N
Natural Resources-Based
Activated Carbon Synthesis
Meroda Tesfaye Gari1, Belete Tessema Asfaw2,
Senthil Kumar Arumugasamy3, Lata Deso Abo2
and Mani Jayakumar2
1
College of Biological and Chemical
Engineering, Department of Chemical
Engineering, Addis Ababa Science and
Technology University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
2
Department of Chemical Engineering, Haramaya
Institute of Technology, Haramaya University,
Dire Dawa, Ethiopia
3
Department of Chemical and Environmental
Engineering, University of Nottingham Malaysia,
Jalan Broga, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia
Synonyms
Blank fruitlet cluster; Impulsive carbon-based
complexes; Lubricant palm leftover; Micro puri-
fication; Stimulated carbon
Definition
Biomass-based activated carbon (BBAC) is a
remarkably resilient biomaterial that could be uti-
lized to detoxify (purify), odor remover
(deodorize), wash away, or differentiate and
retrieve various components. Biomass-based
© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023
C. Baskar et al. (eds.), Encyclopedia of Green Materials,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-4921-9_275-1
activated carbons (BBACs) are synthesized from
carbon-containing bio-materials using processes
such as carbonization, pyrolysis, and physical
and chemical activation. The synthesized
BBACs have the properties of large surface area,
good adsorption characteristics, and are porous in
structure.
Introduction
Agricultural waste has been suggested as a rea-
sonable priced and environmentally sustainable
starting material for the fabrication of biomass-
based activated carbons (BBACs). Agro-biomass
waste comprises a high concentration of lignocel-
lulosic constituents (LC), including cellulose,
hemicellulose, and lignin. By virtue of the afore-
mentioned LCs, biomass waste can be converted
into BBAC that has a distinct porous structure and
molecular structural network (Jha et al. 2021).
The agricultural based-biomass waste is
employed to create porous materials that will aid
in the adsorption/absorption of several pollutants
and carcinogens from aqueous solutions, includ-
ing colors, non-metallic pollutants, metallic pol-
lutants, pharmaceuticals, and odors and tastes
(Correa and Kruse 2018; Reza et al. 2020). Acti-
vated carbons (ACs) obtained from agricultural
biomass are structurally non-crystalline carbon-
based biomaterials with a greater extent of
2 Natural Resources-Based Activated Carbon Synthesis
permeability (porosity), high adsorption capacity,
and a large specific surface area. According to
several research studies, the BBACs have up to
91.4 cm3/g of pore volumes and specific surface
areas that range from 250 to 2400 m2/g. ACs with
high porosity and large surface area have high
removal efficiencies of pollutants from industrial
wastewater and municipal solid bio-waste. The
fabricated ACs from agricultural lignocellulosic
biomass waste and municipal solid waste can also
be explicated using parameters such as specific
surface area and surface-volume mean diameter
(Mdoe 2002). Due to its strong adsorption prop-
erties and ability to change its surface shape,
surface charges, and surface functional groups
depending on a specific application, BBAC is a
versatile adsorbent (Correa and Kruse 2018). Due
to the numerous manufacturing processes and
focal application programs for adsorbates, the uti-
lization of BBACs is habitually among the most
viable options for the efficacious treatment of
wastewater containing unwanted contaminants
(Soonmin and Kabbashi 2021). The pyrolysis/
carbonization of agricultural lignocellulosic bio-
waste, charcoal, lignite, and petroleum pitch gen-
erates a class of black, porous carbonaceous mate-
rial called ACs, which has a large specific surface
area. Any biomass substance containing carbon
elements is processed to improve its surface area
and chemical reactivity in order to absorb more
molecules and chemical species during the purifi-
cation of polluted solutions. The larger surface
area of BBAC indicates the greater permeability
(porosity). The BBACs with a greater extent spe-
cific surface area and greater permeability can be
activated through physical or chemical activation
techniques (Benítez et al. 2022; Gayathiri et al.
2022; Imran-Shaukat et al. 2022; Maheshwari
et al. 2022; Nikhil et al. 2022). This procedure
was conducted after the biomass containing car-
bon elements was carbonized or pyrolyzed at ele-
vated heat between 800 and 1000 C in the
absence of O2. Following the pyrolysis procedure,
biochar is physically or chemically activated at
high heat (between 800 and 1000 C) in the pres-
ence of CO2. Throughout the chemical activation
process, the starting material is soaked with an
activating reagent and carried out in the absence
of CO2 and oxygen (O2). The chemical activation
of biochar encompasses the use of a variety of
activating reagents or chemical agents, like
H3PO4 and ZnCl2. During the fabrication of
ACs, both the carbonization/pyrolysis of agricul-
tural biomass waste and the activation of biochar
or carbonized biomass waste are performed simul-
taneously (Soleimani and Kaghazchi 2007). In
particular, activated carbon (ACs) can be catego-
rized into non-renewable and renewable resources.
Natural resources like anthracite, bituminous-coal,
peat-coal, wood-peat and lignite are used to make
non-renewable ACs (Elmaslar Özbaş et al. 2019;
Mdoe 2002; Soonmin and Kabbashi 2021). On the
other hand, the renewable ACs are fabricated from
renewable resources such as agricultural bio-waste
and its residues, municipal solid waste, and forest
biomass and its residues. When compared to ACs
made from renewable sources, the commercial cost
of ACs made from non-renewable sources is higher.
This shows that the utilization of non-renewable
ACs for different applications is limited (Mdoe
2002). Therefore, this leads to the search for alter-
native ACs fabricated from biomass resources at a
preferable cost, and the market price of such ACs is
low. The renewable types of ACs are produced from
lignocellulosic biomass containing rice husks
(Soonmin and Kabbashi 2021), wheat straw, cherry
pits, beans, nut husks, maize cobs, and coffee husks
(Oliveira et al. 2009), bamboo waste (Feng et al.
2018), bagasse collected from sugar processing,
waste coconut-shell and saw-dust (Gratuito et al.
2008), Jatropha curcas hull (Mohammad et al.
2013), pea-nut shell (Wu et al. 2019), waste tires,
palm oil mill effluent, and palm-kernel-shell (Andas
et al. 2017; Ukanwa et al. 2020). Moreover, the
transformation of agricultural lignocellulosic bio-
waste into BBAC might improve the exclusion of
pollutants and other solid waste from natural eco-
systems. Furthermore, this entry relies on the
sources of agricultural biomass waste, biomass-
based activated carbon synthesis and characteriza-
tion, biomass-based ACs applications and their chal-
lenges and prospects.
Natural Resources-Based Activated Carbon Synthesis
Sources of Agricultural Lignocellulosic
Bio-waste
Several types of lignocellulosic raw materials are
incorporated in the green fabrication of biomass-
based activated carbons (BBACs). The sources of
agricultural lignocellulosic biomass waste utilized
for the manufacturing of BBAC include farming
residues, Fig. 1 shows many types of waste bio-
mass resources. The majority of ACs offered
locally have been produced for centuries utilizing
coal, lignite, peat, petroleum residue, and wood.
The ACs made from the abovementioned non-
renewable resources are expensive and finite.
Due to environmental crisis and depletion of
non-renewable ACs, nowadays, ACs are fabri-
cated from agricultural biomass wastes. Those
certain bio reserves are low-cost, readily avail-
able, sustainable, and eco-friendly biomass feed-
stock used in the production of efficient and
environmentally biomass-derived activated car-
bons. The advancement of low-cost, high-
efficiency BBACs to supplement commercially
Natural Resources-Based Activated Carbon Synthesis, Fig. 1 Different classes of lignocellulosic biomass feed-
stock sources for preparation of BBAC
3
available non-renewable ACs in the treatment of
polluted aqueous solutions released by various
chemical and process industries is currently
receiving a lot of attention. In this regard, the
manufacturing of highly efficient and low-cost
biomass-derived ACs helps to enhance environ-
mental sustainability and provides greater advan-
tages for upcoming commercial applications. In
terms of techno-economic feasibility, ACs pre-
pared from agricultural lignocellulosic biomass
waste are significantly less expensive than con-
ventionally synthesized ACs. As a consequence,
biological resources must be given more
weightage and attention in the green preparation
of ACs.
Properties of Biomass-Derived Activated
Carbon
According to several research study reports, there
are more than 12 different classes of bio-waste
resources exploited for the generation of ACs.
4 Natural Resources-Based Activated Carbon Synthesis
The AC fabricated from biomaterial is readily
available as waste biomass and is inexpensive.
The BBACs acquired by combining physical acti-
vation (PA) and chemical activation (CA) has a
larger inter-particle specific surface area of
2442 m2/g than that produced by physical activa-
tion, which has a specific surface area of 1365 m2/
g. The utilization of agricultural waste biomass
leftovers to produce value-added commodities
has the potential to yield even more interesting
and entertaining environmental and socio-
economic advantages. Besides, the activated car-
bons are synthesized from crop residues like agri-
cultural activities in addition the dry fruit
harvesting refuses. Such as almond-shells,
apricot-stones, bagasse, corn-cob, empty-fruit-
bunch, hazelnut-shell, mesocarp-fiber leftovers,
olive-stones, palm kernel-shell processing wastes,
paddy refuses, Eragrostis tef wastes, and walnut-
shell are common components of this biomass
waste. The aforementioned bio-waste is readily
accessible all year long and is more plentiful,
multifaceted, and widely dispersed throughout
the globe. The AC made from leftover biomass
has a greater specific surface area, a microporous
structure, a substantial influence on adsorption, a
high adsorption potential, and a high level of
surface reactivity. Table 1 lists some of the ana-
lyzed biomass classes’ characteristics as reported
by different researchers.
Using Agricultural Bio-waste to
Synthesize AC
Bio-based AC Preparation
In the preparation of bio-based AC, several cate-
gories of activation methods are utilized. How-
ever, physical and chemical activation techniques
are the most fundamental and are widely used by
researchers worldwide. In the same manner, AC
synthesis from bio-waste consists two significant
steps. The biomass feedstock carbonization and
physical and chemical activation of the subse-
quent biochar are among these procedures. The
carbonization or pyrolysis of agricultural bio-
waste is followed by physical activation practice
(PAP) at elevated heat in the existence of CO2 or
steam atmosphere. Moreover, the chemical acti-
vation practice (CAP) entails carbonizing or
pyrolysis of biomass feedstock that has previously
been chemically pretreated and treated with
H3PO4, ZnCl2, or KOH (Aznar 2011). The overall
schematic process flow diagrams of the CAP and
PAP of the agricultural bio-waste and other bio-
mass are displayed in Fig. 2.
Chemical Activation Practice (CAP)
The investigation reported by Khedr et al. (2014)
illustrated that the starting material (biomass feed-
stock) is soaked with 20% and 50% phosphoric
acid (H3PO4) and potassium carbonate (K2CO3)
following by pyrolysis process. The pyrolysis of
biomass waste generates carbon-containing mate-
rial with an arranged non-crystalline structure. In
this regard, the CAP has significant benefits over
the physical activation approach due to the fact
that both carbonization and activation are
conducted in a single phase reactor. The CAP
was performed at lower temperatures.
As a consequence, the CAP promotes the for-
mation of a more permeable and microporous
structure. However, the utilization of chemicals
in the CAP may induce significant environmental
issues, even if some of the additional chemicals
are easily recovered (Tsai et al. 1997).
Besides, several classes of activating agents or
chemical agents are conveyed in CAP. The most
commonly used chemical agents are NH4Cl,
H3PO4, KOH, K2CO3, and ZnCl2. H3PO4 was
the most frequently employed chemical agent in
the manufacturing of biomass-based AC. The
polar functional groups on the binding surface of
AC are often enhanced by the treatment of char-
coal with H3PO4 by altering its chemical compo-
sition and raising its hydrophilicity. This change
makes it possible to remove both organic matter
and phosphorus from water at once and has a
propensity to boost the adsorption capacity of
phosphate and polar organic matter (Wu et al.
2019). As a consequence of utilizing H3PO4,
ACs can be obtained from several kinds of
carbon-containing raw materials, including coal,
lignite, wood, and biological wastes (Das et al.
2015; Wu et al. 2019; Ukanwa et al. 2020;
Natural Resources-Based Activated Carbon Synthesis, Table 1 Proximate, ultimate and lignocellulosic composition of characterized bio-waste

Biomass Ultimate analysis (% w/w) Proximate analysis (% w/w) Lignocellulosic Composition (% w/w)
feedstock C H N S O Ash Moisture Volatiles Cellulose Lignin Hemicellulose Reference
Almond Shell 50.30 6.05 – – – 1.54 – – 39.25 27.00 – Soleimani and Kaghazchi (2007)
Apricot Stone 50.50 6.03 – – – 0.20 – – 39.75 34.50
Bagasse 46.00 6.00 – – – 3.40 – – 42.80 15.80 –
Hazelnut 51.40 5.95 – – 1.20 – – 40.50 27.20 –
Shell
Walnut Shell 49.00 5.75 – – – 1.70 – – 34.50 33.30 –
Palm kernel 47.28 5.32 0.00 0.00 47.40 – – – – – – Andas et al. (2017)
Natural Resources-Based Activated Carbon Synthesis

shell
Palm kernel 85.00 1.10 0.02 13.88 – – – – – – Hidayu and Muda (2016)
shell
Olive stones 46.5 6.4 0.4 0 – 2.3 8.8 72.7 28.1–40.4 25.3–27.2 18.5–32.2 Saleem et al. (2019)
Mesocarp 45.8 6.3 0.9 0.2 29.5 4.8 12.1 72.9 33.9 92 26.1 Ukanwa et al. (2020)
fibre
Palm kernel 46 5.1 0.4 0.02 35 1.5 12 70.6 20.8 94.2 22.7
shell
Empty 37.5 5.0 0.4 0.1 38 4.4 14.4 73.7 38.3 95.7 35.3
fruitbunch
Corncob 38.55 5.57 0.42 0.58 48.31 2.38 4.19 82.58 – – – Feng et al. (2020)
Rice straw 37.93 6.19 0.99 2.07 – – – 32 22.3 35.7 Saad et al. (2019)
Teff straw 41.9 6.5 0.7 0.3 50.6 4.88 6.98 73.61 Amibo et al. (2021), Bageru and
Srivastava (2018)
5
6 Natural Resources-Based Activated Carbon Synthesis
Natural Resources-Based Activated Carbon Synthesis, Fig. 2 Schematic diagram of bio-based AC synthesis
procedures from bio-waste
Armonio et al. 2019; Vidal et al. 2019; Ng
et al. 2003).
Wet oxidation, a subcategory of CAP, is typi-
cally applied to cellulose-containing biomaterials
like wood, sawdust, and fruit pits. In CAP, organic
precursors are heated to high temperatures and
activated with chemicals to create activated car-
bon (Njoku et al. 2013). The activation process
starts with oxidizing and soaking highly
dehydrated chemicals in carbon-containing bio-
mass feedstocks. After impregnation, the suspen-
sion solution is dried, and the leftover mixture is
heated for an unknown period of time. The acti-
vation practice may be carried out at temperatures
ranging from 400 to 900 C, contingent on the
activating biomaterial and the quality of end prod-
uct. The cellulose components of lignocellulosic
agricultural biomass waste degrade at the afore-
mentioned temperature ranges. Ultimately, acti-
vated carbon is formed by repetitively washing
the ensuing mixture (Heidarinejad et al. 2020).
Throughout CAP, the dehydrating chemicals that
effect the thermolytic breakdown and improve the
AC content are utilized. In comparison to PAP,
CAP actually happened concurrently. With the
exception of physical activation, a single furnace
may do CAP as opposed to the usual practice of
performing carbonization and activation in sepa-
rate blast furnaces (Samsuri et al. 2014).
Physical Activation Practice (PAP)
In PA, the agricultural bio-waste is originally
pyrolyzed/carbonized in the absence of oxygen
before being exposed to a provisional and moni-
tored biogasification using steam, CO2, O2, or a
combination of these. The basic material is trans-
formed into fixed carbon during the first process,
carbonization, with inadequate creation of a
porous structure. In particular, the carbonization
step removes the majority of non-carbon compo-
nents that are volatilized at low temperatures.
Following the carbonization process, the bio-
gasification selectively removes reactive carbon
atoms, yielding a microporous activated carbon
structure and a large specific surface area of AC
(Bedia et al. 2018). The aforementioned proce-
dure involves two steps: pyrolysis without oxygen
and activation in atmospheric oxidizing gases
such as steam, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, or air
mixes at temperatures between 800 and 1100 C.
This method is thought to be environmentally
friendly because it is chemical-free and has the
Natural Resources-Based Activated Carbon Synthesis 7

ability to produce bio-based AC with a porous
structure and significant physical power at a low
cost. The main downsides of physical activation
procedures are the lengthy activation period, the
limited AC adsorption capability, and the high
energy consumption (Heidarinejad et al. 2020).
Characterization of Synthesized Bio-based
Activated Carbon
Biomass-derived ACs are adsorbent materials
because they possess a porous structure bounded
by carbon atoms. Utilizing a variety of analytical
techniques, the reliability and viability of sorbents
for adsorption were assessed by looking at the
physical and chemical characteristics of synthetic
ACs. Several researchers investigated the charac-
terization of agricultural lignocellulosic bio-waste
and synthesized bio-based ACs as presented in
Table 2.
Bio-based Activated Carbon’s Benefits and
Drawbacks (Table 3)
Applications of Biomass Derived
Activated Carbon
There are several uses for activated carbon in
various processes such as petroleum refining,
wastewater treatment, air pollution reduction,
due to its huge surface area, porous structure,
and thermal stability, It serves as a support mate-
rial for catalysis, the adsorption of heavy metals,
the adsorption of volatile organic compounds
(VOC), medication delivery, high performance
super capacitors, gas storage media, solar cells,
and electrochemical devices depicted in Fig. 3 by
several researchers (Ukanwa et al. 2020).
One of the special characteristics of porous
ACs is the surface morphology which can be

Natural Resources-Based Activated Carbon Synthesis, Table 2 The synthesis and characterization of different
types of BBACs generated from bio-waste
Activation BBACs parameters Characterization apparatus
Biomass feedstocks methods characterized and other Reference
Cocoa peel Chemical (HCl) Chemical composition, X-ray diffraction Tejada et al.
morphological and technique (XRD), practice (2017)
structural characteristics, of scanning electron
proximate, and ultimate microscopy (SEM), and
parameters Brunauer, Emmet, and
Teller (BET) surface area,
and elemental analyzer
(EA)
Fish Chemical Adsorption capability, X-ray photoelectron Qingsong Ji
(Ctenopharyngodon) (phosphoric acid structural characteristics, spectroscopy (XPS), and Zhang
scales (H3PO4)) surface chemistry, and nitrogen adsorption, the (2021)
morphological structural Boehm method, SEM, and
characteristics methylene blue and iodine
values
Iraqi Khestawy date Physicochemical Surface morphology, Fourier transform infrared Hussein et al.
palm (palm fronds, point zero charges, and spectroscopy (FTIR) and (2015)
date palm seeds, and surface chemistry SEM.
palm fiber) (functional groups)
Biomass date seeds Chemical (KOH Surface area, micropore Elemental analyzer, Ogungbenro
and H2SO4) volumes, surface nitrogen sorption et al. (2020)
functional groups, and isotherms, BET, and FTIR
elemental analysis
Coconut shell and Chemical Surface area, surface Nitrogen absorption- Vighnesha
polyaniline (KOH) and morphology, and desorption experiment, et al. (2018)
heating @ microstructure BET, FTIR, UV, SEM, and
450  C Cyclic Voltammetry (CV)
8 Natural Resources-Based Activated Carbon Synthesis

Natural Resources-Based Activated Carbon Synthesis, Table 3 The benefits and drawbacks of bio-waste activation
methods for different biomass feedstocks
Biomass Activation
feedstocks Benefits Drawbacks methods Reference
Bagasse Highest cellulose content Minimal C and H contents, and Chemical Soleimani
highest ash content (H3PO4) and
Kaghazchi
(2007)
Apricot Maximum yield, highest iodine NR Chemical Soleimani
stones number and surface area, and best (H3PO4) and
shells adsorption properties. Lowest ash Kaghazchi
content (2007)
Walnut NR Minimum cellulose content Chemical Soleimani
shells (H3PO4) and
Kaghazchi
(2007)
Shelled Contains highest C content NR Chemical Soleimani
hazelnuts (H3PO4) and
Kaghazchi
(2007)
Palm Produces higher yield, and the Contains highest iodine number Chemical Andas
kernel exclusion of sulphur indicated (KOH) et al.
shell that the synthesized KOH-AC is (2017)
environmentally benign
Palm Physical steam is activated Carbon content in physical MgO Hidayu
kernel chemically using ZnCl2 to adsorb activated carbon is more (impregnate and Muda
shell and CO2 from its source, such as flue expensive than chemical activated with metal (2016)
Coconut gas carbon, CAP AC contains more oxides)
shell hydrogen and oxygen than PAP
AC, BET surface area achieved
was much greater, and higher
adsorption capacity
Combined Increase in microwave power Yield decreases as temperature Microwave Ukanwa
palm from 360 to 600 W increases the rises, and a particular OPW may and et al.
waste porosity and adsorption efficiency face difficulties like low carbon conventional (2020)
using trona for each individual OPW, and the yield for MF and EFB. method
ore process is less difficult and As a result, adding PKS to them
produces a more easily can boost the yield of a single
predictable result. SBET are high process
with high pore volume
NR Not reported

used in many applications such as super capacitor
electrodes, secondary battery electrodes, dye
absorbers, oil purification, and others (Wang
et al. 2019).
Future Prospects and Challenges
The preceding sections have clearly demonstrated
that AC obtained from agricultural wastes such as
peel, leaves, stones, husk, shells, and so on, as
well as sawdust and sludge, has been a good
source for a variety of key applications. However,
there is a need to further research the synthesis
routes of AC and also various applications of AC
to cut back on high energy and chemical use.
Adsorption which is one of the most popular
process for removing pollutants and contaminant
from wastewater requires more research so that it
can be made more appropriate for large-scale
applications. The research till date do not address
the issues in wastewater treatment utilizing AC
such as breakthrough/exhaustion capacity, the
amount of AC required to treat a certain quantity
Natural Resources-Based Activated Carbon Synthesis
Natural Resources-Based
Activated Carbon
Synthesis,
Fig. 3 Numerous
applications of biomass
derived ACs
of wastewater. Further research into the modifica-
tion and regeneration of ACs is also required to
improve the removal performance and life of the
AC. Future study on currently known and poten-
tial carbonaceous sources for AC synthesis has a
lot of potential, which could lead to a cheaper and
more efficient option for wastewater treatment
(Njewa et al. 2022).
There is a lot of commercialization AC derived
from agricultural wastes in industries. However,
these are limited to developed countries. Devel-
oping countries like Africa as still lacking
resources for AC and hence there is still a long
way to go in terms of expansion of use of activated
carbon derived from agricultural wastes. Future
research should also focus on the ACs generation
from agricultural byproducts as it provides an
opportunity to address the issues of agro-residue
disposal and simultaneously leads to producing
value-added-products that has numerous environ-
mental applications (Jha et al. 2021).
9
Conclusion
ACs were generated using agricultural waste bio-
mass using CAP and PAP methods. Anthracite,
bituminous-coal, coal peat, coconut-shells, lig-
nite, wood-peat, and used tires are some of the
conventional non-renewable raw materials used in
commercial air conditioners. The price of com-
mercial activated carbon, yet, has remained
pricey, preventing widespread utilization. ACs
can be produced alternatively from the waste agri-
culture biomass resources such as from Hazelnut-
shell, mesocarp-fiber, olive-stones, palm-kernel
shell, paddy straw, Eragrostis tef straw, wall nut-
shell, apricot stones, bagasse, corncob, empty
fruit bunch and more which uses of low cost can
significantly reduce the cost of commercial ACs
can be utilized as a natural bio based source of
ACs was presented in detail. Multipurpose appli-
cations used in fertilizer plants, nuclear power
plants, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, textiles, auto-
mobiles, petroleum, and vacuum manufacturing
were also showcased. This critically reviewed
entry indicates that the results from agricultural
wastes can be utilized as an alternative activated
10
carbon source. Therefore, this type of activated
carbon source will give advantages used as a low
cost raw materials, pure product and environmen-
tally friendly. The present explicitly discussed
how agricultural waste biomass can be efficiently
utilized as a carbon precursor for the synthesis of
activated carbon through chemical activation and
physical activation practices. The activated car-
bons that arise can be used most efficiently to
remove pollutants from effluents.
Cross-References
▶ Activated Carbon Synthesis
▶ Biomass Resources
▶ CAP
▶ PAP
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