Journal of Environmental Management 133 (2014) 45e50

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Journal of Environmental Management

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jenvman

Effect of irrigation with treated wastewater on soil chemical

properties and infiltration rate
Saida Bedbabis a, *, Béchir Ben Rouina b, Makki Boukhris a, Giuseppe Ferrara c
a
Laboratory of Environment and Biology of Arid Area, Department of Life Science, Faculty of Sciences, P.O. Box. 802, 3018 Sfax, Tunisia
b
Laboratory of Improvement of Olive and Fruit Trees’ Productivity, Olive Tree Institute, P.O. Box. 1087, 3000 Sfax, Tunisia
c
Dipartimento di Scienze del Suolo, della Pianta e degli Alimenti, University of Bari ‘Aldo Moro’, via Amendola 165/A, 70126 Bari, Italy

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: In Tunisia, water scarcity is one of the major constraints for agricultural activities. The reuse of
Received 13 July 2013 treated wastewater (TWW) in agriculture can be a sustainable solution to face water scarcity. The
Received in revised form research was conducted for a period of four years in an olive orchard planted on a sandy soil and
5 November 2013
subjected to irrigation treatments: a) rain-fed conditions (RF), as control b) well water (WW) and c)
Accepted 9 November 2013
Available online 20 December 2013
treated wastewater (TWW). In WW and TWW treatments, an annual amount of 5000 m 3 ha
1 of
water was supplied to the orchard. Soil samples were collected at the beginning of the study and
after four years for each treatment. The main soil properties such as electrical conductivity (EC), pH,
Keywords:
Treated wastewater
soluble cations, chloride (Cl
), sodium adsorption ratio (SAR), organic matter (OM) as well as the
Good quality water infiltration rate were investigated. After four years, either a significant decrease of pH and infiltration
Sodium adsorption ratio rate or a significant increase of OM, SAR and EC were observed in the soil subjected to treated
Infiltration rate wastewater treatment.
Ó 2013 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

1. Introduction
Arid and semi-arid regions are characterized by evapotranspi-
ration that exceeds precipitation during the largest part of the year.
Therefore, agriculture in these regions relies on irrigation to ach-
ieve satisfactory yields. At the same time, one of the main envi-
ronmental and social problems in these regions is the shortage of
freshwater, which is expected to intensify due to both high popu-
lation growth rate and increased demand from the agricultural
sector. In recent years, as freshwater resources for irrigation have
been rapidly reduced, emphasis has been put on the use of non-
conventional water sources: agricultural drainage water, brackish
or saline water and industrial or municipal wastewater. The treated
wastewater (TWW) constitutes a reliable water and nutrients
source for crops (Jimenez-Cisneros, 1995), with a consequent par-
tial reduction in the use of chemical fertilizers (Gil and Ulloa, 1997)
and improvements in crops yields (Shende, 1985; Chaabouni et al.,
1997; Coppola et al., 2005). However, application of TWW can have
some risks either for agriculture products (Yadav et al., 2002) or
physical and chemical properties of the soils (Tarchouna et al.,
2010) for the presence of heavy metals and other components.
The changes of the physical and chemical properties of soil, as a
consequence of irrigation with TWW, can affect water movement in
the soil thus also altering the soil hydraulic properties.
Tunisia belongs to the North Africa area, which is considered
one of the driest regions in the world (World Bank, 1996). The reuse
of TWW in Tunisia can satisfy the increasing water requirements
for agriculture and may constitute an opportunity to preserve
freshwater resources for human consumption. Some studies
dealing with the impact of TWW on soil properties have been
recently investigated (Lado and Ben Hur, 2009; Tarchouna et al.,
2010) and little information is known about the effects of TWW
on physical, chemical and hydraulic properties of a cultivated sandy
soil. The objective of this investigation was to determine the effects
of TWW used for irrigation, on soil physical, chemical and hydraulic
properties, over four years.
2. Material and methods
2.1. Study area, plant material and irrigation schedules

The site is located at ‘El Hajeb’ Experimental station, in the re-

* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ216 74 276 400/274 923; fax: þ216 74 274 437. gion of Sfax (34 43 N, 10 41 E) in Central-Eastern Tunisia. The
E-mail address: saida_bedbabis@yahoo.fr (S. Bedbabis). study was carried out from 2003 to 2006 in an olive orchard

0301-4797/$ e see front matter Ó 2013 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2013.11.007
46 S. Bedbabis et al. / Journal of Environmental Management 133 (2014) 45e50

planted in 1987, with ‘Chemlali’ olive trees. Trees were spaced of the two cylinders, water level variations in the central cylinder
24.0  24.0 m, trained to vase and rain-fed. Fertilizer additions, pest are measured during the time.
control and other cultural techniques were conducted according to The infiltration rate data were fitted to the Darcy law, as
local practices. The climate of the area is Mediterranean with an expressed by the following formula:
annual average rainfall, which occurs mostly in autumn and winter, I ¼ Hs (1
hf/Zf), where I is infiltration rate, Hs is the saturated
of 276 mm and a mean air temperature of 32  C. Each treatment hydraulic conductivity, hf is the wetting front pressure
was replicated in three rows, with nine trees for each replicate (
80 < hf <
5 cm), Zf is the wetting front depth (Ben Rouina,
(row). The experimental design was a randomized block. Three 2007).
treatments were applied: 1) rain-fed conditions (RF, as control
treatment); 2) irrigation with well water (WW) and 3) irrigation 2.4. Statistical analysis
with treated wastewater (TWW). The water used was either that
supplied after biological treatment process (TWW), or the WW ANOVA analysis was performed for all the results, treatments
from a well situated in the area of the experimental station. Both and times were the independent variables. All statistical analyses
waters were analysed once a year. The amount of water supplied to were carried out with the program SPSS 10 statistical software
olive trees was estimated according to the Penman-Monteith-FAO (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA). LSD test (P  0.05 and P  0.01) was
equation (Doorenbos and Pruitt, 1977) as described by Ben used to separate the mean values of the treatments.
Ahmed et al. (2007).
The irrigation was delivered using a drip irrigation system, with
3. Results and discussion
four drip nozzles (two per side) set in a line along the rows (at 0.5 m
from the trunk). Without taking rainfall into account, the daily
3.1. Chemical properties of TWW and WW
water supply per olive tree was 4.5 m3, for a total water supply of
5000 m3 ha
1 year
1.
The physical and chemical characteristics of TWW and WW
Soil samples were collected in triplicate before starting the
waters at the beginning of the trial are reported in Table 1. The pH of
irrigation schedule (February 2003) and after the last harvest
TWW and WW were 7.60 and 7.95, respectively, thus falling within
(November 2006) at the end of the trial from the surface (0e20 cm)
the limits for fruit trees irrigation, which range from 6.0 to 9.0
until a depth of 0.8 m with a layer of 0.2 m. The soil samples were
(Pescod, 1992).
successively carried to the laboratory for physical and chemical
The electrical conductivity (EC) was 6.30 dS m
1 for TWW and
analyses.
4.70 dS m
1 for WW, indicating, respectively, a high and moderate
level of salinity (Rhoades et al., 1992; Weisman et al., 2004). Cl

2.2. Soil chemical analysis
concentration was higher than the threshold values, as reported by
Chartzoulakis (2005) in the guidelines for olive irrigation. As ex-
Soil physical and chemical analyses were carried out following
pected, the concentration of almost all elements was higher in
internationally recommended procedures (Sparks et al., 1996).
TWW than in WW, with the exception of Ca2þ and Mg2þ (Table 1).
Plant roots residues were removed, and the soil was air-dried,
Both chemical and biological oxygen demands (COD and BOD) of
gently crushed, and passed through a 2-mm sieve. The particle-
TWW were below the Tunisian thresholds for water reuse. Ac-
size analysis was performed by pipette method according to the
cording to the chemical parameters, the TWW used for irrigation
method described by Gee and Or (2002). Soil pH was determined
could be a source of major nutrients, although Naþ and Cl
contents
using a pH metre (420A, Orien) in water (pHH2O) and in saline
indicated a possible risk of soil salinization.
solution of 0.01 M CaCl2 (pHCaCl2). Soil/water ratio of the suspen-
sions was 1:2.5 (w/v). The soil textural classes were determined at
Table 1
the beginning of the trial (2003) according to the USDA soil texture
Chemical characteristics of the irrigation waters used in the experiment.
classification.
The soil salinity was assessed by determination of electrical Characteristics WW TWW Tunisian limits
conductivity (EC) at 25  C on a saturated paste using a conductivity pH 7.95  0.10 7.60  0.11 6.50e8.50
metre (MC 226). Soil organic carbon was measured with a Shi- EC (dS m
1) 4.70  0.02 6.30  0.03 7.00
madzu TOC-5000 Analyzer. Chloride (Cl
) was determined titri- TDS (g L
1) 1.51  0.02 1.82  0.01 2.00
HCO

1
3 (mg L ) 288.50  0.3 370.00  0.20 600.00
metrically with AgNO3 (Karaivazoglou et al., 2005), whereas Kþ and SO2

1
 
4 (mg L ) 87.50 0.8 363.00 1.50 1000
Naþ contents were determined on ammonium acetate soil extract N total (mg L
1) e 58.80  1.20 30.00
(Richards, 1954) using a JENWAY flame photometer. P was deter- NeNO

1
3 (mg L ) 1.11  0.01 15.90  0.05
mined by a vanado-molybdate colorimetric procedure with a JEN- NeNHþ 4 (mg L
1
) 2.24  0.01 37.90  0.01
NeNO

1
2 (mg L ) 0.08  0.02 5.00  0.01
WAY 6405 UV/Vis Spectrophotometer (Milan, Italy). Ca2þ and Mg2þ
P total (mg L
1) 0.80  0.11 10.30  0.01 0.05
were measured with an atomic absorption spectrophotometer (A Kþ (mg L
1) 30.00  0.09 38.00  0.02 50.00
Analyst 200, PerkinElmer). SAR was calculated using the standard Naþ (mg L
1) 355.00  0.01 470.00  0.02 300.00
equation. Cl
(mg L
1) 1580  0.04 1999.00  0.04 600.00
Ca2þ (mg L
1) 184.50  0.01 95.80  0.03
Mg2þ (mg L
1) 126.20  0.01 83.80  0.02
2.3. Water infiltration rate Pb2þ (mg L
1) 0 <0.004 0.10
Cd2þ (mg L
1) 0 <0.004 0.005
For the current study, water infiltration rate was measured in Zn2þ (mg L
1) 0.10  0.01 0.42  0.01 5.00
triplicate in February 2003 and in November 2006 with infil- Mn2þ (mg L
1) 0.19  0.01 0.50  0.01
SM (mg L
1) 4.30  0.02 13.40  0.03
trometer of Muntz. The infiltrometer is composed with two
COD (mg L
1) 0 73.00  0.11 90.00
concentric cylinders (radius of 30 and 50 cm each) inserted at 5 and BOD (mg L
1) 0 22.00  0.04 30.00
10 cm into the soil. The external cylinder is filled of water in order
Data represents mean values  standard deviation.
to saturate soil around the central cylinder and to also limit the EC: electrical conductivity; TDS: total dissolved solids; SM: suspended matter; COD:
lateral out-flow of water infiltrated in soil. The measure is based on chemical oxygen demand; BOD: biological oxygen demand; WW: well water;
the principle of the infiltration to variable load. After replenishment TWW: treated wastewater.
 S. Bedbabis et al. / Journal of Environmental Management 133 (2014) 45e50 47

3.2. Effects of TWW use on soil properties Table 3

Effects of the treatments on soil pH, electrical conductivity (EC) and organic matter
(OM).
3.2.1. Soil textural properties
Soil of the experimental site was classified as sandy soil ac- Parameter Soil depth (cm) BI RF WW TWW
cording to USDA classification, as clearly observed from data pH 0e20 7.80aa 7.78aa 7.79aa 7.60aa
(Table 2). The sand content was very abundant (665 g kg
1 at 60e 20e40 7.82aa 7.78aa 7.78aa 7.41bb
80 cm). As a consequence, the silt content was very low, ranging 40e60 7.82aa 7.76aa 7.75aa 7.39bb
60e80 7.79aa 7.73aa 7.73aa 7.60ba
from 20 g kg
1 at 20e40 cm up to 55 g kg
1 at 60e80 cm, and the
EC (dS m
1) 0e20 0.10ca 0.11ca 1.05ad 0.87bc
clay content varied only from 50 g kg
1 at the surface layer to 20e40 0.10ca 0.12ca 1.24ac 0.59bd
70 g kg
1at 60e80 cm. 40e60 0.11ca 0.14ca 1.39bb 3.01ab
60e80 0.14ca 0.17ca 2.00ba 3.49aa
OM (%) 0e20 0.83ca 0.83ca 0.93bb 1.25aa
3.2.2. Soil chemical properties
20e40 0.86ba 0.86ba 1.20aa 1.18ab
Data after four years showed that irrigation with TWW influ- 40e60 0.84ba 0.84ba 0.93ab 0.65cc
enced the chemical properties of the soil. The main soil chemical 60e80 0.69aa 0.69aa 0.65ac 0.34bd
properties influenced by irrigation were: (i) pH; (ii) organic matter; Data represents the mean value of three replications for each treatment. Small
(iii) soil salinity; and (iv) sodium adsorption ratio (SAR). letters (a, b, c and d) indicate, respectively, significant differences (P  0.05) between
treatments within each depth (first letter) and between depths for each treatment
3.2.2.1. Soil pH. The average pH values at the beginning of the (second letter) according to LSD test.
EC: electrical conductivity; OM: organic matter; BI: before irrigation; RF: rain-fed;
experimental period ranged from 7.79 (60e80 cm) to 7.82 (20e40 WW: well water; TWW: treated wastewater.
and 40e60 cm). The slightly alkali values was probably a conse-
quence of the buffering capacity of such Tunisian soils rich in
presented high values of BOD and COD. Mechri et al. (2008) re-
limestone and with an intense degree of ammonification. The
ported that also olive mill wastewater increased soil organic matter.
irrigation with TWW significantly dropped the pH values to 7.39e
7.60 with respect to initial values (Table 3). Nevertheless this
reduction is low, since soil pH value shifted from moderately to 3.2.2.3. Soil electrical conductivity. The average EC values in 2003
slightly alkaline, according to the USDA classification (Soil Survey ranged from 0.10 dS m
1 to 0.14 dS m
1. The EC values at the
Division Staff, 1993). This finding is in contrast with those re- beginning of the experiment were low in each plots and similar to
ported by several studies (Mancino and Pepper, 1992; Tarchouna values of Shalhevet (1994) detected in Mediterranean type climates
et al., 2010), who reported that irrigation with TWW raised the with low seasonal rainfall.
pH when compared with irrigation with freshwater in a coarse A highly significant increase was found after four years of irri-
sandy soil. Differences can be explained by soil texture which is an gation by using either WW or TWW (2.00e3.49 dS m
1, for WW
essential factor for determining soil acidity. The soil pH decrease and TWW, respectively at 60e80 cm). Nevertheless, in both treat-
with TWW was probably due to: (i) absorption of ammonia ions by ments, EC values remained below the salinity threshold
plant or nitrification of ammonium, and (ii) leaching of basic cat- (4.00 dS m
1). The significant increase in EC was both due to the
ions (Tarchouna et al., 2010). The TWW addition caused short and higher concentration of salts and TDS in both waters, as previously
sudden decreases of soil pH, nevertheless, the pH values remained suggested by several authors (Gil and Ulloa, 1997; Xanthoulis and
within the range (7.0e8.5) for olive tree development (Gargouri, Kayamanidou, 1998; Massena, 2001). Furthermore, the lower
1998). Indeed, no negative effects were observed over time when level of soil salinity registered at a soil depth of 0.2e0.4 m, in
appropriate doses were utilised. comparison to the layer of 0.6e0.8 m, let us suggest that salts are
transported and accumulated at deeper layers, and that the rainfall
occurring generally in autumn and winter was sufficient to assure
3.2.2.2. Soil organic matter. Average values of organic matter (OM)
the leaching of salts accumulated during summer season, as re-
in each treatment are presented in Table 3. After four years there
ported by Melgar et al. (2009) in ‘Picual’ olive orchard. This process
was a significant increase of OM in both TWW and WW treatments,
seems to be facilitated by the sandy soil texture allowing the free
and these results are different from other studies who reported a
water circulation through the soil.
decrease of OM content in a coarse sandy soil irrigated with do-
Ben-Hur (2004) indicated that an average annual rainfall of
mestic TWW rich in nutrients (Jueschke et al., 2008; Tarchouna
about 500 mm is sufficient to leach the excess salts in the soil down
et al., 2010). The high OM values measured in the top layers are
below the root zone during the rainy season, in particular when this
probably the consequence either of TWW high volumes (5000 m3)
season is concentrated in 3e4 months such as in Tunisia. In addi-
or a limited microbial activity on C and N supplied by the TWW.
tion, the active root zone of olive could affect the soil salinity.
Nevertheless, some studies showed that OM increases were tem-
Indeed, the high ability of olive tree to accumulate salts in their
porary, since the organic material is rapidly mineralised by soil
active roots, generally localized at a depth higher than 0.3 m, allows
microorganisms (Mechri et al., 2007; Di Serio et al., 2008). In this
the decrease of soil salinity level in the upper layers. Consequently,
regard, the short-term sharp OM increase detected in TWW treat-
the high EC values in the bottom layers can be explained by salts
ment can be explained by the composition of the water, which
accumulation as a consequence of leaching. A soil having an
Table 2 EC  4.0 dS m
1 is defined a saline soil (Qadir et al., 2000) and,
Soil physical properties of the experimental site. continued long-term irrigation with TWW could be a cause of
Depth (cm) Clay Silt Very fine sand Fine sand Coarse sand excessive soil salinization. Moreover, there is also a high risk of soil
(g kg
1)
salinization if rainfall is lower than 250 mm (Melgar et al., 2009).

0e20 55 50 50 455 390

20e40 50 20 65 500 365 3.2.2.4. Ion content. The contents of P, Kþ, Naþ, Cl
, Ca2þ and Mg2þ
40e60 65 45 65 560 245 in the soil are reported in Tables 4 and 5. An increase of P recorded
60e80 70 55 100 665 110 at the end of experimentation, suggested that a certain fertilising
Clay F < 2 mm; Silt 2 < F < 20 mm; Very Fine Sand 20 < F < 50 mm; Fine Sand effect of TWW was possible as a consequence of (i) its high soluble
50 < F < 200 mm; Coarse Sand 200 < F < 2000 mm. P content and (ii) organic matter adsorption, as already found by
48 S. Bedbabis et al. / Journal of Environmental Management 133 (2014) 45e50

Table 4 tissues (Heidarpour et al., 2007). As a consequence of this flux to

Effect of irrigation with treated wastewater on soil potassium (K), phosphorus (P), plant tissues, higher K values were reported in different olive tree
sodium (Na) and chloride (Cl).
parts (data not shown).
Parameter (mg kg
1) Soil depth (cm) BI RF WW TWW A highly significant accumulation of both Na and Cl in TWW
K 0e20 143ca 144ca 600ba 700aa irrigated soil was observed after 4 years of irrigation (Table 4). On
20e40 135ca 132ca 550ba 650aa the other side, a lower content of Na and Cl was reported in various
40e60 100cb 97cb 270bb 350ab olive organs of TWW irrigated trees (data not shown) with respect
60e80 88cb 90cb 220bb 300ab
to WW irrigated ones, probably for the ability of olive to limit Na
P 0e20 76ba 78ba 80ba 109aa
20e40 63cb 64cb 80ba 106aa and Cl absorption and translocation from the roots to the shoots
40e60 69bb 67bb 76bb 146ab (Bedbabis et al., 2010). The high Na concentration in soil solution
60e80 54bc 50bc 59bc 126ac can be explained by (i) the antagonistic activity of either Kþ or NHþ4
Na 0e20 104cc 100cc 189bb 500ab
which reduced the adsorption of Na on exchangeable complex and
20e40 61cd 65cd 132bc 410ac
40e60 114cb 113cb 227ba 650aa
(ii) high calcium supply that enhanced the selectivity for the uptake
60e80 142ca 140ca 200bb 640aa and transport of Kþ over Naþ. A high K/Na ratio was also measured
Cl 0e20 80ca 78ca 108bb 283ab in different olive tree organs (data no shown).
20e40 30cc 33cc 110bb 225ac Both Ca and Mg concentrations were similar in TWW and WW
40e60 50cb 48cb 140ba 280ab
irrigated soils (Table 5). At the end of the experimental period, Ca
60e80 90ca 89ca 145ba 364aa
accumulation was observed in irrigated soils, indicating that the
Data represents the mean value of three replications for each treatment. Small
adsorption of this element on the exchangeable complex was
letters (a, b, c and d) indicate, respectively, significant differences (P  0.05) between
treatments within each depth (first letter) and between depths for each treatment
higher than plant roots uptake. Finally, a significant decrease of Mg
(second letter) according to LSD test. concentration was reported after 4 years of irrigation in all layers of
BI: before irrigation; RF: rain-fed; WW: well water; TWW: treated wastewater. irrigated plots, probably because precipitation as magnesite or even
magnesium chloride (Laribi and Alzubaidi, 2007).
previous works in field experiments irrigated with treated waste-
3.2.2.5. Sodium adsorption ratio (SAR). Sodium adsorption ratio
water (Emongor and Ramolemana, 2004; Heidarpour et al., 2007).
expresses the relationships between sodium content and calcium
Indeed, TWW may be a source of P and some authors have reported
plus magnesium contents. The ratios reflect the amounts of sodium
that the available P content tended to increase when P was added
adsorbed onto clay and soil organic matter exchange surfaces. So-
with organic amendments, both composted and non composted
dium Adsorption Ratio (SAR) values showed some interesting re-
(Lopez-Pineiro et al., 2008). The available P concentration was
sults (Fig.1). All of the measured values were significantly below the
higher indicating that the organic matter added with TWW might
limit (SAR 15) for a soil to be considered sodic (US Salinity
protect P from insolubilization.
Laboratory Staff, 1954).
At the beginning of the experimental period, K ranged from
The low SAR values in all soil layers of the rain-fed treatment
88 mg kg
1e143 mg kg
1 and it increased in both TWW and WW
reflect the lower sodium and potassium contents with respect to
plots over the study period. The increase was directly caused by (i)
calcium and magnesium contents. This can be explained in terms of
the high content of K in the TWW and are in agreement with what
the relationships between rainfall conditions and soluble ions. High
has been previously observed by several authors (Emongor and
rainfall enhances leaching of Na and K more than that of Ca and Mg.
Ramolemana, 2004; Heidarpour et al., 2007) and (ii) to organic
Nevertheless, a certain amount of these ions remains in the soil
matter adsorption. The K increase is beneficial for crop productivity
because of the reaction of the soluble salts with the clay complex
and health according to the different plant requests and uptake
(Sarah, 2004).
efficiency (Arienzo et al., 2009) and can have ecological and
The significant increase of SAR in TWW irrigated soil was
economical advantages avoiding or reducing the use of K fertilisers
probably due to Na accumulations in the root zone (Table 4) and to
(Di Serio et al., 2008).
a reduced water infiltration rate which negatively affected the Na
High K values reported in the upper layers indicate that this
transport to bottom layers.
element did not move rapidly through the profile of the soil as a
consequence of an equilibrium reached between the element in
3.2.3. Water infiltration rate
solution and that adsorbed on soil colloids (Nasini et al., 2013). The
Infiltration is the process by which water on the ground surface
lower K concentration in the bottom layers was probably a conse-
enters the soil. It is a dynamic process, and it is one of the most
quence of plant uptake or movement of K from soil solution to plant

Table 5
Influence of four years irrigation with treated wastewater on soil calcium (Ca) and
magnesium (Mg).

Parameter (%) Soil depth (cm) BI RF WW TWW

Ca 0e20 1.35bc 1.36bc 1.80ab 1.41bb

20e40 0.95bd 1.00bd 1.20ac 1.18ac
40e60 1.44ab 1.45ab 1.07cd 1.21bc
60e80 1.55ca 1.49ca 2.06aa 1.90ba
Mg 0e20 0.07ba 0.07ba 0.04aa 0.04aa
20e40 0.06ba 0.05bb 0.03aa 0.02ab
40e60 0.03aa 0.04ab 0.03aa 0.02ab
60e80 0.05aa 0.04ab 0.04aa 0.03ab

Data represents the mean value of three replications for each treatment. Small
letters (a, b, c and d) indicate, respectively, significant differences (P  0.05) between
treatments within each depth (first letter) and between depths for each treatment
(second letter) according to LSD test.
BI: before irrigation; RF: rain-fed; WW: well water; TWW: treated wastewater.
Fig. 1. Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR) in the three treatments: rain-fed (RF); well
water (WW) and treated wastewater (TWW) after 4 years of irrigation. For each depth,
different letters indicate significant differences (p  0.05) among treatments according
to LSD test.
 S. Bedbabis et al. / Journal of Environmental Management 133 (2014) 45e50
important factors in the soil phase of the hydrological cycle, since
infiltration determines the amount of runoff as well as the supply of
water to the soil profile (Lado and Ben Hur, 2009). Infiltration rate is
a measure of the rate at which soil is able to absorb rainfall or
irrigation water. The wetting front reached a depth of 23 cm after
1 h and the soil could be classified as sandy soil with a rapid water
infiltration rate (15 cm h
1 < average infiltration < 51 cm h
1) (Ben
Rouina, 2007).
A significant decrease of water infiltration rate (IR) was reported
after 4 years of irrigation in the TWW plot (down to 14 cm h
1)
with respect to beginning of the experiment. This decrease was also
significant with respect to both WW and RF treatments (Fig. 2). This
might be a consequence of the higher amount of total dissolved
solids (TDS) in TWW with respect to WW. Suspended solids are
mainly present in the organic fraction and form a thin layer of high
hydraulic impedance which probably reduced the IR through the
clogging of the soil pores. In particular, the decrease of IR caused by
a seal formation was evident in a sandy soil (Lado et al., 2005). This
seal is relatively thin and is characterized by greater density, higher
strength, finer pores, and lower hydraulic conductivity than the
underlying soil (Wakindiki and Ben Hur, 2002), and it could cause a
drastic decrease of the soil IR (Assouline, 2004). In a sandy soil, seal
formation was mainly influenced by either clay dispersion on the
soil surface or clogged pores in the “washed-in” zone. TWW irri-
gation enhanced clay dispersion due to the increase of the SAR, and
therefore a less permeable seal was formed in the TWW than in the
WW irrigated soil (Lado et al., 2005). Another factor probably
affecting the IR decrease was the microbiological activity promoted
by nutrient enrichment which could have leaded to a biomat layer
formation. According to the literature, the biomat formation could
have influenced the water infiltration decrease similarly to what
observed in our experiment (Jones and Taylor, 1965; Bouma, 1975;
Siegrist, 1987; Siegrist and Boyle, 1987; Keys et al., 1998).
4. Conclusion
The results of this 4-year study showed the effects of the irri-
gation with TWW on some physical and chemical properties of the
soil. In particular, TWW decreased the pH and increased organic
matter and EC. With regards to the ions, TWW induced a significant
accumulation of Na and Cl in all the soil layers, in particular in the
Fig. 2. Water infiltration rate at the beginning of the study (a) and after four years (b)
in the three treatments: rain-fed (RF) (square), well water (WW) (circle) and treated
wastewater (TWW) (triangle). Bars indicate SE.
49
upper layers close to olive roots and this also lead to a significant
increase of SAR. Finally, the significant reduction of the water
infiltration rate caused by a seal formation was mainly attributed to
the accumulation of suspended solids, and partially to clay
dispersion and microbiological activity.
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