MODULE NO.

1 (Week 1-2)
President Ramon Magsaysay State University
(Formerly Ramon Magsaysay Technological University)
Iba, Zambales, Philippines
Tel/Fax No.: (047)-811-1683

College of Engineering/Electrical Engineering

COURSE CODE: ACM 02: Basic Electronics
Semester of A.Y. 2020-2021

Introduction

One of the noteworthy things about Electronics Field, as in many other areas of
technology, is how little the fundamental principles change over time. Systems are
incredibly smaller, current speeds of operation are truly remarkable, and new gadgets
surface every day, leaving us to wonder where technology is taking us. However, if we
take a moment to consider that the majority of all the devices in use were invented
decades ago and that design techniques appearing in texts as far back as the 1930s are
still in use, we realize that most of what we see is primarily a steady improvement in
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construction techniques, general characteristics, and application techniques rather than

the development of new elements and fundamentally new designs. The major changes
have been in the understanding of how these electronics devices work and their full range
of capabilities, and in improved methods of teaching the fundamentals associated with
them. The benefit of all this to the new student of the subject is that the material in this text
will, we hope, have reached a level where it is relatively easy to grasp and the information
will have application for years to come.
Rationale

To learn and understand the semiconductor materials

Intended Learning Outcomes

A. Become aware of the general characteristics of three important semiconductor

materials: Si, Ge, GaAs.
B. Understand conduction using electron and hole theory.
C. Be able to describe the difference between n - and p -type materials.
D. Develop a clear understanding of the basic operation and characteristics of a
diode in the no-bias, forward-bias, and reverse-bias regions.
E. Be able to calculate the dc, ac, and average ac resistance of a diode from the
characteristics.
F. Understand the impact of an equivalent circuit whether it is ideal or practical.
G. Become familiar with the operation and characteristics of a Zener diode and Light
Emitting Diode
Activity
Power Point Presentation thru google meet (if needed)

Learning Module

Assessment thru Edmodo Applications with time frame (invitation will be send)

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Discussion

INTRODUCTION:
 The first integrated circuit (IC) was developed by Jack
Kilby while working at Texas Instruments in 1958. Today,
the Intel ® Core TM i7 Extreme Edition Processor has 731
million transistors in a package that is only slightly larger
than a 1.67 sq. inches.
 In 1965, Dr. Gordon E. Moore presented a paper
predicting that the transistor count in a single IC chip
would double every two years.
 Semiconductor is the foundation of trillion dollars electronics
industry

SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS: Ge, Si and GaAs

 Conductor are materials that allows the flow of charge in one
or more directions
 Insulator are materials that inhibit the flow of electrical current.
 Semiconductor are materials which have conductivity
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between conductors and nonconductors (insulators).

The three semiconductor used most frequently in the construction of
electronic devices are Ge, Si, and GaAs

Resistivity (ρ)
 Is a measure of a resistance of a given
size of specific material to electrical
conductor.
 Also known as Specific Electrical
Resistance or Volume Resistivity

Semiconductor (Si)
 Silicon is the most common material used to
build semiconductor devices.
 Si is the main ingredient of sand
 Si is spun and grown into a crystalline
structure and cut into wafers to make
electronic devices

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Covalent Bonding
To fully appreciate why Si, Ge, and GaAs are the semiconductors of choice for the
electronics industry requires some understanding of the atomic structure of each and how
the atoms are bound together to form a crystalline structure.
Atomic Structure
Valence Electrons:
Si 4 valence electrons
Ge 4 Valence electrons
Ga 3 Valence electrons
Ar 5 Valence electrons
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Covalent bonding of Si atom:

In a pure Si or Ge crystal the 4 valence electrons
of one atom form a bonding arrangement with
four adjoining atom.
This bonding of atoms, strengthened by the
sharing of electrons, is called COVALENT
BONDING.

Covalent bonding of the GaAs Crystal:

GaAs is a compound semiconductor
There is a sharing between the two different atoms.
Each atom, Ga or Ar, is surrounded by atoms of the
complementary type

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Energy Levels

The more distant the electron from the

nucleus, the higher the energy state, and
any electron that has left its parent atom
has a higher energy state than any
electron in the atomic structure.
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An electron in the valence band of silicon must absorb more energy than one in
the valence band of germanium to become a free carrier. Similarly, an electron in
the valence band of gallium arsenide must gain more energy than one in silicon or
germanium to enter the conduction band.

W = QV, eV
Where:
W  Energy, Electron Volt (eV) or Joules (J)
Q  Charge associated with a single electron, Coulombs (C)
V  Potential Difference, Volt (V)
W = QV = (1.6 x 10-19 C) (1V) Note: One Electron = 1.6 x 10-19 C

-19
1 eV = 1.6 x 10 J

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n-TYPE and p-TYPE Material

n-TYPE Material
 Pentavalent impurities such as phosphorus, arsenic, antimony, and bismuth have 5
valence electrons.
 Diffuse impurities with five valence electrons are called donor atoms
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p-TYPE Material
 Trivalent impurities such as boron, aluminum, indium, and gallium have 3 valence
electrons.
 Diffuse impurities with three valence electrons are called acceptor atoms

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Majority and Minority Carriers
 In an n-type material, the electron is the majority carrier and the hole is the minority
carriers.
 In a p-type material, the hole is the majority carrier and the electron is the minority
carriers.

Electron Vs Hole Flow

The effect of the hole on conduction is shown in Fig a. If a valence electron acquires
sufficient kinetic energy to break its covalent bond and fills the void created by a hole,
then a vacancy, or hole, will be created in the covalent bond that released the electron
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(Fig b). There is, therefore, a transfer of holes to the left and electrons to the right (Fig c).

SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE
 A diode is a 2 lead semiconductor that acts as a one way gate to electron flow.
– Diode allows current to pass in only one direction.
 A pn-junction diode is formed by joining together n-type and p-type silicon.
 The p-side is called anode and the n-side is called cathode.

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No Applied Bias (vd = 0v)
 In the absence of an applied bias voltage, the net flow of a charge in any one
direction for a semiconductor diode is ZERO.

A p-n junction with no

external bias:
(a) An internal distribution of
charge
(b) Diode symbol, with the
defined polarity and the
current direction
(c)Demonstration that the
net carrier flow is zero at the
external terminal device
when VD=0V

Reverse-Bias Condition (vd < 0v)

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 The current that exists under reverse-bias condition is called the reverse saturation
current and is represented by Is.
 The holes in the n-side are forced to the left while electrons in the p-side are forced
to the right.
Reversed-Biased p-n junction:
(a) An internal distribution of charge
under reverse-bias condition
(b) Reverse-Bias polarity and
direction of reverse saturation
current.

Forward-Bias Condition (vd > 0v)

 The electrons from the n-side and holes from the p-side are forced toward the
center by the electrical field supplied by the battery.

Forward-Biased p-n junction:

(a) An internal distribution of charge
under forward-bias condition
(b) Forward-Bias polarity and
direction of resulting current.

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Shockley’s Equation
 Shockley’s Equation or Diode law (named after transistor co-inventor William
Shockley) gives the I-V (Current-Voltage) Characteristics of an idealized diode In
either forward or reverse bias (applied voltage):

Where:
𝐼  Diode Current
𝐼  Reverse Saturation Current
𝑉  Applied forward-bias voltage
𝑛 ideality factor, which is a function of the operating
conditions and physical construction; it has a range
between 1 and 2 depending on a wide variety of factors
VT is the Thermal Voltage:
Where:
,V 𝑘 Boltzmann’s Constant = 1.38 x 10-23 J/K
𝑇  Absolute temperature in kelvin = 273 + temperature in 0C
𝑞 Magnitude of electronics charge = 1.6 x 10-19 C

SILICON SEMICONDUCTOR
DIODE
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CHARACTERISTICS

 The defined direction

of conventional
current for the
positive voltage
region matches the
arrowhead in the
diode symbol.
 The actual reverse
saturation current of
a commercially
available diode will
normally be
measurably larger
than that appearing
as the reverse
saturation current in
Shockley’s equation.
 This increase in level is
due to a wide range
of factors that
include:
 leakage currents
 generation of carriers in the depletion region
 higher doping levels that result in increased levels of reverse current
 sensitivity to the intrinsic level of carriers in the component materials
 a direct relationship with the junction area
 temperature sensitivity

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Breakdown Region
 When the voltage applied across the diode is very
large and negative, a lots of current will be able to
flow in the reverse direction from cathode to
anode. This large negative voltage is called
Breakdown Voltage (VBV).
 The maximum reverse-bias potential that can be
applied before entering the breakdown region is
called the peak inverse voltage (PIV rating) or the
peak reverse voltage (PRV rating).

Comparison of Ge, Si, and GaAs Commercial Diodes

The point of vertical rise in the

Temperature Effect characteristics is different for
each material, although the
Variation in Si Diode Characteristics
with Temperature Change: general shape of each
 In the forward-bias region the characteristic is quite similar.
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characteristics of a silicon
diode shift to the left at a rate The center of the knee (VK) of the
of 2.5 mV per centigrade curve is about 0.3 V for Ge, 0.7 V
degree increase in for Si, and 1.2 V for GaAs.
temperature.
 In the reverse-bias region the
reverse current of a silicon
diode doubles for every 10°C
rise in temperature
 The reverse breakdown voltage
of a semiconductor diode will
increase or decrease with
SAMPLEtemperature.
PROBLEM:
Using the graph below, determine the following:

a. Determine the voltage across the each diode at a current 1 mA

b. Determine the average value of the diode for Ge at current 1mA, 4mA and 30mA.

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 MODULE NO.1 (Week 1-2)

c. How was the average voltage compared with the knee voltage of Ge?
 The average voltage and the knee voltage of Ge Diode were very close
correspondence as 0.307V (average voltage) VS. 0.307 (knee voltage)

d. Determine the
average
value of the
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diode for Si at
current 1mA,
4mA and
30mA

e. Determine the
average
value of the
diode for
GaAs at
current 1mA,
4mA and
30mA

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 MODULE NO.1 (Week 1-2)

The Current Commercial Used of Ge, Si, GaAs:

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Ideal Versus Practical

Ideal Semiconductor Diode:
(a) Forward-Biased (closed)
(b) Reverse-Biased (open)
 The semiconductor diode behaves in a manner similar
to a mechanical switch in that it can control whether
current will flow between its two terminals.
 The semiconductor diode is different from a mechanical
switch in the sense that when the switch is closed it will
only permit current to flow in one direction.

Ideal VS Actual Semiconductor Characteristics:

 When the switch is closed, at any current level
on the vertical line, the voltage across the ideal
diode is 0 V and the resistance is 0 ohm.
𝑉 0𝑉
𝑅 = = = 0Ω
𝐼 10𝑚𝐴
 When the switch is open, the current is 0 mA
anywhere on the horizontal line, the resistance
is considered to be infinite ohms (an open-
circuit) at any point on the axis.
𝑉 20𝑉
𝑅 = = = ∞Ω
𝐼 0𝑚𝐴
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ACM 02 MODULE RESISTANCE LEVEL

DC or Statics Resistance (RD)

 The higher the current through a diode, the 𝑽𝑫
lower is the dc resistance level. 𝑹𝑫 =
𝑰𝑫

AC or Dynamic Resistance (rd)

 The lower the Q-point of operation (smaller
current or lower voltage), the higher the AC Resistance
(rd)

∆𝑽𝑫
𝒓𝒅 =
∆𝑰𝑫

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 MODULE NO.1 (Week 1-2)
The derivative of the function at a point is equal to the slope of the tangent line drawn at
that point.
𝑑 𝑑
(𝐼 ) = [𝐼 𝑒 −1 ]
𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑉
and
𝑑𝐼 1
= (𝐼 + 𝐼 )
𝑑𝑉 𝑛𝑉
In general, ID>>IS:
𝑑𝐼 𝐼
≅
𝑑𝑉 𝑛𝑉
Flipping the results to define the resistance ratio (Ohm’s Law) gives:
𝑑𝐼 𝑛𝑉
=𝑟 =
𝑑𝑉 𝐼
Substitute n=1 and VT≈26mV:
26𝑚𝑉
𝑟 =
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𝐼
The dynamic resistance (rd) can be found simply by substituting the quiescent value of the
diode current into the equation.
Additional resistance levels (rB ) from the body resistance (resistance of the semiconductor
material itself) and contact resistance (resistance introduced by the connection between
semiconductor material and external metallic conductor.

26𝑚𝑉
𝑟 = +𝑟
𝐼
Average AC Resistance (rav)
 As with the dc and ac resistance levels, the lower the
level of currents used to determine the average
resistance, the higher is the resistance level.

∆𝑽𝑫
𝒓𝒂𝒗 = | 𝑷𝒕 𝒕𝒐 𝒑𝒕
∆𝑰𝑫

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Sample Problems:

1. Determine the dc resistance level for the diode on the figure below:
a. ID=2mA (low Level)
b. ID=20mA (high Level)
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2. For the characteristics on figure below, determine the ac resistance at I D=2mA.

 For ID =2 mA, the tangent line at ID=2 mA was drawn as shown in Figure and a
swing of 2 mA above and below the specified diode current was chosen. At I D=4
mA, VD=0.76 V, and at ID=0 mA, VD=0.65 V.
∆𝑰𝑫 = 𝟒𝒎𝑨 − 𝟎𝒎𝑨 = 𝟒𝒎𝑨
∆𝑽𝑫 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟔𝑽 − 𝟎. 𝟔𝟓𝑽 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟏𝑽
∆𝑽𝑫 𝟎. 𝟏𝟏𝑽
𝒓𝒅 = = = 𝟐𝟕. 𝟓𝛀
∆𝑰𝑫 𝟒𝒎𝑨
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Diode Equivalent Circuits

 An equivalent circuit is a combination of elements properly chosen to best represent the
actual terminal characteristics of a device or system in a particular operating region.
 If the characteristics or specification sheet for a diode is not available the resistance rav can
be approximated by the ac resistance rd.
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SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE NOTATION

The notation most frequently used for semiconductor diodes for anode or cathode identification.

DIODE TESTING
1. Digital Display Tester Meter (DMM) with diode checking function
2. Ohmmeter section of a multi-tester
3. Curve Tracer

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Diode Checking Function (DMM)

 Place the knob on the “diode”
symbol
 Forward bias, display will be the
diode voltage such as around 0.7 V
for Si Diode
 Reverse biased, display “0L”

Ohmmeter

 Forward biased, display a

Relatively low R
 Reverse biased, display
Relatively high R or “∞”
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Curve Tracer
 display diode characteristics

ZENER DIODE
 A Zener diode is a silicon semiconductor device that permits current to flow in either a forward
or reverse direction.

Zener Diode Region

Conduction Direction
(a) Zener Diode
(b) Semiconductor
Diode
(c) Resistive
Element

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ACM 02 MODULE Zener diode characteristics with the equivalent model for each region

LIGHT EMITTING DIODE

 Light-emitting diode is a diode that gives off visible or
invisible (infrared) light when energized.
 In Si and Ge diodes the greater percentage of the energy
converted during recombination at the junction is
dissipated in the form of heat within the structure, and the emitted light is
insignificant.
 Diodes constructed of GaAs emit light in the infrared (invisible) zone during the
recombination process at the p–n junction.
Process of electroluminescence in the LED
 The conducting surface connected to the p-
material is much smaller, to permit the emergence
of the maximum number of photons of light energy.
Note in the figure that the recombination of the
injected carriers due to the forward-biased junction
results in emitted light at the site of recombination.
There may, of course, be some absorption of the
packages of photon energy in the structure itself,
but a very large percentage are able to leave.

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In general, when we talk about electroluminescent devices, one references their
wavelength rather than their frequency.

𝑐 Where:
𝜆= 𝜆Wavelength in m
𝑓 𝑐3x108 m/s (speed of light in vacuum)
𝑓 Frequency in Hertz

The wavelength and the frequency of light of a specific color is directly related to the
energy band gap of the material.

Where:
ℎ𝑐 𝐸 Energy band gap, Joules (1eV=1.6x10-19J)
𝐸 = ℎ Planck’s constant = 6.626x10-34J.s
𝜆
𝜆 Wavelength in m
𝑐 3x108 m/s (speed of light in vacuum)
𝑓 Frequency in Hertz
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Light emitting diodes (LEDs) emit light under forward-bias conditions but require 2
V to 4 V for good emission.

Exercise
Check Edmodo Application for Exercise located at Assignment Section.

Assessment

Assessment thru Edmodo Applications with time frame (invitation will be send)

Reflection

As an engineering student, do you have any electronic device that can be a

breakthrough improvement or innovation in the future?

Resources and Additional Resources

 Boylestad, R., & Nashelsky,L. (1998). Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory,
Seventh Edition. Ohio: Prentice Hall
 Malvino, Albert & Bates, David (2007). Electronic Principle, Seventh Edition. New
York: McGraw-Hill.

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