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Theory of constant cosmic expansion

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DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.17937.17768

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1

2 Theory of constant cosmic expansion

3

4 Robert Shour
5
6 5th March, 2020
7 Toronto, Canada

9 Abstract
10 A constant 4 : 3 ratio of dimensions for contemporaneous spatial ref-
11 erence frames can account for expansion of the universe. In that case,
12 space does not accelerate, cosmological inflation is unnecessary, the hori-
13 zon problem does not exist and the cosmic constant a(t) does not vary
14 with time. The underlying principles are based on dimensional capacity
15 and its corollaries, the 4/3 law and contemporary reference frames, one
16 three dimensional, the other four dimensional. Such a theory appears to
17 be neutral as between a big bang or a steady state universe; the big bang
18 is not a necessary implication of cosmological expansion.
19 Keywords big bang, cosmological acceleration, expansion, inflation, reference
20 frames, steady state

21 1 Outline

22 This paper presents a theory of expansion of the universe under the following
23 points:
24 ˆ The principle of dimensional capacity as a generalization, from a dimen-
25 sional standpoint, of Galilean scaling.
26 ˆ Derive as a corollary of dimensional capacity a 4 : 3 ratio of dimensions.
27 Apply to lengths in corresponding systems with, respectively, 4 and 3
28 dimensions.
29 ˆ Discuss the implication of the 4 : 3 ratio that there are two contempora-
30 neous reference frames, one with and one without motion. Examples.
31 ˆ Examples of phenomena and theories, apart from expansion of cosmolog-
32 ical space, in which the 4 : 3 ratio of dimensions law appears to apply.
33 Consider dimensional analysis aspects. Induction and relevance of exam-
34 ples.
35 ˆ Apply the 4 : 3 ratio to the expansion of cosmological space. Discuss how
36 the 4 : 3 ratio dispenses with cosmological inflation, acceleration of space,
37 the horizon problem, a varying cosmic constant and the big bang.
38 ˆ Some general remarks on conceptual reference frames and physics prob-
39 lems.
 Cosmic expansion 2

40 1.1 Epistemology and theory

41 “ . . . when it comes to theories, truth is always a provisional inference made on
42 the basis of evidence” (Singham, 2020, p. 114). “In order to be a great help
43 to the progress of science, it is by no means necessary that a theory should be
44 absolutely true” (Frankland, 1877, p. 27).
45 Inferences about the expansion of cosmological space based on dimensional
46 capacity are provisional, but there are reasons to believe those inferences may
47 be of some help to the progress of science.

48 2 Dimensional capacity

49 2.1 Dimension versus scaling

50 Galileo observed that larger animals similar to smaller animals have thicker
51 bones (Galilei, 1638; Galileo, 1914). With increase in size, for animal length L,
52 weight W ∝ V for V volume scales proportionally to L3 while cross-sectional
53 area A of the animal’s weight-bearing bone scales proportionally to L2 . The
54 exponents of L for V and A arise from their dimensions.
55 Cast Galileo’s observations about scaling applied to animal bone into a di-
56 mensional conceptual reference frame. (I have so far not found this approach
57 adopted in discussions of Galileo’s work.) Motivations for doing so include:
58 ˆ Scaling applicable to beams is induced by dimension, derivative of dimen-
59 sion. Therefore, a dimensional standpoint is more fundamental than a
60 scaling standpoint.
61 ˆ We live in a dimensional universe. Because a dimensional standpoint is
62 more fundamental, a dimensional standpoint applied to scaled phenomena
63 increases the possibility of insight.
64 ˆ A dimensional standpoint reveals invariance. Invariance explains why phe-
65 nomena scale.
66 ˆ A fundamental standpoint is likelier to suggest applicable physical princi-
67 ples
68 ˆ A dimensional standpoint connects to dimensional analysis better than a
69 scaling standpoint.

70 2.2 Scaled animal weight from a dimensional standpoint

71 When animal volume V , and therefore weight per dimension of volume, in-
72 creases, the size of A must increase disproportionately. Here, based on dimen-
73 sion, is the reasoning.
74 A smaller animal α1 with volume V1 ∝ W1 has cross-sectional area of weight-
75 bearing bone A1 . Then
W1
≤ c, (1)
A1
 Cosmic expansion 3

76 a critical ratio at which α1 ’s bones resist fracture. If W1 is increased without

77 increasing A1 , the animal bones become vulnerable to fracture.
78 A larger similar animal α2 has volume V2 , weight W2 , cross-sectional area
79 of weight-bearing bone A2 . If both W and A for α1 scale up by k > 1, as in
k
Wk

W
= (2)
A Ak

80 weight W would scale by (3/2)k compared to area A scaling up by k. Be-

81 cause dimensionally, W/A = L3 /L2 = L(3/2) /L. Then (W/A)k = L3k /L2k =
82 L(3/2)k /Lk > L3 /L2 = c; for the larger animal, bone is at risk of fracture.
83 Hence, to achieve the critical dimensional ratio W : A requires that A scale
84 up not by k when W scales by k but that A scales up by (3/2)k. For α2 ’s W/A
(3/2)k
85 ratio not to exceed c it is necessary that A2 = A1 . It is necessary that A2
k
86 instead instead have size A2 = A1 (3/2) , so scaling of W exceeding that of area
87 by 3/2 is matched by an increase in size of A. Then:
(3/2)k
W2 W W1
= 1k 3/2 = ≤ c. (3)
A2 (A1 ) A1

88 A larger animal’s weight-bearing bones are thicker to maintain the invariant

89 ratio W1 : A1 in equation (1). The dimensional standpoint mathematically
90 shows why animal bone cross-sectional area must scale up disproportionately
91 with size in a way that a scaling standpoint does not.
92 A scaling standpoint was sufficient for Galileo to show how animal size affects
93 the size of animal bone. But the dimensional standpoint when generalized
94 affords advantages for problem solving. Two examples of the simplicity afforded
95 by the dimensional standpoint are Brownian motion and ‘dark energy’, discussed
96 later in this article.
97 Sir Lawrence Bragg wrote:
98 The fun in science lies not in discovering facts, but in discovering
99 new ways of thinking about them. The test which we apply to these
100 ideas is this — do they enable us to fit the facts to each other, and
101 see that more and more of them can be explained by fewer and fewer
102 fundamental laws. (Bragg, 1959, p.124)
103 A dimensional standpoint provides a new way of thinking about Galilean
104 scaling applied to animal weight and bone.

105 2.3 Generalizing the dimensional standpoint

106 Generalizations based on sections 2.1 and 2.2 include:

107 ˆ Generalize systems with corresponding 3 and 2 dimensional parts to sys-

108 tems with X +1 and X dimensional parts, in particular for X = 3: systems
109 with corresponding 4 and 3 dimensional parts .
 Cosmic expansion 4

110 ˆ Generalize weight per dimension to information, solved problems, energy

111 E and heat Q per dimension.
112 ˆ Generalize to systems that are larger in size or which have scaled up an
113 iterated number of times.
114 ˆ Generalize for length L proportional to energy E per dimension: L ∝ E.

115 3 The principle of dimensional capacity

116 3.1 Principle

117 The capacity of a system is proportional to its dimension D. Then if weight,
118 heat, energy, information or the number of solved problems per dimension is a
119 fixed amount, the capacity of a system to contain them is proportional to its
120 dimension.
121 If D iterates over time t, then the capacity that Dt can contain is propor-
122 tional to t. The exponent of the natural logarithm in et tracks time for many
123 natural processes, a manifestation of the principle of dimensional capacity. Sim-
124 ilarly, a system with is size dimension increased as Dk has capacity proportional
125 to k.
126 An explicit statement of the principle of dimensional capacity does not ap-
127 pear in contemporary physics, although it seems to be implicit in techniques
128 such as those measuring time using the natural logarithm or in calculating the
129 accumulation of interest. Since the principle of dimensional capacity gives an
130 explanation of metabolic scaling and dark energy not otherwise available, and
131 provides an explanation for the 4/3 fractal envelope of Brownian motion much
132 simpler than is otherwise available (Lawler et al., 2001), conclude that the prin-
133 ciple of dimensional capacity in explicit form is missing from contemporary
134 physics.

135 3.2 In entropy

136 Suppose that a given volume VE contains energy E, and has mean path length
137 between colliding particles µ.
138 A ratio definition of entropy δQ/T = δS, as originally developed by Clausius,
139 and a logarithmic formula for entropy S = log(E) = k, based on the work of
140 Boltzmann, can be shown to be equivalent by scaling a system’s total energy by
141 a mean amount of energy. For simplicity’s sake, let S = log(E).
142 Let a degree Kelvin T used in the denominator for δQ/T be proportional to
143 a mean energy , so that  ∝ µ. Then
δQ E k
= = = log (E). (4)
T  
144 In other words, the capacity of the container with energy E to contain unit
145 energy amounts equal to  is k. The value of entropy is maximal when the base
146 of the logarithm is a mean, by virtue of Jensen’s inequality (Jensen, 1906).
 Cosmic expansion 5

147 The principle of dimensional capacity implicit in entropy is revealed in (4).

148 4 The 4/3 laws

149 4.1 As an instance of dimensional capacity

150 Consider an empty volume, such as cosmological space, the volume of an empty
151 circulatory system or of a container, to be 3 dimensional, denoted by [D3 ] =
152 3. Model linear motion or flow, of photons, gas molecules, or blood, as one
153 dimensional with [D1 ] = 1. Then a system that includes the space or volume
154 plus motion is four dimensional: [D4 ] = [D3 ] + [D1 ] = 4. The ratio [D4 ] : [D3 ]
155 appears in, and accounts for, a variety of phenomena.
156 A first, general example, applies the ratio [D4 ] : [D3 ] to a length appearing
157 in D4 and D3 simultaneously.

158 4.2 Lengths

159 Suppose energy E ∝ L for L a generic length concept. Suppose this applies to
160 photons (light motion) and to gas molecules.
161 Let l be length in D4 and ` be length in D4 ’s corresponding empty D3 .
162 For a fixed amount of energy E,
E E
< (5)
[D4 ] [D3 ]

163 and specifically

[D4 ] E/[D3 ] ` 4
= = = (6)
[D3 ] E/[D4 ] L 3
164 which implies
l = (3/4)`. (7)
165 Moreover, the ratios of degrees of freedom and of length for D4 compared to
166 D3 are inverse to each other. Consider: a given length Lg = 4 × l only has
167 room for 3 copies of `; in other words, in Lg = 4 × l there is only room for 3
168 non-overlapping lengths each `.
169 This dimensional standpoint applied to length initially seemed to me unusual
170 and novel. In fact the [D4 ] : [D3 ] length ratio appears in a variety of settings
171 none of which are exceptional. All that has happened is a slight change in the
172 conceptual reference frame.

173 5 Two reference frames

174 5.1 Instances

175 For Galileo’s animal weight example consider W = D3 and A = D2 to be two
176 differently dimensioned reference frames in which animal weight resides.
 Cosmic expansion 6

177 The two reference frames are not notional or merely conceptual reference
178 frames, but lead to real world effects that can be measured.
179 Online retailers are, as to good sold, a D4 system with D3 warehouses trans-
180 mitting goods in D1 to recipient customers in D3 . Customers are, as to cash
181 transferred, a D4 system in residences transmitting payment in D1 ].
182 In a social network, speakers living in D3 transmit information in D1 to re-
183 cipient hearers in D3 . The same person can, at different times, be a speaker or
184 hearer. When in the social network a person is isotropically at times a speaker
185 or hearer the network is a system of information exchange. If a single trans-
186 mitter transmits information to the entire network at once without receiving
187 information in return, the transmission is a broadcast.
188 Economics has supply and demand.
189 In Carnot’s ideal heat engine, there is a furnace supplying heat to the en-
190 gine chamber, and a heat sink removing heat from the engine chamber. Since
191 Carnot’s ideal heat engine is a paradigm for thermodynamic systems, one may
192 consider it also a paradigm for the same energy at different times being located
193 in two reference frames.
194 In black body radiation, the chamber is D3 and motion of particles within
195 it are D1 , while the empty volume in which D4 resides is D3 .
196 In cosmology, space with light motion constitutes a D4 space. Empty space
197 without light motion is D3 .
198 Especially noteworthy: two corresponding reference frames D4 and D3 have
199 real world manifestations.

200 5.2 Parsimony

201 It might be argued that two reference frames is not as parsimonious as one,
202 and so offends Ockham’s razor. But Ockham’s razor is a principle that assists
203 problem solving not a law. What constitutes parsimony is a value judgment. For
204 example, Everett’s many world hypothesis avoids problems with superposition
205 by supposing multiple worlds. Which is more parsimonious, many worlds, or
206 contemporaneous superposition?
207 Moreover, from the examples above, two reference frame systems are com-
208 mon for energy, beginning the heat supply and heat sink for a heat engine.

209 6 Instances of 4:3 ratio, and relevance

210 6.1 Waterston, 1845

211 John James Waterston submitted an article to the Royal Society in 1845. It was
212 mentioned in the proceedings of the Royal Society in 1846 (Waterston, 1850)
213 but rejected for publication. Lord Rayleigh when secretary of the Royal Society
214 found Waterston’s article and had it published (Waterston, 1892).
215 At page 18, Waterston describes an elastic gravitating plane upheld by gas
216 molecule impacts on its lower surface. After some original mathematical rea-
217 soning, he concludes that the ratio of molecular energy (‘vis viva’) to the energy
 Cosmic expansion 7

218 of the medium is 4 : 3. This may be an early instance of the 4/3 law. Molecular
219 motion D1 in D3 has 4/3 the degrees of freedom of the (static) energy of the
220 medium.
221 If in modern times we substitute for Waterston’s gas molecules photons, it
222 appears as if the elastic gravitating plane, representative of empty 3 dimensional
223 space, is pushed away from the source of gravity. In this way, Waterston may
224 have incidentally and unawares anticipated an effect that in 1998 was attributed
225 to ‘dark energy’ (Turner and Huterer, 1998).
226 Waterston’s 4/3 result was theoretical. It is of interest as an early, perhaps
227 the first, instance of the 4/3 law. Moving gas molecules are modeled as D1 ,
228 moving inside space D3 . The elastic gravitating plane can be considered an
229 imaginary plane static in D3 . On the way to arriving at his result Waterston
230 used the formula for distance 1/2gt2 , substituting for t his calculation of the
231 effect of molecular impacts.

232 6.2 Clausius mean path length

233 Clausius in 1860 described a 3 : 4 ratio of lengths. This is equivalent to the 4 : 3
234 ratio of dimensions discussed above.
235 He set up two situations. In one all gas molecules are in motion. In the
236 other, only one is. He showed, using trigonometry and calculus, that the mean
237 path length for set of all moving molecules was 3/4 of the mean path length of
238 one moving molecule. He then (incorrectly as it turns out) generalized the case
239 of one moving molecule to the case of all moving molecules, concluding that
240 motion gave a 3/4 mean path length for a pair of moving molecules using the
241 mean velocity.
242 Maxwell observed, for two particles having the √ same speed, that Clausius
243 obtained 34 of a gas molecule velocity instead of 2 (Maxwell, 1860, p. 27).
244 The mistake was not, as Maxwell’s editor supposed (Maxwell, 1890), in
245 Clausius’s mathematics. The mistake was in Clausius’s generalization that one
246 molecule moving could represent all molecules moving. Generalizing, he im-
247 plicitly used one reference frame. His theoretical set up really described two
248 reference frames, one all molecules in motion and the other with none. The one
249 moving molecules set up just sampled the distances between pairs of molecules
250 in D3 . In every other respect, he found a 4 : 3 ratio for lengths as in section
251 4.2 above. To that extent his work is precursor for a theory of the expansion of
252 cosmological space, among other natural phenomena.

253 6.3 Derivation of Stefan’s Law

254 Stefan, based on measurement, inferred a relationship between and temperature
255 (Stefan, 1879), now called Stefan’s Law and sometimes the Stefan Boltzmann
256 Law, since Boltzmann provided a mathematical basis (Boltzmann, 1884) for
257 Stefan’s Law.
258 A modern derivation can be found in Allen and Maxwell (Allen and Maxwell,
259 1948, p. 742-743), in Planck’s text on heat (Planck, 1914) and in Longair’s
 Cosmic expansion 8

260 introduction to physics (Longair, 2003).

261 Stefan’s Law can also be derived using dimensional analysis (Mahajan, 2014,
262 p. 281-286).
263 Energy added to chamber D3 results in an increase in motion D1 relative to
264 volume D3 . The fraction in an intermediate step of the derivation arises from
265 the ratio [D4 ] : [D3 ].

266 6.4 Minkowski’s space-time

267 Space is D3 . Time’s length is proportional to light distance traveled, D1 . Space-
268 time is D4 (Minkowski, 2012).

269 6.5 Richardson’s measurement of wind eddies

270 Richardson, based on measurements, inferred that wind eddies l scale as l4/3 ,
271 consistent with the 4/3 law in section 7.

272 6.6 Kolmogorov theory of wind eddy scaling

273 Kolmogorov in papers in 1941 derived the 4/3 scaling measured by Richard-
274 son (Kolmogorov, 1991b,a). He used some concise mathematics, sometimes
275 attributed to a paper shortage in Russia at the time, that included moments.
276 His papers and a paper about them (Batchelor, 2008) are difficult.

277 6.7 Space-time and Bondi’s k calculus

278 Bondi used scaling by a factor k to arrive at special relativity, consistent with
279 dimensional aspects of space-time. Scaling is different for D4 and D − 3 so
280 distance and time, depending on the reference frame, can stretch or contract.

281 6.8 The 4/3 fractal envelope of Brownian motion

282 Mandelbrot wrote that ‘my 4/3 conjecture about Brownian motion was chosen in
283 1998 [for the Mittag- Leffler Institute] , when its difficulty had become obvious’
284 (Mandelbrot, 2012, p. 247).
285 Three papers develop the mathematics of stochastic Loewner evolution (Lawler
286 et al., 2000a,b,c), complicated and lengthy mathematics, concluding that the
287 fractal envelope of Brownian motion has dimension 4/3 (Lawler et al., 2001).
288 Imply dust particles in water D3 , moving linearly as D1 as a result of colli-
289 sions with water molecules forming a D3 medium, have a ratio of dimensions of
290 [D4 ] : [D3 ].

291 6.9 Cell phone tower transmission and reception

292 Cell phone tower transmission has 4/3 degrees of freedom compared to cell tower
293 reception (Jafar and Shamai, 2007).
 Cosmic expansion 9

294 6.10 Deriving Kleiber’s Law for metabolism

295 An empty circulatory system is D3 , blood flow is D1 and together are D4 sup-
296 plying energy to animal tissue, which is D3 .
297 The over-capacity of animal energy supply compared to animal energy use
298 results from the ratio of dimensions of D4 compared to D3 :
[D4 ] 4
= . (8)
[D3 ] 3
299 Then energy supply scales as

E 4/3 . (9)

300 Energy supply E1 is sufficient to supply the animal mass M1 with the energy
301 it requires to function. But if animal mass increases to M2 = M1k , then energy
(4/3)k
302 supply, scaling by 4/3 relative to animal mass, increases to E1 > E1k ∝
k
303 M1 . This would result in too much intracellular energy and overheat cells and
304 overheat the animal α2 . So evolution necessarily slows down the metabolism of
305 the larger animal thus:
(4/3)k 3/4
(E1 ) = E1k ∝ M1k . (10)

306 Similarly to the case with animal weight and the area of weight-bearing animal
307 bone, Kleiber’s Law, 3/4 metabolic scaling, restores the invariant relationship
308 in cells, of energy supplied to the cell compared to energy used by the cell, at
309 constant intracellular temperature.

310 7 Cosmology

311 7.1 Expanding space theory

312 Space should expanding because a length in D4 , which is space plus light motion,
313 is 4/3 as long in D3 , space itself.
314 Energy density for energy E in D4 compared to D3 should be for volume l3
315 in D4 and volume `3 in D3 :
E/(l)3
E/`3
E/[(3/4)`]3
=
E/`3 (11)
64
=
27
0.7033
≈ .
0.2967
316 If a is a cosmic scale factor, then in D4 energy density should vary as 1/a4
317 and in D3 energy density should vary as a3 .
 Cosmic expansion 10

318 7.2 Expanding space observations consistent with theory

319 Astronomical measurement finds that matter dark energy density is about 0.295
320 (Betoule et al., 2014). The D4 dark energy is one minus the D3 energy density.
321 The estimate in (11) is very close to the observed.
322 Standard candle luminosity of a type 1A supernova is 3/4 of what is expected
323 (Riess et al., 1998; Schmidt et al., 1998; Perlmutter et al., 1998) or equivalently,
324 4/3 farther away than expected as theory predicts.
325 General relativity implies that energy density varies with distance for ‘dark
326 energy’ compared to matter as a4 : a3 (Wang, 2010, p. 17) as dimensional
327 capacity principles predict.

328 7.3 Inflation and acceleration

329 For a space distance d scaling as d4/3 like the scaling of Richardson wind eddies,
330 if there is only D3 , then it might appear that space is inflating, or accelerating.
331 But wind eddies to not accelerate for longer lengths, and neither does the ex-
332 pansion of space. What seems like acceleration situated in D3 is really the result
333 of the invariant ratio [D4 ] : [D3 ], leading to the apparent scaling of distances
334 by a 4/3 exponent. In fact, the ratio of any given distance in D4 to the same
335 distance in D3 is always inverse to the ratio of dimensions of D4 and D3 .
336 There is no need for a theory of cosmological inflation. Space is not accel-
337 erating; it only seems that way if we suppose that there is only one reference
338 frame D3 .

339 7.4 Cosmological horizon problem

340 Parts of the universe that seem disconnected at the speed of light in D3 are
341 connected in D4 . The 4/3 laws resolve the cosmological horizon problem.

342 7.5 Cosmic constant and time

343 The cosmic constant a used in metrics to describe distance in space does not
344 vary with time t, as is supposed when it is written as a(t). The same distance
345 in D4 is 4/3 as long in D3 . The ratio of distances for kl : k` is always 3 : 4. The
346 cosmic constant does not vary with time.

347 7.6 Big bang

348 Big bang cosmology assumes a single reference frame D3 . Expansion in a single
349 spatial reference frame D3 implies a starting point, a big bang. The existence of
350 D3 and D4 as contemporary spatial reference frames undermines a key assump-
351 tion used the infer the existence of a big bang cosmology. Perhaps the perfect
352 cosmological principle, that supposes isotropy not only as to space, but also as
353 to time (Hoyle et al., 2000), may be valid after all. The existence of D3 and D4
354 implies neutrality as between the big bang and the steady state theory.
 Cosmic expansion 11

355 8 Conceptual reference frames and cosmology

356 Historically, some of the most challenging problems in cosmology involve finding
357 the most convenient conceptual reference frame.
358 A cosmology for the solar system was simplified by planets revolving around
359 the Sun not the Earth.
360 The nature of time in relation to space was clarified by changing the con-
361 ceptual reference frame from constant time in D3 to time that could change
362 depending on the relative speed of inertial reference frames.
363 The problems thrown up by the so-called dark energy arose with astronom-
364 ical observations and calculations in 1998 (Riess et al., 1998; Schmidt et al.,
365 1998; Perlmutter et al., 1998). The problems thrown up have resisted efforts at
366 solution, despite current physics have the tools of dimensional analysis, differ-
367 ential calculus, special and general relativity and access to powerful electronic
368 computing resources. The solution lies not in better mathematics, but rather
369 in a change of conceptual reference frames.
370 D4 and D3 exist in a wide variety of settings, and have real effects, as shown
371 in section 6. The various instances of the 4/3 law were derived in a variety of
372 settings using different kinds of mathematics. Yet the different contexts and
373 different mathematics all point to the same underlying principle of dimensional
374 capacity. That is reassuring. Just as the Pythagorean Theorem in Euclidean
375 geometry has many proofs, consistent with it being a fundamental feature of
376 Euclidean geometry so too the 4/3 laws can be exhibited in a variety of con-
377 texts and proved in different ways, also consistent with the 4/3 laws relating to
378 fundamental physical attributes of the physical universe.
379 The principle underlying the various 4/3 law can be traced to the principle
380 of dimensional capacity. The principle of dimensional capacity is implicit in
381 Galileo’s Two New Sciences.

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