Marquez, LP (2022). Trends, Networks, & Critical Thinking in the 21st Century. CE Publishing, Inc. pp. 2-32 the Germans refer to as Zeitgeist or “time- spirit,” which can also be understood as the “spirit of the time.” Every part of our history, development, and evolution as a race is characterized by a “spirit” that basically shapes the way we think. For instance, during the prehistoric era when the zeitgeist was focused on survival, our ancestors thought of ways to survive so they developed tools they could use for gathering food; they discovered the use of fire; and they perfected their hunting skills. During the Age of Antiquity, when the spirit of ‘the time was overflowing with curiosity about the cosmos, our forebears sought to understand what was happening around them. They started to weave myths based on the deities that they worshipped. Through these myths, they were able to explain natural phenomena such as the changes in the seasons or why there were wars, disasters, and death. The Middle ‘Ages were no different when the prevailing manner of thinking anchored in religion and ‘the quest to earn God's favor. The Modern Period, through the influence of science and the development of technology, pushed us into a quest for knowledge, certainty, and |: every era, thinking is influenced by what progress. Today, the Contemporary period characterized by a more liberal zeitgeist. Ease of access to information is a game-changer and, in many parts of the world, people are no longer bound by traditional moral values However, the question here is not about the quantity of what we think but the quality of our thoughts. In this unit, you will be introduced to the notion of “trend.” The concept of trend is arguably the closest that we can come to ‘a more understandable translation of the zeitgeist. A trend can be understood as a “spirit” that prevails during a particular time. It describes and influences the movement of thoughts, preferences, and changes, for instance, in fashion, consumption, and norm, among others. A trend is a behavior molded by various factors leading to it and, in turn, shapes the development of future circumstances arising from it. The succeeding discussions will help you understand the importance of trends in shaping the way we think and will attempt to let you become an independent thinker by teaching you to look beyond current trends.Understanding Trends tumans have the habit of generalizing from experience. This habit enables us to in the world, Our capacity to adapt ensures adapt to the changes that we experience : Be val The developments that mark every generation of human ‘our continuous s existence signify our efforts to adapt. From ‘of the modern era, these are testimonies to ‘our generalizations and are P' of generalization is pattern recogni discussions, these concepts shall be cculeure. Objectives ‘Ar the end of this lesson, you are expected to roducts of our en tion and identification of emergins Mliscussed to improve your understanding of our 21st century the crude tools of the Stone Age to the supercomputer, ‘what we have learned about the world through deavors to adapt to change. Part of our process ig trends. In the following 1. describe the difference berween a trend anda fad, 2. identify a trend through its elements and characteristics, and 3. demonstrate awareness and develop app: the emergence of trends. reciation of pattern recognition by identifying pe _ allie? oan Introductory Reading Whether Fads or Trends, They Imply Change’ D’Anna Hawthorne ee al the current state of our economy times. Whether seeking out valve retail venus enormous strain on the dail on the daily life accommodate a pinched budget oF finding & of the average American shopper. Cuttin Guaing backs the oder othe ayn esha ran and arguably in the long run as indicated in the Fad or Trend report However, our history reveals the resilience of the shopper during challenging T Hawthorne, O’Anna, “Whether eee sae ft ta Fad_or Trend, Execut Fo Una + Hang Tey ways to use old and familiar products 25 7. of Project Runway says, she will “Make co And through each downturn, she eM crs 4 relreshed set of demands and inspie? f her new shopping experience. |" e990 They imply Change, n Mange The RETALNEXT Sues, 209 neo inderstanding *anding Teendsand How They Go Tr endingmanufacturers and retailers have tured up the dial, meeting her craving for relevant products and heightened experience Over the decades. we have ‘seen this proactive effort with the proliferation of unique and individualized Product offerings designed for her changing ifestyle, Retailers. ‘have also taken cues, as evidenced by the evolution of shopping environments—beginning with small town shops, expansion to strip malls, development of city center shopping, and the advent of the mega mall—and it’s all for her. Wisely, much has been devoted to her every whim as she is recognized and rever das the game-changer, defining what success looks like at retail, Aligning our sights for a clearer view of the shopper is critical. Whether due to her lifestyle changes or the state of the economy, her morphing is inevitable, This report introduces us to a different view of mainstay shopping habits and identifies behaviors that could potentially drive new thinking around current manufacturer and retail practices. Entertainment at home, children returning home, fewer grocery trips, ‘one stop shopping, buying medical services at retail, demand for organic, trading down, and Seeking unique in-store experieneas ara but a few of the indicated long-lasting behavioral shifts that could profoundly shape strategies designed to connect with the next evolution of target shoppers. Understanding these shifts and further applying them to shopper super sets--such as the burgeoning Alpha shopper (Gen¥), Baby Boomers and the powerful female shopper--will Serve as a’ solid departure point for innovative fetail solutions. While we do anticipate changes in how we think, as Adlai Stevenson said, “Change is inevitable [but] change for the better is full time job” This implies that understanding and futfling the demands of the evolving shopper Must be a relentless pursuit for marketers, retailers and manufacturers aliko The shopper seeks innovation, authenticity and originality forcing an abandonment of “current safe boundaries which were once unknown frontiers” (Unknown) In brief, new bag of tricks is needed to satisty the needs of the new shopper. With studies such as Fad or Trend, we are encouraged to begin to reach the higher ground that provides the bird's eye view we eed for success. Today's generation is familiar with the term trend through the popular social media» platform, Twitter. Based on usage, a particular hashtag is rending when itis shared (retweeted) by other Twitter movement or behavior that is geared towards a certain direction. Furthermore, a trend also implies. change, This means that sooner or later, a trend is bound to change. Since it is 4 movement or a behavior, the change can be Positive or negative, good ot bad, stable or eetratic. This also means chat a predicted trend | May not even come true. Thus, it is difficult to study and predict when a trend will come or how Jong it will last, Nevertheless, in fe fying trends, you should first be able to it from a fad, lest you mistake a fad fora trend, LESSON 1+ Undersranding Trends 3Divide the dass into four or five groups. Each grouP should have its own facilitator and scribe. On a piece of paper, each member must write down a question regarding the article "Whether Fads or Trends, They Imply Change.” Once all members have written down their questions, each question ‘will be read out for all of the members to hear, Every member of the group will then vote on which question he or she wants to answer, ‘The question that garnered the most votes will be answered first, followed by the question that got the second highest number of votes, then the third, and so on. Each tember should be given a chance to answer the question. Once all of the groups have Fnished answering their respective questions, the scribes will report in front of the class what their respective groups have discussed. ‘This activity relates to the introductory reading. In this activity, you, as students, should begin to ask questions within your respective groups (community of inquiry). You should keep in mind, however, that the questions that ought to be raised are philosophical questions. This means they have to be open-ended ‘and go beyond the text, as described othe Preface. Look at the sample (philosophical) questions below. Sample Questions: 4. Why do we need to adapt to change? 2. Do trends predict the future? 3. How can we use trends to make our future better? 4, Are trends real? For example, your group decided to talk about the question, “Why do we need to adapt to change?” If you are the facilitator, the first thing you need to do is to solicit answers from your fellow group members. It is important that each member gives answers based on their personal experiences. For instance, a classmate may say. “we teed to adapt to change for us to move forward. In my experience, we had to move to a different town because of the work of my parents. |had to make new friends and adjust to the new environment. I had to adapt to this change to be able to continue with the things that | need to do in my life." To make the discussion progress oe facilitator, you may ask your other group mates, “Do you agree with that? Why? Why not?” or you can call a particular classmate and ask him or her. For instance, “JOR & you agree with what Mary said? Why?" From this point, it is your responsibility © facilitate the flow of the discussion. Take note that your role as facilitator is not '° give your own opinion on the question, There may be instances when other questions may be raised within the discussion and some of your classmates may engage the spestiore Bis is okay. As a rule of thumb: “Let the argument lead.” Eventually. as you and ean Jassmates get used to the dynamics, it will be easier for you and you can 2° ing facititator or scribe whenever you have thi: aeening® is kind of activity. A UNITE Hestong trending: Understand estanding Trends ang How They Gi # Trends and How They Go Trending‘Trends and Fads A fad is something that people are highly interested in for a relatively short period of time, This means that a fad comes and goes. What makes a fad interesting for many is not really clear, for the most part. Consider, for example, cargo pants became a popular fashion trend during the 1990s. After some time, the jogger pants regained its popularity. This was around mid-2010s. Today, it seems that skinny jeans are considered fashionable. No one knows for sure when skinay jeans will go out of styl. Although a fad. is shortlived, what is importance to know is that fads can help predict trends. Look at the trends in education as examples. During the late °80s and early ‘90s, the trend in tertiary education was taking computer-related courses such as computer science or information technology. Why? Because the computer industry was booming and the developments in this area were at a rapid pace. The trend lasted for around a decade. In this example, the tend in taking computer-related courses. was determined by the fad characterized by the boom in the computer industry. In the early 2000s, the trend shifted to healthcare courses such as nursing and caregiving. The country produced many nurses and caregivers, and many schools were created mainly offering courses in nursing and caregiving. Towards the end of the decade, there were numerous nurses and caregivers but only a handful of jobs because the trend already changed. Around 2010 up to the relative present, the trend is on business-related courses such as accountancy and hotel and restaurant ‘management. And at the rate of how things are going right now, it scems that the future trend in education in the country will be focused on technical-vocational courses due to the demand for skilled workers overscas and the focus on outcomes-based education. Both fads and trends are results of reactions, This means that there are causes for the emergence of trends and fads, although, these causes may be vague or unapparent, For instance, the trend in the rise and fall of shares in the stock market can be traced to factors such as the price of oil, local and foreign investments, government policy, international relations, and technology, among others. They can be clear indicators of the source of the reaction when it comes to the changes in trends in stocks. On the other hand, what caused the Zumba fever to become so popular is not as easily determined. There are other forms of exercise out there that utilize music or dance moves that are easy to execute but Zumba is the most popular. Nonetheless, its popularity is a reaction to something, perhaps, the desire for a new form of exercise. Why do you think Zumba became more popular than traditional methods of physical exercise? At any rate, the more important point of concern is whether a reaction will just be a fad or will transform into a trend. ‘As pointed out earlier, it is difficult to determine if and when a fad will become a trend, but it is possible. However, to be able to do this, ‘we must first understand what makes a fad a fad, and a trend a trend. The succeeding section will help us-to achieve this understanding. Elements and Characteristics of a Trend Given what you understand about trends and fads so far, it will be helpful to identify crends by familiarizing yourself with the elements and characteristics of a trend by comparing them with those ofa fad. Table 1.1 could help to this end: LESSON 1+ Understanding Trends 5Table 1.1 Elements and Characteristics of Fads and Trends n 5 , the public because it Attractive to the public because it | Appeal | Attractive to Seay is easy to get, makes them look/ee! to get, makes them look/fee! better oy better or does not deviate much does not deviate much from the general from the general norm/status quo normstatus Quo Hyped or advertised (usually by | Result Endures with or without publicity media), that is, if the hype stops then it also starts to disappear (e.g. clothing fads in relation to fashion, movies in relation to entertainment industry) Caters to and accepted by a limited | Scope Caters to and accepted by a wide audience group of people or a large group of consumers | No clearly established support Support Supported by a number of fads, existing trends, and prevalent socioeconomic, political, and religio-cultural factors, among others Persists only for a short period of time | Sustainability | Can be sustained for a long period (usually (weeks to around a few months) years) {Limited to the areas it relates to Value Extensive even as far as areas not directly related to it (e.g., implications of market trends affect, aside from businesses and the economy, areas such as education, health, environment, government policy, and technology, to name a few) From the table above, there are at least six elements shared by fads and trends, namely, appeal, result, scope, support, sustainability, and value. However, these elements are different in some aspects. Appeal This refers to the degree of attraction that a fad or a trend causes on people. Both fads and trends are attractive to people, This is not extraordinary because trends, on m. arise from fads. Result This Pertains to the impact of a fad or at rend. Impact refes to the ability of a fad or a rend ta Produce a sustainable movement or change. In the case of fads, the impact is usually overstated any occasions, and merely hyped by the media, Without the publicity, people tend to forger about it and it dies a natural death. On the other hand, trends continue for a long period with or without the aid of advertisements. As a matter of fact, trends do not require publicity ro exist (e.g., economic trends, educational trends, ete.) as compared © fads, which are dependent on marketing. Scope This indicates the extent of che influen® of a fad or a trend. A fad has a limited s6oP* Which means chat it is only accepted by a si Broup of people. For example used t0 be popular among Years ago; bur its popul ; the years. Other examples are the hula-hoo? and the Rubik's cube that gained popula ¥ Go Trendingfor a while and then the craze died down. Meanwhile, the influence of a trend is far- reaching. For instance, the iPhone trend started. by Apple has widespread ramifications in the smartphone industry all over the world. Hence, many people in many parts of the world camp out outside of malls and boutiques selling iPhone products whenever a new model of iPhone is released. Support Support refers to the structure that enables a fad or a trend to be sustainable. With regard to fads, the support is almost inexistent and it is unclear how the support, if any, was established. Fads usually catch us by surprise since we do not know how they suddenly became as popular as, they are. Consequently, since fads do not have a formidable support system, they disappear almost as fast as they appeared. As regards trends, it is relatively easy to determine how they came to exist. There are traces of their origins and how they are sustained can be clearly defined. As a result, efforts can be conducted to bolster the longevity of a desired trend. Sustainability This refers to the length of time that a fad or a trend can continue to exist. For fads, sustainability is relatively brief. This means that a fad may persist for a few weeks up to a few months but it does not go for as long as a year. For trends, the length of their existence is usually measured in months and years. For example, the ‘Wattpad craze—the online platform that allows users to write and publish original stories on the Internet that can be accessed and read by other uusers—did not last very long, and no one knows until when the sacialserye, which was began and popularized by the Kath and Vince story that is gaining traction today, will last. However, the trend of romance story consumption from online sources persists despite the changes in how itis delivered to the audience. Value This pertains to the utility or usefulness that can be derived from a fad or a trend. In the case of a fad, the utility is limited only to areas where it is directly related. For instance, clothing fads are only valuable to the fashion and clothing manufacturing industries while film fads are only valuable to the cinema and entertainment industries. On the other hand, trends are useful to different areas which may or may not be related to the trend, For instance, fashion trends may be valuable to education, such as fashion design, modelling, and cosmetology; particularly in courses like religion, in terms of what or what not to wear in places of worship; technology, in terms of innovations in clothing production; business, for example, in the areas of marketing and retail; and environment, such as materials used for clothing production and the environmental impact of their consumption; among others. You may be able to differentiate between a trend and a fad depending on their characteristics in relation to their shared elements. You can also identify a trend from a fad based on reactions. A reaction, of course, has to satisfy all of the characteristics of a trend to be considered a trend. If it does not, then it is not a trend, but a fad. How do we recognize that a trend is starting to emerge? The capacity’ to identify emerging trends is rooted in our capacity to recognize patterns. This, of course, lies in the internal workings of the human mind, which are manifested in our mental operations. From our childhood, we have been encountering patterns in the world and are able to adapt (0 the world by using them. Our encounter with patterns was facilitated by expetience and processed by the mind through abstraction and generalization. According to the philosopher John Locke, there are no innate ideas. All of the ideas chat we have are derived from experience and that LESSON 1+ Undersaning'Tends 77every complex idea that we have in our mind cam he traced back to a simple idea. Experience, for Locke, is comprised of sensation and reflection. In the perception phase, the mind is a passive receiver that merely collects simple ideas. In the reflection phase, the mind becomes active and processes the simple ideas through abstraction. Abstraction is the process of focusing on a particular aspect of these ideas while disregarding, ‘others. The result is an abstracted concept, which is basically a generalization based on the similar aspects among all of them. Take white sugar, for example, There are different kinds of sugar but we only ascribe the general term white sugar to the kind of sugar that is white because in many instances, we have seen sugar that is colored white. Thus, all white sugar is white. Locke points out that all active mental processes such as analyzing, criticizing, evaluating, judging, and so forth, form part of the reflection phase of experience. As we grow older, we become better in recognizing patterns using our senses. For this reason, we can recognize them in music, texture, conversations, behavior, and so forth. According to Duin and Pekalska (2007), pattern recognition is characterized by three stages, namely, representation, generalization and evaluation. Adaptation, which serves as an intermediary stage, is also involved in the process. Representation. Réal world objects have to be represented in a formal way in order to be analyzed and compared... Moreover, the observations derived from the [senses] or other fortnal representations have ta be integrated with the existing, explicitly formulated knowledge either on the objects themselves or on the class they may belong to. The issue of Tepresentation ts an essential aspect of * Duin, Robert PW. and Pekalska, Elzbieta: “The Science {n Computational intelligence Vel. 63,2007, Rteanent ene ecoaTition: Achievements and Perspectives” pattern recognition and is diferent toy, classification. It largely influences re success of the stages to come. Adaptation. It is” an intermediate stage between representation ang generalization, in which representations, learning methodology or problem statement are adapted or extended in order to enhance the final recognition... may reduce or simplify the representation, or it may enrich it by emphasizing particular aspects, eg. by @ nonlinear transformation of features that simplifies the next stage. Background knowledge may appropriately be (re)formulated and incorporated into a. representation. It needed, additional representations may be considered to reflect other aspects of the: problem. Exploratory data analysis (unsupervised learning) may be used to guide the choice of suitable learning strategies. Generalization or Inference. |n_ this ‘stage we learn a concept from a training set, the set of known and appropriately represented examples, in such a way that predictions can be made on some unknown properties of new examples. We either generalize towards a concept orinfer a set of general rules that describe the qualities of the training data. The most ‘common property is the class or pattern it ‘Belongs to, which is the above mentioned Classification task. Evaluation. In this stage we estimate how our [pattern recognition process) performs.on known training and validation data... f the results are unsatislacto¥! then the previous steps have 10 PF reconsidered? suds oFg/10,1007/978-3-540-71984-7_10 B UNIT D+ Hadveg Tending: Understanding Tends and How They Go Tend ey Go TrendingThese stages were culled from observations and generalizations of pattern recognition behaviors in nature and are being used to come up with pattern recognition systems that may be helpful co human beings in the long run. A simpler discussion of these stages will help you understand them better. Representation. When we look at objects in the world, we picture them in our minds. When a person says, for example, that “sunsets are beautiful,” he or she has a mental image of a sunset in mind. In this sense, the objects in the world are represented in the mind. This docs not mean that a duplicate of the object in the world exists in the mind. What exists in the mind are “forms” or ideas of the objects in the world. This is what is meant by “representing in a formal way.” Moreover, objects that are represented in the mind accumulate over time and more recent representations integrate themselves with previously existing representations. Thus, our observations of different kinds of chairs, such as armchair, rocking chair, bench, stool, and so on, when represented in the mind, are integrated with one another, which form the concept of “chair.” Adaptation. This stage links representation with generalization or inference. At this stage, the representations are processed for the mind so it can make generalizations or inferences out of the available representations. The representations are cither simplified or enhanced to make analysis and comparison easier. Previously existing knowledge may play a role at this stage since it may serve as guide in simplifying or enhancing representations. Generalization or Inference. At this stage, the mind abstracts the general idea from a pool of existing representations. You have learned this in the earlier discussion on Locke. Hence, for instance, the idea of “chait” is a generalization from a pool of representations of chairs. During the adaptation stage, the idea of chair as “a tool whose primary function is to be sat on” is highlighted, which leads to the abstracted concept of “chair.” Thus, a bench, a stool, an armchair, a rocking chair, and a couch, to name a few, though they may look different from one another, are all generally referred ta as chair since their primary function is to be sat on. This function of the chair is its “essential property” This also applies to rules and norms. For example, that “killing is wrong” is a generalization of the wrongness of killing from many instances wherein killing is committed such as war, murder, genocide, and abortion, among others. Evaluation. This stage is meant to test if a person is adept in pattern recognition. This is important because this can determine whether 4 person is capable of learning new knowledge cr not. In terms of human pattern recognition processes, evaluation can be done through the assessment of one’s abstract reasoning skills. Our ability to recognize patterns also relates to our ability to identify relationships and cause and effects. Another philosopher, Wittgenstein, argued that not everything in the world has an essential property that can be abstracted to form general concepts. An essential property is the characteristic or function that is common amongall the objects clasified under a particular concept. For example, humans, cats, and dogs are all mammals because they have mammary glands. Thus, the essential property of a mammal is “animal with mammary glands” Only by having this essential property can one be called amammal. Wittgenstein claimed, however, that many of the things that we encounter in the world are characterized not by essential properties, but by family resemblance. Simply put, whereas an essential property is a common set of traits for functions that makes a concept a species of another concept, family resemblance refers t0 relationships that exist between concepts that may not necessarily have an essential property. For instance, a circle is a set of points equidistant LESSON 1+ Understanding Tiendsto the center. The essential property of a circle is that it has “a set of points equidistant to the center.” This means that all circles need to have this essential property for them to be classified as acitcle, Meanwhile, family resemblance does not rely on this but on the connectedness between concepts through overlapping relationships, notwithstanding how obvious or remote these relationships may be. An example is the concept “family.” What is the essential property of "family"? Are all families comprised of father, mother, and children? A family is characterized by relationships. A friend or a community such as the Church that a person belongs to can also be referred to as family because of the relationship that exists between its members. However, are all relationships called “family”? Obviously, not. Thus, even relationship is not an essential property of the concept “family.” Wittgenstein used the concept of games as an example of a concept that is characterized by family resemblance. Can you find anything common (essential property) among all the games chat exist and have existed that make them fall under the category of games? Meanwhile, regarding cause and effect, it appears that many of the things that we experience in the world are characterized by cause and effect. This is also crucial for us in identifying patterns. ‘When I throw a tennis ball against the wall, ir will bounce back towards the direction relative to my angle. This means that my throwing of the ball against the wall caused the effect of it bouncing, from the wall towards a particular direction. Interestingly, cause and effect can be useful in tecognizing parterns. An increase in the price of oil is usually followed by an increase in the pg of essential commodities; a significant dena’ 4 ease the price of oil is also followed by a decreay in the price of commodities. Thus, changes in oj prices cause changes in the prices of commodity as their effect. From this, we can infer that the pattern or trend is: high oil prices = high prices of commodities, whereas low oil prices = low prices of commodities. This relationship between cause and effect and the emergence of trends or patterns have proven to be very useful to us on many occasions. However, more interestingly still, the philosopher David Hume asserced that there is no necessary connection between cause and effect. He stated that what we see isthe cause and the effect in cwo different instances but we do not see how one led to the other. He argued that the mind relates a cause to an effect without the need to establish such connection. In this sense, does my throwing of the ball against the wall really caused ic to bounce back? How sure cam I be that in every instance of my throwing the ball against che wall, ic will always bounce back every time? If this is the case, how do you think’can this affect our ability co identify the emergence of trends? ‘Apart from the seeming nature ofthe worl to be organized in particular patterns that enable us to see and analyze to identify emerging ea there are other external factors chat influends such emergence. These factors also play # “ role in the promotion and endurance of tr These factors are democratic intervention’ information and communication wechnolOt and mass media. These will be discussed ™* fully in the succeeding lessons. UNTT i + Fashuag Trending: Understand 10 acbeag Trending: Understandug Trends and flow They Go TreadingSUMMARY A trend is a movement or behavior geared towards a certain direction while 2 fad is something that people are highly interested in for a relatively short period of time. Furthermore, a trend also implies change. On the other hand, a fad does not undergo change in the same way a trend does. A fad comes and goes. The most change that can happen is ifa fad becomes a trend. Nonetheless, both fad and trend are reactions to stimuli ‘The clements of a trend and fad are appeal, result, scope, support, sustainabilicy, and value. Although they have these same elements, the characteristics of these elements differ wich respect to a fad and a trend. Depending on these characteristics, we can determine whether a reaction is a fad or a trend. A reaction has to satisfy all of the characteristics of a trend if it isto be considered a trend or otherwise. Identifying the emergence of trends is characterized by our ability to recognize patterns. t The process of pattern recognition is characterized by three stages, namely, representation, generalization, and evaluation, while adaptation is considered as an intermediary stage | between representation and generalization. LEARNING REINFORCEMENT EXERCISE In this exercise, the class will be divided into five groups. Each group will be randomly assigned a specific area by drawing of lors. The areas are fashion, movies, music, games, and gadgets. Each group will identify the fads and trends in their respective areas during the decades, 1950s, 1960s, 1970s, 1980s, 1990s, 2000s, and 2010s. Then, based on the information they have gathered, they will present the possible fads and trends that will emerge in the 2020s. Each group will prepare a comprehensive PowerPoint presentation of their findings (complete with photos and descriptions) and report them to the class. LESSON 1+ Undewnding Tent 11Democratic Intervention, he first of the three influences on the emergence of trends is democracy. Demy, | effectively inhibits many of the roadblocks to the progression of trends such the unregulated intervention of the government and the Church, Inthe falls sections, you will be introduced to the notion of democracy as well as other forms of governmer’ Objectives Ar the end of this lesson, you are expected to 1. understand what democracy is by identifying its elements and typology, 2. demonstrate awareness of the difference between democracy and other forms of government through comparative analysis, and describe the relationship between the emergence and progression of trends ani democracy. 3. = sallés Introductory Reading Bigeurian 14 UNIT 1+ Hashtag Trending: Us Understanding 1 “anding Trends and How They Go TrendingThe concept of democracy can be artributed to the ancient Greeks berween 500 to 400 B.C. The term came from the Greek words demos, which means “the people” and kratein, which means “to rule.” Thus, democracy literally means “rule by the people.” It is important to note that originally, democracy was not perceived to be the “best” form of government. The Greek philosopher, Plato, argued that democracy - having popularity as its criterion — has the tendency to result in tyranny while his student, Aristotle, claimed that democracy is one of the three acceptable degenerate forms of government. It was only during the Enlightenment period that the perception on democracy transformed to have a positive tone. Today, many countries, including the Philippines, have adopted the democratic form of government. The United States, for instance, waged a number of wars under the banner of democracy. In the following discussions, you will be introduced to the concept of democracy as well as its various aspects, Divide the class into four to five groups. Each group should have a facilitator and a scribe. On a piece of paper, each member must write down a question regarding the comic strip that was read. Once all of the members have written down their questions, each question will be read out for all of the members to hear. Every member of your group will then vote on which question he or she wants to answer. The question that garnered the most votes will be answered first, followed by the question that got the second highest number of votes, then the third, and so on. Each member will be given a chance to answer the question. Once all of the groups have finished answering their respective questions, the scribes will report in front of the class what their respective groups have discussed. Elements of Modern Democracy Modern-day democracy, as practiced in many countries all over the world, is comprised of six fundamental elements, namely, rule of law, separation of powers, basic rights and freedoms, suffrage, freedom of speech, and pluralism. Rule of law The rule of law is the heart of any democratic government, The remaining five fundamental elements of democracy are derived from this core clement. The rule of law ensures that the rights and freedoms of citizens are protected and that “no one is above the law.” In this sense, all citizens stand as equals in the eyes of the law. Separation of powers Since the rule of law safeguards equality within the State, it only follows that powers should be distributed within the government and make provisions for checks and balances so as to curb the tendency for democracy to regress into dictatorship. In this light, the three separate powers of a democratic government are the executive, the legislative, and the judiciary. LESSON 2+ Democratic Inreventions 15> The executive power is responsible for the implementation of laws. > The legislative power is responsible for the creation of laws. » The judiciary is responsible for the interpretation of laws Ik is also worth mentioning that democratic governments can be patterned after wo different systems ~ presidential and parliamentary — or a combination of both. a. Presidential System In a Presidential system, the citizens lect a President who serves as the head of state and of government. The legislative power is distinct from the executive powersince the people also elect members of the Legislature. ‘The Legislature passes bills that the President signs into law, approves the national budget, and decides on national policies, among others, Meanwhile, some of the functions of the Executive include ensuring that laws and policies are enforced, acting as the Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces, and collaborating with other heads of government for international peace and stability. The Philippines is an example of a nation that subscribes to the Presidential system, b. Parliamentary System In a Parliamentary system, the citizens elect. the members of the Parliament. The pany that wins the majority seat in the Parliament elects the Prime Miniscer from among themselves, The Prime Minister serves as the head of goverment and is distinct from the head of state, For instance, in England, the Monarch serves as the h veal of state while the Prine Minister is the head 16 of the governmer The head of say only has ceremos al Functions white gh, head of the government presides aye the Parliament in making, impons, administrative decisions, & Mixed System Some na ons employ a mixed system that draws the best features of both the Presidential system and the Parliamentary system. It may also be referred to as a Semi-Presidential System. Ina mixed system, the citizens elect a President that does not only have ceremonial functions but shares powers executive with the Prime Minister. For instance, the President is responsible for the appointment of members of the Cabinet. The Prime Minister, on the other hand, aside from his or her executive functions, also works with. the Cabinet, Both the President and the Prime Minster are responsible for legislature. Examples of nations that employ the mixed system are France and Russia, Basic rights and freedoms Another implication of the rule of law is the acknowledgment of the fact that. citizens have basic rights and freedoms. These rights i" be broadly categorized into human rights, cil rights, and political rights. Examples of hua" rights include the right to life, the right «0 b Secure in one’s person, and the right ro live free: Civil rights include the right to own prope” and the right to enjoy the privileges accorded © a citizen of a particular country. Political 58° inelude the right to run for elective office the Fight to suffrage. Meanwhile, some of &* basic freedoms recognized by the rule of law #* freedoms of speech, warship, and associatio™ UNIT 2+ Hashing Trending: odoinn Trends and 1 Th low They Go TreadingSuffrage Derived from the civil and political rights of the citizens, as recognized under the rule of law, is the right to suffrage. The right to suffrage means that every citizen, within the recognized legal age, has the right to participate in elections by casting a vote. Since democracy is the rule of the people, it implies that the people should be the ones to choose the leaders of the State. This tight expressly underscores the equality of the citizens in the eyes of the law since every citizen, regardless of sex, religion, political affiliation, educational attainment, and _ socioeconomic status is entitled to cast only a single vote. Freedom of speech As one of the freedoms acknowledged under the rule of law, freedom of speech ensures that the citizens are able to voice out their agreement, disagreement, affirmations, criticisms, and proposals to their government. Highlighting the notion of rule of the people in a democracy, freedom of speech shows that it is still the people who decide what happens within the State and how they want to be led. The government's function is to make sure that the decisions of the people are enacted and implemented. Concurrent to the freedom of speech is the freedom of the press. Information is crucial for the citizens to formulate well-informed opinions and the mass media is the fastest and most effective way to disseminate information. The press also serves as a means for those who are in government to speedily communicate with the general public and vice-versa. However, in the Philippines, one of the impediments to fully realizing these freedoms is the existence of libel. Libel is a crime broadly characterized by maliciously publishing an article or write-up that may be detrimental to a person's character or may cause dishonor. In more progressive countries, libel is no longer recognized as a crime since it obstructs the freedom of speech. Another difficulty is the alarming rate of media killings and abduction of press people in the country. Pluralism Genuine democracy is characterized by pluralism. Since the rule of law recognizes the basic rights and freedoms of citizens, this entails that the people are entitled to diverse beliefs and opinions, which may result in them becoming part of different organizations with varying thrusts and advocacies. Pluralism within the State may be indicated by the presence of different religions, political groups, and associations. In the government, the uninhibited presence of ‘two camps ~ administration and opposition — is indicative of pluralism. ‘Types of Democracy Direct Democracy Direct democracy is also referred to as pure democracy. In a direct democracy, the citizens come together to decide on issues or pass laws through a vote. This may be considered as the ideal democracy since every person is able to participate in the voting process and it ensures that the will of the people is really followed. The advantage of a direct democracy is that each citizen has a voice in making important decisions for the community. On the other hand, the disadvantage is the difficulty to implement this in societies with huge populations because of the amount of time needed just to gather each citizen's vote and opinion on issues. Direct democracy is currently practiced in the Cantons of Switzerland, In the Philippines, the only trace of direct democracy can be found in the provisions of the Constitution on “initiative and referendum.” LESSON 2+ Democratic rnerventions ‘177Indirect Democracy An indirect democracy is also called representative democracy. In an_ indirect democracy, such as in the Philippines, the people elect leaders to act as their representatives in the government. During elections, the citizens vote for members of the executive and the legislative branches at the same time, The elected officials, who “represent” the will of the citizens, are The advantage of an indirect democr is that ic is relatively easier to decide on ina pass laws and carry out their implementati as compared 10 a ditect democracy, especialy when there are numerous policy areas to dec, on, apart from the size of the population However, the disadvantage is that itis yer difficult for representatives to consider the will of every citizen, hence, they must reson to intelligent guesses to decide what they think responsible for passing laws and implementing their constituents need. them. The term “democracy” means “rule by the people.” Modern democracy has six fundamental elements, namely, rule of law, separation of powers, basic rights and freedoms, suffrage, freedom of speech, and pluralism. Democracy can either be direct ot indirect. In a direct democracy, the citizens gather together to debate and vote on issues concerning the State while in an indirect democracy, the citizens elect representatives in the government Instead of the citizens directly participating in debates to decide on issues concerning the State, the elected representatives themselves assume this function LEARNING REINFORCEMENT EXERCISE The members of your class will sit as the members of Congress for a newly-founded nation. As a member of Congress, what law will you propose that you think will help your nation achieve progress? In this exercise, you are to propose a bill that will help your nation prosper in the long run. You will be given a few minutes to present your bill and argue why your bill should be approved. After your presentation, your classmates, as members of the Congress, will be given opportunities to argue against the points thar you have raised. Once all the argumen® are exhausted, the bill that you are proposing will be put to a vate, A majotity vote (50 percent + | ofall the members in attendance) is required to pass your bill. This proce shall be repeated until everyone is given a chance co propose a bill. 1B ONT Hasttag ‘Trending Unders, nding Trends and How They Go TrendingThe People As previously pointed out, democracy is cetymologically defined as “rule by the people,” thus, the concept of “people” is central in any discussion of democracy. The question before us is, “Who are the people or what does the phrase the people mean in the definition of democracy as rule by the people?” Obviously, “the people” here does not refer to just a single group of individuals making up an ethnolinguistic group, a political party or a religious group, but to a collective group of individuals with varying political and religious beliefs who freely decided to live together in a particular geographical area and mutually consented to form a democratic nation. We may simply refer to this group of people as citizens of a nation that are regarded as equals. However, not all citizens have the same interests. And with respect to interests, there is the majority and there is the minority. In a democracy where issues are decided through a voting process, if the vote of the majority puts the minority ata disadvantage, can this still be called a rule by the people? Is the majority the people? Hopefully this is not the case, otherwise, democracy will just be a fancy term for mob-rule. How about in the case of individuals in lective office? Suppose that after being elected to become the peoples representative, an elected official proceeds to do what he or she wants with turter disregard for what his or her constituents want, is it still a rule by the people since they were the ones who conferred on the official the authority to decide and act on their behalf? When former President Benigno Aquino, III turned down various bills that aim to lower the income tax rates in the country during the last quarter of 2015 to the dismay of many Filipinos, was it rule by the people? Equality Another dimension of democracy is equality. But are we really equal? Some people are born healthier than others, while others are born with different kinds of sickness. Some are born into wealthy families, while others are born into poor ones. Some are born naturally smart or beautiful or athletic, while others have to exert a lot of effort to develop themselves to be at par with those with natural talents. If we are equal, then why do our laws try so hard to put up a system where all of us may be treated as equals? Yes, we are equals in the eyes of the law (moral equality), not necessarily because we are naturally equal in every respect, but because we have to be placed in a status of equality so that we may be governed fairly and receive the equal protection of the laws (legal equality). Thus, equality is vital for democracy. However, what is equality? The principle of equality in a democracy can be interpreted as the people of a democratic nation having an equal right to rule and an equal right to vote (political equality). This is expressly stated in Article V, Section 1 of the 1987 Philippine Constitution, which states that “Suffrage may be exercised by all citizens of the Philippines not otherwise disqualified by law.. Furthermore, equality can also be understood as sovereignty being founded on the people. The Preamble of our Constitution begins with the words, “We, the sovereign Filipino people.” which means that all of us are giving the right, power and authority to the State, through the Constitution, to govern us and our affairs as a nation. It does not say, “We, the richest among the Filipinos...” or “We, the members of the labor force...” that is the source of the sovereign power of the State. This is why during elections, which is supposedly the most democratic exercise in a democracy, each citizen who is eligible to vore is given only one vote as a sign that each of us has an equal right before the law. LESSON 2+ Democratic Tnveventions 241In addition, equality may also be construed in terms of accountability. Being elected or appointed to fill a government post does Rot mean that officials are in a superior status compared to ordinary citizens. Hence, democratic governments are organized in such a way that there will be checks and balances among different branches of the government to ensure that they do not abuse the power entrusted to them by the people. In this sense, government officials are accountable to the citizens for their actions especially those that harm the common good, In this light, if, for instance, we are a family of thrce and you are a family of eight, and the government gives each of us a bag of relief goods containing one kilo of rice, two packs of noodles, one liter of bottled water, and two cans of sardines after both our families suffered a natural calamity, would this be equality? Or for instance, when senior citizens, persons with disabilities (PWD), and pregnant women are being Prioritized in the cashier lanes of supermarkets or have dedicated seats in buses and trains, are these practices of equality? Or the fact that there are laws that deal with violence against women committed by men whereas there is none that concerns violence against men committed by ‘women, is this equality in a democracy? Common Good Ensuring that the common good is always upheld is a very important task of any democratic government. But, what does common good mean in a democracy? Since sovereignty belongs to the People, the government, then, is by the people and for the people. Thus, elected officials are, in effect, servants ofthe people. In this regard, every action done by these public servants, in relation to their respective offices, should be done for the welfare of the people and not for personal #5 nor only for the benefit of a particular ince, a8 pointed out earlier, what may 22 UNIT - Hashing trending be good for the many may be bad forthe, is, therefore, the responsibility ofthe legs any democratic government to ensure thay 5 ae are safeguards that will protect the minosny being overwhelmed, overpowered. or bullet the majority just because they have the number Furthermore, since the common good spec, of what is good for “the people,” this inevnahy, raises various questions. If for instance, 1 ng, superhighway will be constructed to ease te traffic in EDSA, which is in Metro Manila how is this beneficial ro those Filipinos living i Sulu or in Tawi-Tawi? Does this contribute the common good or only to the good of those who are passing through EDSA? Obviously this is only beneficial to the well-being of those who use EDSA. If this is the case, do laws passed and projects endorsed by our representatives in the government that only benefit a particular Province, region, or group of people result in the common good? To answer this question, we must first be able co determine whether the common good is aggregate or non-aggregate. By aggregate, this means that the common good is the combined well-being of all the members of the group, whereas non-aggregate refers «0 what is good for the group regardless of the individual well-being of its members. If | am a member of a basketball team and I have © save the ball from going out of bounds or else my team would lose possession of the ball T would risk diving for the ball and possibly injure myself in the process for the good o! my team, In this case, my personal well-beins as well as that of my other team members # only second to the well-being of the ta This is an example of a common good bein Bon-aggregate. Meanwhile, my being health! fit, athletic, and well-trained contributes © my personal well-being in playité basketball. The same is true with respect : my teammates and their personal well-beir Thus, our individual well-being, wher © Vnderstanding Trends anit How They Go Trendingtogether, contributes to the well-being of the whole team during the game. This, on the other hand, is what is meant by common good being aggregate. In this light, is common good aggregate or non-aggregate? Or is it, perhaps, a combination of both? If ic is aggregate, then how do we account for those laws or projects that benefit a specific region or group of people but do not benefit other regions or other groups of people? Does this violate the principle of equality of democracy? Meanwhile, if it is non-aggregate, does it mean that it does not matter if some sectors are worse off while others are better off or some regions are progressive while other regions are left behind as long as the State is experiencing progress? However, if it is a combination of both, when should the common good be considered aggregate or non-aggregate? Take the case of our claims in the West Philippine Sea, for instance. Our relationship with China is strained. Tension in the West Philippine Sea is high and there is a risk that this could start a war. How do the policies and actions of our lected representatives, in this case, contribute to our common good? Representation Representation is another key dimension in a democracy. Whether in a direct democracy wherein citizens represent themselves or in an indirect. democracy wherein representatives are elected, the concept of representation is at work. Theoretically, representatives are the ones who are authorized co take the appropriate and necessary actions within the government that ‘would be beneficial for the common good of the people. Nonetheless, in today’s practice, how does representation work in a democracy? On the one hand, aspiring representatives imay present platforms during campaigns while the voting public selects which platforms they want to be implemented and who they want to implement them. Once elected, the chosen representatives are expected to act on their platforms. On the other hand, aspiring representatives can also opt co choose platforms that will most likely help them be re-elected for another term since voters have the tendency to exact payback from representatives who did not serve them well by not voting for them when they run for re-election. However, in both cases, representation is problematic since: 1) elected representatives have minds of their own; and 2) there is relatively little information for citizens to use in evaluating the performance of their representatives. ‘The citizens do not have control over their elected representatives, who can either keep their promises or do a lot of other things but serve the people who put them in power. In addition, these representatives are able to do many things that the citizens do not know and cannot continuously monitor. Thus, the people cannot objectively determine whether or not their elected representatives are actually doing what they are supposed to do or just putting up appearances to make the public believe thar they are doing their job. Another problem is the lack of alternatives to choose from, which is very apparent in the Philippines. Oftentimes, members of the same political families run for different positions in the government during elections. Oftentimes, too, these people are elected, especially in local governments, because there are no other candidates to choose from. Although it may appear remarkable that a candidate is gunning for an uncontested post, it is actually a bad sign for democracy. It may be the case that no one challenges the candidate because doing so might pur the challenger’ life at risk, Instances of clection-related violence in the country are numerous. It may also be the case that the candidate or the candidate's family has a wide influence over the voting public in their area and anyone not endorsed by the candidate LESSON 2+ Democratic nerventions 23,has a slim chance at winning the elections. Os, it is also possible thar nobody else, apart from the candidate, has the resources to mount 2 campaign. Or perhaps, the citizens are simply apathetic vo even consider making an effort to run against the candidate in order to render their own, We may also be “forced toe, particular representative because we dy * have any other alternatives t0 choose fry the postion has to be filled. Ultimately, yet proper safeguards ae established, the people be ata disadvantage. service to others. In light of these, we can say that representation, although a very important dimension of democracy, cannot be guaranteed by democracy. We may elect representatives who will nor represent our interests but would pursue Given everything that were discussed and th questions that were raised, do you still van de Philippines to continue with a democratic fone of government? Or are you willing to consde other, maybe better, options? An array of choicy is in store for you in the next section. The four basic dimensions of democracy are the people, equality, common good, and representation. The people are the source of the sovereign power of the State and the ones who rule in a democracy. Equality is the underlying principle that makes it possible for the people to be the source of sovereignty by the State because the people, as a whole, freely and willingly allow che State, through the Constitution, to govern them and decide on their behalf in the context of a democratic government that the people mutually consented to establish Meanwhile, the common good is that which a democracy always tries to achieve. This refers not only to the good of the majority, but ro the collective good of the people. Finally, representation is the freedom of participating citizens to represent themselves or elect their representatives, who will decide and act for the interest and benefit of the common good of the people. LEARNING REINFORCEMENT EXERCISE In this exercise, the class will be divided into four groups. Each member of the grOUP will wrice down one specific practice in the Philippines that does not respect or abide by each dimension of democracy. Once this is done, each member of the group will share what he or she wrote. Similar examples will be gathered together. The example which was pointed our the most will be discussed first followed by the second most cited and so forth. During the discussion, che members will give their opinions on how they think the example at hand could be resolved. Once all the groups have finished, representatives from each group will give a surnmary of what their respective groups have discussed in front of the class- 24, UNIT 1+ Heshag trending: Undeetntig Tends and How They Go TendingLet us begin our discussion on democracy and the different forms of government by looking at these types of government from the position of anarchy. Anarchy is a state of affairs wherein no existing government in a group, organization, or nation takes charge in implementing laws and administering the affairs of its members. From the point of view of anarchy, governments may be identified depending on whom the power to rule resides or the criteria for selecting those who are fit to rule. Listed below are 18 different forms of government. Aristocracy Aristocracy is a form of government wherein the people are ruled by members of the nobility or those who belong to the upper class of society. These rulers who come from “high families” are the wealthy and educated members of society. The ancient Greek philosopher Plato, in the Republic, perceived aristocracy as a rule of the best that will look out for the best interest of society. This is the kind of government that he was developing for his ideal polis. He considered other forms of government as degenerate forms of aristocracy, the latter being the degenerate form of the former. These are timocracy whose criterion for selection of leaders is being honorable; oligarchy whose criterion is wealth; democracy whose criterion is popularity; and ‘pranny whose criterion is power, in that order. Capitalism Capitalism is a form of government wherein the people are allowed to own properties or businesses for purposes of profit insofar as these owners pay taxes to the government, The United States is an example of a capitalist nation. Communism Communism is a form of government wherein the idea is to arrive at a classless society through the equal sharing of goods by the people. In a communist government, private ownership of capital or property is prohibited and the affairs of the State are governed by a single ruling party. The People’s Republic of China is an example of a communist government. Constitutional Monarchy Constitutional monarchy is a form of government wherein a democratic government exists side by side with a monarchy and the responsibilities in ruling are divided between ‘two heads. The United Kingdom is an example of a constitutional monarchy where the Prime Minister of the Parliament serves as the Head of Government while the Monarch serves as the Head of State. Democracy Democracy is a form of government wherein the power to rule resides in the people. Plato considered democracy as a degraded version of oligarchy. Meanwhile, for Aristotle, among the three degenerate forms of government, namely, democracy, oligarchy and tyranny, democracy is the most tolerable, Many countries around the world today have adopted a democratic form of government, including the Philippines. Despotism Despotism is a form of government wherein the people are governed by a single individual who treats the people as slaves. Ivan the Terrible, the first czar of Russia, can be considered a despot. LESSON 2+ Democratic Interventions 277Dictatorship Dictatorship is a form of government wherein the people are governed by an individual who has absolute governing power and assumes the roles of the three branches of the government—executive, legislative, and judiciary. Nazi Germany under Adolf Hitler is an example of a dictatorship. s a form of government wherein the governing power is shared between a central government and a group of regional or local governments. The United States is an example of federalism. Monarchy ‘Monarchy is a form of government wherein the people are ruled by a Monarch (a King or a Queen) and this power to rule is passed on as an inheritance to the Monarch’s children (an heir apparent who will succeed the reigning monarch once he or she dies or abdicates). A monarch who has managed to expand one’s kingdom to an empire is called emperor or empress. For Aristotle, monarchy is one of the three acceptable forms of government, the other two being aristocracy and polity. Versions of monarchy are emirates and sultanates, which apply to Islamic societies such as the United Arab Emirates and the Sultanate of Brunei, respectively. Oligarchy Oligarchy is a form of government wherein the people are ruled by a few people. These few may be wealthy or powerful, thus having the power to rule. Oftentimes, oligarchs may share the same interests or even be relatives. Plato considered oligarchy as a distorted form of timocracy while Aristotle regarded it as a perverted form of aristocracy. 28 unm. Regional or Local ‘A regional or local government is 4 of government wherein people in 4 sym locale are ruled by a small group of hea whose ruling power is only limited with confines of the locales they serve. A county have several regional or local goveznmeny these governments are overseen by the cen, government of the country. Republic A republic is a form of government wherein the people are not ruled by a monarch but by an elected president, in most cases. The government of the Philippines is an example of a republic Revolutionary A revolutionary government results from a situation wherein the existing government is forcibly overthrown by revolutionary forces Aguinaldo’s government can be considered a revolutionary. Socialism Socialism is a form of government whertin businesses that are involved in the production and distribution of goods and basic utilities such as electricity and water are administered by the government and not by capitalists. In a socialist government, the proletariat or laborers are the ones who hold the power to rule because 4) control production. Socialism is also regarded as dictatorship of the proletariat and can © @ transitional bridge leading to communi according to Marx. What used to be the So" Union is an example of socialism. Timocracy i Timocracy is a form of government whe leadersare chosen on the basis of being horn, Solon introduced this form of governme™ Athens at around 6th century B.C. eshuag Trending: Understanding Trends and How They Go TrendingTotalitarian A. coralitarian government is a form of government wherein only a single political party is recognized. The party controls the affaits of the state and imposes limits on the citizens in terms of what they should believe, the values they should uphold, and the attitudes they should expouse among others. The People's Republic of China is an example of a totalitarian government Transitional A transitional government exists when a country is undergoing transition from one form of government to another, Tyranny ‘Tyranny is a form of government wherein the people are ruled by a wealthy person who wields the power to rule by overthrowing those RU Ae who are in power through means hac are nor prescribed by Law. It is important to note that tyrants are not necessarily ruthless and may, in fact, be helpful and consid The anclenr who were considered good, such as Peisistratos of Athens ‘These are just some of the forms of ate of the people, reeks saw a number of tyrants government and there are others that are not included in this list, You may observe that in the Philippines, the government that we have is a combination of various forms, such as democracy, capitalisin, regional o local, and republic. This goes without saying that these forms of governments may be mixed and matched to suit the needs and desires of the people to be governed. Thus, itis important for you, as future leaders of our nation, to understand these forms of government to be able to decide if our existing government setup is really the type that we need. “There are at least 18 different forms of government that may be identified based on whom the power to rule resides or the criteria for selecting those who are fit to rule. They are as follows: 1. Aristocracy Capitalism . Communism |. Constitutional Monarchy Democracy Despotism Dictatorship 3. Federalism Monarchy 10, Oligarchy 11, Regional or Local 12. Republic 13. Revolutionary 14, Socialism 15. Timocracy 16. Totalitarian 17. Transitional 18, Tyranny LESSON 2+ Democratic Interventions 29)