Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Impact of Irrigation Water Quality
Impact of Irrigation Water Quality
Keywords Abstract
clogging emitters; corn yield; envelop material;
subsurface drip irrigation; water quality. A field experiment was conducted to study the effect of water quality types of
fresh water (FW) and treated wastewater (TWW) and envelope materials of coarse
Correspondence sand (CS), fine sand (FS), and control (CO) on emitter performance, dry matter
Naji K. Al-Mefleh, Department of Natural yield (DMY), and water use efficiency (WUE) under subsurface drip irrigation.The
Resources, Jordan University of Science and main interaction effect of water quality type and envelope material on coefficient
Technology, P.O. Box 3030, Irbid, Jordan.
of variation, Christiansen uniformity coefficient, and emission uniformity was not
Email: nmefleh@just.edu.jo
significant (P < 0.05), but they have a significant effect on the average emitter
doi: 10.1111/wej.12437
discharge (Qavg), DMY, and WUE. The means of Qavg for FW with CS, FS, and CO
were 7.13, 6.94, 2.65 L/h, and for TWW, they were 6.78, 6.84, and 2.35 L/h,
respectively. The DMY under FW with CS, FS, and CO was 3083.87, 1367.95, and
417.45 kg/ha, and under the TWW, it was 2409.5, 1347.4, and 417 kg/ha,
respectively.
there can also be a greater amount of root intrusion into Some field studies (Ebrahimi et al., 2012; Al-Mefleh et
the emitters. Clogging of the emitters is one of the most al., 2015) have been conducted to determine the impact
serious problems associated with the use of microirrigation of water quality on SDI emitter performance. Others
systems as it results in lower system performance and (Al-Mefleh and Abu-Zreig, 2013; Qiaosheng et al., 2007)
water stress in nonirrigated plants (Coelho and Resende, have examined the wetting pattern produced by SD and
2001). Moreover, the performance of the SDI is affected SDI. Stuyt et al. (2005) stated that the envelop materials
by root intrusion and the entry of mud into the emitters (coarse sand, fine gravel and crushed stone) can be used
more than that of the SD (Lamm et al., 2002). A range of to protect the drain pipes from sedimentation, improve
water quality parameters can be analysed to determine its hydraulic performance, and improve the permeability
the potential for emitter clogging. Some studies (Capra around the pipe. And, they act as permeable constraints
and Scicolone, 2004; Liu and Huang, 2009; Li et al., 2009; to impede the entry of damaging quantities of soil par-
Al-Mefleh et al., 2015) have investigated the following water ticles and soil aggregates into the emitters. However, none
quality parameters: pH, total iron, hydrogen sulfide, sus- of the above studies investigated the effect of the water
pended solids, dissolved solids, manganese, calcium, mag- quality and the envelope material around the line on the
nesium, and the number of bacteria. The potential for clogging of the SDI systems. Therefore, the present study
clogging varies depending on the emitter’s dimension, the examined the impact of water quality on the performance
position of the lateral lines, and flow type, which can be of SDI emitters as well as the impact of two different
either laminar or turbulent (de Kreij et al., 2003). It has types of sand – fine sand (FS) and coarse sand (CS) as
also been reported that emitter performance depends on an envelope material around the lateral line on crop yield
the emitter type, the duration of system operation, and and water use efficiency (WUE) when using SDI.
the quality of water used for irrigation (Liu and Huang,
2009). A recent study found that while the water type Materials and methods
(FW or TWW) had no significant effect on emitter discharge,
operational time and emitter type had a significant effect Experimental site
on emitter discharge (Al-Mefleh et al., 2015). The study was conducted near to the Jordan University
The reasons for emitter clogging can be classified of Science and Technology (32°22′′N, 35°49′′E) at an eleva-
into physical, biological, and chemical (Yavuz et al., tion of 520 m above sea level. The region in which the
2010). Physical clogging may be caused by factors such experiment was conducted is considered to be an arid
as organic materials (plant residues) and suspended region, hot in summer and cool in winter with an average
inorganic materials (sand, silt, and clay). Biological clog- annual precipitation of 200–300 mm. Two trials for the
ging is due to the accumulation of hydrogen sulfide collection of data were carried out in the field. The first
and organic sediments in the emitter and lateral lines trial took place from October 2015 to February 2016, but
(Dehghanisanij et al., 2005). Acids can be injected into was not included in this study because many of the plants
the irrigation system to avoid the precipitation of cal- died due to frost and the amount of irrigation was low
cium carbonate and to reduce the pH value, while a because the evapotranspiration (ETο) was low in winter.
chlorination treatment can also be applied to prevent The second trial was carried out successfully during the
and treat emitter clogging caused by algae and bacteria summer of 2016 (June to September) and the results of
(Dehghanisanij et al., 2005). In addition, it has been that trial are discussed here. The soil properties of the
found that 5–8 mg/L of Cl2 and 3–4 mg/L of ClO2 are experimental area are presented in Table 1.
sufficient to control the activation of bacteria in efflu-
ent. Also, clogging by soil particles can be avoided or
Irrigation system
at least mitigated by the use of appropriate filtration
and flushing methods. However, even though a suitable In this study, a SDI system was used to irrigate corn
filtration system will keep most soil particles out of the plants. The system consisted of three tanks (each with
system, some particles will still pass through the mesh a capacity of 2 m3), a pump (Taizhou Lingxin, ABAR com-
and settle down inside the drip lines. Hence, before pany, Italy, 1 hp, 35-m head, and 2.4 m3/h discharge con-
passing water through a drip irrigation system, the water nected to a storage tank of TWW), a flow meter, valves,
characteristics should also be analysed to try to avoid a filter, pressure gauge, fittings, and lateral lines fitted
emitter clogging in the first place (Capra and Scicolone, with GR emitters (Fig. 1). The flow meter was used to
1998). Nevertheless, in spite of such precautions, roots calculate the amount of irrigation water applied. The pres-
and clay particles can still clog drip emitters in systems sure was set to 0.8 bar at the beginning of the lateral
that are buried below the soil surface (Wang et al., lines and to not less than 0.7 bar at the end of the lateral
2005). lines. The lateral lines were 20 mm in diameter and made
of plastic piping (polyethylene) with in-line GR emitters each block was divided into six plots, with each plot
installed at a spacing of 40 cm between emitters. The representing one lateral line. Thus, there were 18 lateral
discharge of each emitter was 8 L/h. The lateral lines lines in total. Each lateral line was 13 m long and had
were covered with 5 cm of either CS or FS and buried 32 emitters. The main treatments in the experiment con-
15 cm below the soil surface. Signs on sticks were inserted sisted of two water quality types: FW and TWW. The
into the soil surface at the beginning and end of the sub-treatments consisted of two envelope materials – CS
lines to identify the locations of these subsurface lines. consisting of particles of 8–9 mm in diameter; FS consist-
Prior to data collection, the experimental area was ing of particles 0.5–1 mm in diameter – and a control
cultivated and prepared to install the above-described (without CS and FS). The treatment combinations were
SDI system. The lateral lines were marked and logged assigned randomly to the plots as FW with CS, FW with
out to a depth of 15 cm below the soil surface, and then FS, TWW with CS, TWW with FS, FW with control (no
the spoiled soil was repacked over the lateral lines and envelope material), and TWW with control (no envelope
compacted until the original soil bulk density was reached. material). The various combinations of water quality type
The experimental area was divided into three blocks, and and envelope material treatment are illustrated in Fig. 1.
Bulk density
Sample Clay % Sand % Silt % Soil type (gm/cm3) pH EC (μs/cm) Field capacity % Wilting point %
TWW + CS
TWW + FS
2m
2m TWW + Control
3m TWW + FS
Flow
Gauge Pressure Meter TWW + Control
2m
Valve Valve FM
TWW + CS
2m
Pump
TWW + Control
3m
TWW + CS
2m
TWW + FS
2m
13 m
Three Tanks
Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of the three replicates of the field experiment under TWW.
The corn plants were irrigated twice a week with either The main final parameters of the emitter characteristics
FW or TWW. The quantity of irrigation water applied was were the mean discharge of the emitter (Qavg), coefficient
based on the potential ETo, which was computed from of variation (CVfi), emission uniformity (EUfi), Christiansen
the daily readings of evaporation from a class Apan and uniformity coefficient (CUfi), and coefficient of variation
then converted to volume as a function of the area of (CVfi). The emission uniformity (EUfi) was determined by
the planted corn. The seed corn was inserted below the using a Karmeli and Keller (1974) equation, while the final
soil surface at a depth of 5 cm. A single lateral line irri- Christiansen uniformity coefficient (CUfi) was determined
gated two rows of corn plants. The spacing between each by using an equation in Christiansen (1942). The coefficient
row of corn and the lateral line was 2 m, and the corn of variation (CVfi) was determined by using a formula in
seeds were set 20 cm apart. The corn seeds (Zea mays Bralts and Kesner (1983). Also, each lateral line was divided
var. saccharata) were planted on June 20th, 2016. The into four sections, and the average discharge was esti-
corn plants were harvested on October 11th, 2016. No mated for each section to check which section was affected
organic or chemical fertilizer was added before or after by clogging. In addition, the relation between yield and
planting, and no pesticides or herbicides were used. emitter clogging was investigated for each section.
July 2016. The total potential ETο during the irrigation uniformity (EUin), and Christiansen uniformity coefficient
period was 531 mm. The total amount of water applied (CUin) are shown in Table 3. The Kdi was estimated for
for each treatment was 31.1 m 3. No rainfall occurred the new GR emitters using FW at a pressure level of
during the growing season in which the treatments were 0.8 bar. The lateral lines, which were buried under the
applied. soil surface, were taken out of the soil in order to evalu-
ate the emitter performance characteristics. Figure 2 gives
Water quality the final discharge coefficient (Kdfi), values which were
estimated at the same pressure in the field for each com-
Two types of water, FW and TWW, were used to irrigate
bination of water type (FW and TWW) and envelope mate-
the corn seeds. The chemical characteristics of FW and
rial (CS, FS, and CO) at the end of the field experiment.
TWW are summarized in Table 2. The chemical water
As regards the Kdin (8.59), the rate of decrease based
quality parameters for FW and TWW were compared
on the Kdfi value was 7, 9, and 65% for FW with CS, FS,
with the water quality criteria for emitter clogging pro-
and CO, respectively, while it was 10, 12, and 68% for
posed in previous studies (Nakayama and Bucks, 1991;
TWW with CS, FS, and CO, respectively.
Capra and Scicolone, 2004). The present study found
The initial and final discharge exponents (Xi and Xfi)
that the pH value of FW (8.14) was lower than that of
were estimated at two different pressure levels (0.8 and
the TWW (8.25). According to the water quality criteria
1.6 bar). Figure 3 illustrates the final discharge exponents
by (Nakayama and Bucks, 1991), these pH values for
for each combination of water quality type and envelope
both water types have severe potential to cause emitter
material. With respect to the Xin (0.46), the rate of increase
clogging, where the concentrations of TSS, Fe, and Mn
in the Xfi value for FW obtained with CS, FS, and CO was
in FW and TWW (Table 2) have a lower clogging potential
9, 15, and 22%, respectively. The rate of decrease in Xfi
and thus less effect on emitter performance. (Liu and
for TWW obtained with FS was 4%, whereas it increased
Huang, 2009) in their study found a very small differ-
with CS and CO by 24 and 30%, respectively. Generally,
ence in the concentration of Fe in FW and TWW and
the value of the discharge exponent (X) characterizes
that the presence of Fe had low clogging potential. On
the flow regime and discharge versus the pressure
the other hand, (Al-Mefleh et al., 2015) found that the
Fe concentration in FW had medium clogging potential, Table 3 The initial of emitter characteristics for new emitters
whereas that in TWW had severe clogging potential that Emitter characteristics New emitters
would adversely affect emitter performance. However,
according to (Capra and Scicolone, 2004), only an EC Qavg (L/h) 7.68
Kdin 8.59
value of 0.62 dS/m for FW and 1.8 dS/m for TWW posed
Xin 0.46
a moderate potential risk of emitter clogging. CVin 0.04
EUin 94.64
Initial values of emitter characteristics CUin 96.40
Fig. 4. The average emitter discharge (Qavg) at different water qualities for
Fig. 3. The discharge exponent (Xfi) at different water qualities for fresh
fresh water (FW) and treated wastewater (TWW) at different envelope
water (FW) and treated wastewater (TWW) at different envelope materials
materials of coarse sand (CS) and fine sand (FS).
of coarse sand (CS) and fine sand (FS).
relationship of the emitter. The lower the value of X, the TWW. With respect to the initial emitter discharge (7.68
less the discharge is affected by variation in pressure. L/h), the rate of decrease in Qavg was 27 and 30% for
According to (ASAE, 1985), the results of this study indi- FW and TWW, respectively. This is likely due to the
cate that the X value lies in the range of 0.4–0.6 (from high values of EC, TSS, and pH in TWW. This finding is
vortex flow to mostly turbulent flow). Lower emitter dis- consistent with (Liu and Huang, 2009), who found that
charge exponents are an indication of less susceptibility emitter discharge is affected by the water quality of
to pressure changes. Thus, it can be concluded that the FW, treated sewage effluent (TSE), and emitter type.
discharge sensitivity to pressure variation in the presence Also, the average discharge differs with emitter type,
of a CS and a FS envelope material is low. water quality, and operational time. Another study
(Al-Mefleh et al., 2015) found that the effect of water
quality type (FW and TWW), operational time, and type
Average discharge
of emitter on emitter discharge was not significant.
The main effect of both types of water, FW and TWW, Each lateral line was divided into four sections (sec1,
on emitter discharge was significant (P > 0.05). The main sec2, sec3, and sec4), and each section contained eight
interaction effect of water quality type and envelope emitters. Figure 5 gives the emitter discharge data for
material on average discharge was also significant each section for different water types and envelope mate-
(P > 0.05). The average emitter discharges for different rials. These findings are consistent with (Ravina et al.,
water types (FW and TWW) with different envelope 1997), who found that emitter discharge generally
materials are presented in Fig. 4. With respect to the decreases from the beginning to the end of a lateral line
initial emitter discharge (7.68 L/h), the rate of decrease due to pressure loss. In the present study, the trend line
in emitter discharge for FW with CS, FS, and CO was of the Qavg over the combinations of TWW with CS and
7.16, 9.6, and 65.5%, respectively. As for TWW, the Qavg FS decreased from sec1 to sec4. Under the combinations
values obtained with CS, FS, and CO were 6.78, 6.84, of TWW with control and FW with CS, the Qavg in sec3
and 2.35 L/h, respectively. With respect to the initial was higher than in sec2. Under FW with FS, the Qavg in
emitter discharge (7.68 L/h), the rate of decrease in sec3 and sec4 was almost the same, while under FW with
emitter discharge for TWW with CS, FS, and CO was CO it was unchanged in all sections. However, it was found
11.7, 10.9, and 69.4%, respectively. The mean values of that both FW and TWW with CO produced the lowest Qavg
emitter discharge were not significantly different in all sections, compared with the other treatments.
between CS and FS, but they were significantly different
from the mean discharge with the CO treatment. These
results indicate that using envelope materials can Coefficient of variation
decrease the clogging potential in SDI emitters. The The CV values of the emitters for FW and TWW with
results also show that the highest Qavg (5.58 L/h) was different envelope materials (CS and FS) are shown in
obtained for FW compared with the Qavg (5.32 L/h) for Fig. 6. The main interaction effect of water quality type
Emission uniformity
Emission uniformity is one of the most frequently used
design criteria for trickle irrigation systems. It is one of
the indices for the evaluation of microirrigation perfor-
mance that is recommended by the ASAE Standards (ASAE,
2003). The main interaction effect of water quality type
and envelope materials on emission uniformity (EUfi) was
not significant (P < 0.05). However, the main effect of
water quality type (TWW and FW) on the EUfi was sig-
nificant (P > 0.05). The EUfi of the emitter values for FW
and TWW with CS, FS, and CO is provided in Fig. 7. The
results show that the highest mean value for EUfi (91.78%)
was obtained under FW compared with a mean EUfi value
of 86.78% for TWW. With respect to the initial EUin (94.64%),
Fig. 6. The coefficient of variation (CV) of the emitters values at different
the rate of decrease in EUfi was 3 and 8% under FW and
water qualities for fresh water (FW) and treated wastewater (TWW) at TWW, respectively. The main effect of the envelope mate-
different envelope materials of coarse sand (CS) and fine sand (FS). rial on EUfi was also significant (P > 0.05). The mean values
of EUfi were not significantly different between CS and
and envelope material on the CV was not significant FS, but they were significantly different from the mean
(P > 0.05). However, the main effect of the water quality value of EUfi with the CO treatment. With respect to the
type on the CV was significant (P > 0.05). The results initial EUin (94.64%), the rate of decrease in EUfi was 0.9,
show that the highest final CVfi (0.10) was obtained under 0.5, and 15% under CS, FS, and CO, respectively.
TWW compared with a CVfi (0.06) for FW. With respect A comparison of EU at different water qualities FW
to the initial CVin (0.04), the rate of increase in CVfi was and TWW at different envelope materials of CS, FS, and
60 and 125% under FW and TWW, respectively. The main CO with other classifications (Keller and Bliesner, 1990;
effect of the envelope material on the CV was significant ASAE, 1994; Capra and Scicolone, 1998; Li et al., 2009)
(P > 0.05). The mean values of CVfi did not differ between is presented in Table 4. According to these classifications,
CS and FS but did differ from the mean value of CVfi the EUfi values of the emitters under TWW and FW with
under CO.With respect to the initial CVin (0.04), the rate FS and CS were high, where it was moderate under the
of increase was 25% for CS and 250% for CO, whereas it TWW with CO treatment. On the other hand, (Al-Mefleh
decreased under FS by 10%. et al., 2015) found that the EU for GR emitter discharge
Table 4 Comparison of EU at different water qualities FW and TWW at the highest mean value of CUfi (94.88%) was obtained
different envelope materials of CS, FS and CO with other classifications under FW compared with a mean CUfi value of 92.55%
(Keller and Bliesner, 1990; ASAE, 1994; Capra and Scicolone, 1998, Li for TWW. With respect to the initial CUin (96.40%), the
et al., 2009)
rate of decrease in CUfi was 1.6% and 4% under FW and
Water types TWW, respectively. The main effect of the envelope mate-
rial on CUfi was significant (P > 0.05). The mean values
Envelope materials TWW FW
of CUfi were not significantly different between CS and
CS 93*** 95*** FS, but they were significantly different from that for
FS 92*** 96*** CO. With respect to the initial CUin (96.40%), the rate of
CO 75** 85*** decrease in CUfi under CS, FS, and CO was 0, 0.4, and
Value between (70–80%) is moderate.
** 8%, respectively. With respect to the CU values under
Value between (80–100%) is high.
*** the control treatment, the results indicate that the CUfi
performance for envelope materials as CS and FS was
high. (Keller and Bliesner, 1990) classify CU values for a
under TWW and FW varies from low to moderate. The line source as follows: <75% is low, 75–84% is moderate,
results of this study indicate that the two envelope mate- and >84% is high. Based on this classification, the CUfi
rials (CS and FS) can be used under FW and TWW to values for emitters under TWW and FW with FS and CS
increase the emission uniformity. Moreover, it was found in this study fell into the highest category. (Liu and Huang,
that an increasing CV value leads to a decreasing EU 2009) report that a CU greater than 98% under FW for
value, which is consistent with the results reported in turbulent flow and the online pressure-compensation
(Hezarjaribi et al., 2008). However, the results of the cur- type of emitter was obtained during an experimental
rent study showed that using envelope materials under duration of 1188 hours, whereas it was 86.3% under TSE
subsurface drip irriagation is recommended because the for the same conditions. (Al-Mefleh et al., 2015) found
EUfi under both CS and FS are high. that the CU values for GR emitters under FW and TWW
vary from 68 to 94% and 73 to 92%, respectively.
Fig. 9. Dry matter yield (DMY) for corn under two water quality types Fig. 10. Water use efficiency (WUE) under under two water quality types
fresh water (FW) and treated wastewater (TWW) at different envelope fresh water (FW) and treated wastewater (TWW) at different envelope
materials of coarse sand (CS) and fine sand (FS). materials of coarse sand (CS) and fine sand (FS).
is less than that under TWW, it leading to an increase in Bralts, V.F. (1986) Field performance and evaluation. In:
the emission uniformity. Nakayama, F.S. and Bucks, D.A. (Eds.) Trickle Irrigation
9. Further studies should be conducted on the effect of for Crop Production: Design, Operation and
emitter discharge and lateral depth under different Management. Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Elsevier,
pp. 216–240.
envelop materials (wick, sponge, sieves) on the emitter
Bucks, D.A., Nakayama, F. and Gilbert, R. (1979) Trickle
performance charactersitics.
irrigation water quality and preventive maintenance.
Agricultural Water Management, 2(2), 149–162.
Acknowledgement Bucks, D.A. and Nakayama, F.S. (1991) Water quality in
drip/trickle irrigation: a review. Irrigation Science, 12(4),
The authors would like to express their gratitude to the 187–192.
Jordan University of Science and Technology for their Camp, C.R. (1998) Subsurface drip irrigation: a review.
financial support for this experiment. The authors have Transactions of the American Society of Agricultural
declared no conflict of interest. Engineers (ASAE), 41(5), 1353–1367.
Camp, C.R. and Lamm, F.R. (2003) Irrigation systems,
To submit a comment on this article please go to http:// subsurface drip. In: Stewart, B.A. and Terry, A. Howell
mc.manuscriptcentral.com/wej. For further information please see the (Eds.) Encyclopedia Water Science, New York, NY: Marcel
Author Guidelines at wileyonlinelibrary.com Dekker, pp. 560–564.
Capra, A. and Scicolone, B. (1998) Water quality and
distribution uniformity in drip/trickle irrigation systems.
References Agricultural Engineering Research, 70(4), 355–365.
Abdulla, F., Alfarra, A., Abu Qdais, H. and Sonneveld, B. Capra, A. and Scicolone, B. (2004) Emitter and filter tests
(2016) Evaluation of wastewater treatment plants in for wastewater reuse by drip irrigation. Agricultural
Jordan and suitability for reuse. Academia Journal of Water Management, 68(2), 135–149.
Environmental Sciences, 4(7), 111–117. Christiansen, J.E. (1942) Irrigation by Sprinkling. California
Al-Mefleh, N.K. and Abu-Zreig, M. (2013) Field evaluation of Agriculture Experiment Station Bulletin, No. 670. Berkley,
arid soils wetting pattern in subsurface drip irrigation CA: University of California.
scheme. Clean Soil Air Water, 41(7), 651–656. Christou, A., Maratheftis, G., Eliadou, E., Michael, C., Hapeshi, E.
Al-Mefleh, N.K., Bashabsheh, I., Talozi, S. and Al-Issa, T. and Fatta-Kassinos, D. (2014) Impact assessment of the
(2015) Field evaluation of the performance of different reuse of two discrete treated wastewaters for the irrigation
irrigation emitter types using treated wastewater. Water of tomato crop on the soil geochemical properties, fruit
Quality Research Journal, 50(3), 240–251. safety and crop productivity. Agriculture, Ecosystems &
Almuktar, S. and Scholz, M. (2015) Microbial contamination Environment, 192, 105–114.
of capsicum annuum irrigated with recycled domestic Coelho, R.D. and Resende, R.S. (2001) Biological clogging of
wastewater treated by vertical-flow wetlands. Ecological netafim’s drippers and recovering process through
Engineering, 82, 404–414. chlorination impact treatment. ASAE Paper Number:
ASAE. (1985) Design, installation and performance 012231, Sacramento, CA.
evaluation of trickle irrigation system. Sent Josph, 37th Dehghanisanij, H., Yamamoto, T., Ould Ahmad, B.A.,
Edition, ASAE Publications, EP, 405.1. Fujiyama, H. and Miyamoto, K. (2005) The effect of
ASAE. (1994) Design and installation of microirrigation chlorine on emitter clogging induced by algae and
systems. ASAE EP405.1 Dec. 93, pp. 724–727. protozoa and the performance of drip irrigation.
ASAE EP405.1. (2003) Design and Installation of Transactions of the American Society of Agricultural
Microirrigation Systems. Standards. St Joseph, MI: Society Engineers (ASAE), 48(2), 519–527.
for Engineering in Agricultural, Food, and Biological Ebrahimi, H., Hamzee, G.H., Farsheh, T.A. and Nazarjani, M.
Systems. (2012) Evaluation of emitter clogging in trickle irrigation
Bataineh, F., Najjar, M. and Malkawi, S. (2002) Wastewater with wastewater. Basic and Applied Scientific Research,
Keller, J. and Karmeli, D. (1974) Trickle irrigation design Patel, N. and Rajput, T.B.S. (2007) Effect of drip tape
parameters. Transactions of the ASAE, 17(4), placement depth and irrigation level on yield of potato.
0678–0684. Agricultural Water Management, 88(1–3), 209–223.
Keller, J. and Bliesner, R.D. (1990) Sprinkle and Trickle Qiaosheng, S., Zuoxin, L., Zhenying, W. and Haijun, L.
Irrigation. New York, NY: John Wiley and Sons Inc. (2007) Simulation of the soil wetting shape under porous
de Kreij, C., van der Burg, A.M.M. and Runia, W.T. (2003) pipe sub-irrigation using dimensional analysis. Irrigation
Drip irrigation emitter clogging in dutch greenhouses as and Drainage, 56(4), 389–398.
affected by methane and organic acids. Agricultural Ravina, I., Paz, E., Sofer, Z., Marcu, A., Schischa, A., Sagi,
Water Management, 60(2), 73–85. G., et al. (1997) Control of clogging in drip irrigation
Kumar, S., Imtiyaz, M., Kumar, A. and Singh, R. (2007) with stored treated municipal sewage effluent.
Response of onion (Allium cepa L.) to different levels of Agricultural Water Management, 33(2–3), 127–137.
irrigation water. Agricultural Water Management, 89(1–2), Rouphael, Y., Cardarelli, M., Colla, G. and Rea, E. (2008)
161–166. Yield, mineral composition, water relations, and water
Lamm, F.R., Trooien, T.P., Clark, G.A., Stone, L.R., Alam, M., use efficiency of grafted mini-watermelon plants under
Rogers, D.H., et al. (2002) Using beef lagoon wastewater deficit irrigation. Hort Science, 43(3), 730–736.
with SDI. In Proc. Irrigation Assn. Int’l. Irrigation SAS Institute. (2005) The SAS System for Windows 9.1.3.
Technical Conf., Oct 24–26, New Orleans, LA. Falls Cary, NC: SAS Institute.
Church, VA: Irrigation Assn. Shatanawi, M. and Fayyad, M. (1996) Effect of Khirbet
Li, J., Chen, L. and Li, Y. (2009) Comparison of clogging in as-Samara treated effluent on the quality of irrigation
drip emitters during application of sewage effluent and water in the central Jordan valley. Water Research,
groundwater. Transactions of the ASABE, 52(4), 1203–1211. 30(12), 2915–2920.
Liu, H. and Huang, G. (2009) Laboratory experiment on drip Solomon, K.H. (1979) Manufacturing variation of emitters in
emitter clogging with fresh water and treated sewage trickle irrigation systems. Transactions of the American
effluent. Agricultural Water Management, 96(5), 745–756. Society of Agricultural Engineers (ASAE), 22(5),
Malkawi, H.I. and Mohammad, M.J. (2003) Survival and 1034–1038.
accumulation of microorganisms in soils irrigated with Stuyt, L., Dierickx, W. and Beltrán, J.M. (2005) Materials for
secondary treated wastewater. Journal of Basic subsurface land drainage systems. Food and Agriculture
Microbiology, 43(1), 47–55. Organization, 60, 21–42.
Nakayama, F.S. and Bucks, D.A. (1991) Water quality in THKJ (The Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan). (2004) National
drip/trickle irrigation: a review wastewater. Irrigation Water Master Plan. Amman, Jordan: German Agency for
Science, 12(4), 187–192. Technical Cooperation.
Orlofsky, E., Bernstein, N., Sacks, M., Vonshak, A., Benami, M., Wang, R.L., Gong, S.H. and Li, G.Y. (2005) The methods and
Kundu, A., et al. (2016) Comparable levels of microbial measures of root intrusion protection in subsurface drip
contamination in soil and on tomato crops after drip irrigation. Water Saving Irrigation, 22, 205–211 (in
irrigation with treated wastewater or potable water. Chinese, with English abstract).
Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 215, 140–150. Yavuz, M.Y., Demirel, K., Erken, O., Bahar, E. and Deveciler,
Özekici, B. and Sneed, R. (1995) Manufacturing variation for M. (2010) Emitter clogging and effects on drip irrigation
various trickle irrigation on-line emitters. Applied system performances. African Agricultural Research, 5(7),
Engineering in Agriculture, 11(2), 235–240. 532–538.