concept) is becoming difficult io defend, By definition, that statement conveys a “skeptical” attitude. So the answer is (D). Example #2: Purpose of an Example Like La Fontaine, Audubon was a quaint moralist ‘What is the effect of the example in lines 12-177 about the natural world, assigning human strengths and weakness¢s to the creatures he chronicled in his (A) To trace the development ofa longstanding ‘writings. The result is dubious science, but lively tradition reading. Audubon’s anthropomorphic view of the birds (B) To illustrate 2 previously discussed contrast hhc encoursered might sound archaic by the yardstick (C) To acknowledge the existence of compelling of modern ornithology, but on at least onc level, the evidence morality plays of his expansive aviary seem (D) To celebrate the spontaneous nature of an thoroughly modem, Read Audubon for any length ‘encounter of time, and you realize that his careful distillation of. (B) To characterize a universal impulse ‘nature into narratives of good versus evil anticipated the age of television wildlife documentary. When we ‘watch TV shows that are carefully constructed to make us root for the terrified antelope as it runs from the hungry Lion, we're indulging a tradition that Audubon, ‘America’s abiding dramatist of the great outdoors, helped to popularize, Before we discuss how to answer this question, a note about its wording, Although it asks about the example in terms of its result rather than its purpose, the use of the alternate phrosing is effectively irrelevant. As a general rule, you should treat “effect” questions exactly like other function questions and not concem yourself with linguistic subtleties. Doing otherwise will only make things more complicated than is necessary. 100