Genetics Notes NN

Grade 12 Life Sciences Notes.
Genetics and Inheritance NN
GRADE 12 NOTES
GENETICS AND INHERITANCE
➢ WHAT IS GENETICS? …..It is the STUDY OF HEREDITY. It is about

how characteristics are passed down from parents to their offspring
through GENES.
➢ WHAT ARE GENES?....In a previous section ,we came across the

DNA molecule found in the NUCLEUS. A SEGMENT OR PORTION
OF THE DNA IS CALLED A GENE.
➢ GENES carry the characteristics that are passed down from our
parents...Example ,there is a gene for hair colour, a gene for eye
colour, a gene for fur colour in animals….etc.
➢ A GENE is controlled by ALLELES.
IMPORTANT TERMINOLOGY TO STUDY:
1. Genetics – is the study of heredity.
2. Genes- a segment or portion of a DNA molecule that codes for a

particular characteristic or protein.
3. Genome- all the chromosomes or genes that make up an organism.
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Grade 12 Life Sciences Notes. Genetics and Inheritance NN
4. Allele- the alternate form of a gene. Alleles are represented by

alphabets , example, capital letter A is a dominant allele and small
letter a is a recessive allele….or R is a dominant allele and r is a
recessive allele. AN ORGANISM CAN INHERIT DOMINANT
ALLELES FROM BOTH PARENTS OR A DOMINANT ALLELE
FROM ONE PARENT AND A RECESSIVE ALLELE FROM THE
OTHER PARENT OR INHERIT RECESSIVE ALLELES FROM
BOTH PARENTS.
EXAMPLE
RR - Both dominant alleles. (Homozygous dominant)
Rr- One dominant allele and one recessive allele. (Heterozygous)
rr - both are recessive alleles (Homozygous recessive)
5. Phenotype- is the external or physical appearance of an organism.

Example, Brown eyes or black hair or curly hair…etc. You can see
it when you look at the organism.
6. Genotype- is the genetic make-up or genetic composition of an

organism. It can not be seen when you look at the organism.
Example, BB, Bb , TT, Tt , tt , etc
7. Homozygous/ Pure breeding - having the same alleles for a

particular characteristic, example, for eye colour the individual
could be HOMOZYGOUS eg BB (the individual has inherited the
same ALLELES from the parents or RR or TT or bb.
8. Heterozyous / Hybrid - having different alleles for a particular

characteristic. Which means having inherited one dominant allele
from one parent and a recessive allele from the other parent
example , Rr or Tt or Bb.
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9. Dominant allele- it is the allele that is shown or expressed in the

phenotype of an organism. Eg B represents a dominant allele for
Black fur colour in an animal or R is the dominant allele for Red
flower colour in plants , etc.
10. Recessive allele- is the allele that is hidden or masked or can’t be

seen in the phenotype of an organism UNLESS THE ORGANISM IS
HOMOZYGOUS RECESSIVE FOR THE CONDITION. Example of a
recessive allele is b or t or r , etc.
11.Homozygous dominant – having BOTH DOMINANT ALLELES for a
particular characteristic example , BB or TT or RR , etc.
12.Homozygous recessive- having BOTH RECESSIVE ALLELES for a

particular characteristic ,example, bb or tt or rr , etc.
IMPORTANT TO NOTE:
IF FOR EXAMPLE, capital letter ‘B’ is the dominant allele representing
Black fur in a rabbit , then we use the small letter ‘b’ as the recessive
allele to represent White fur colour in the rabbit…..NOT a small letter
‘w' for the white fur in the rabbit. Learners make this make often.
IF FOR EXAMPLE, capital letter ‘R’ represents Red flower colour in
plants , then small letter ‘r' represents White flower colour in the plant
NOT a small letter ‘w’ for white flower colour. Learners often make
that mistake.
❖ This is a very important point to learn as we will be using the
alphabets/letters when working out the monohybrid cross and
dihybrid cross.
Lets start with a Monohybrid cross……..
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MONOHYBRID CROSS
A cross involving ONE PAIR of contrasting characteristics, example, a
cross involving a plant with RED FLOWERS CROSSED WITH A PLANT
WITH WHITE FLOWERS OR an animal with BLACK FUR CROSSED
WITH AND AN ANIMAL WITH WHITE FUR.
❖ THE FORMAT OF THE MONOHYBRID CROSS IS IMPORTANT IN
THIS SECTION FOR THE EXAMINATIONS.
Lets look at an example:
Question
❖ In mice, black fur colour (B) is dominant and white fur colour (b) is
recessive. A homozygous black fur mouse is crossed with a
homozygous white fur mouse. SHOW ,USING A GENETIC
CROSS, the phenotypes and genotypes of the F1 generation. (The
offspring).
This is how the cross must be set out…….

Answer
P1 Phenotype Black fur x Black fur

Genotype BB x bb (Remember the parent mice
are homozygous)
Meiosis
Gametes B,B x b ,b (punnet square can be used)
Fertilization
F1 Genotype Bb , Bb, Bb , Bb
Phenotype 100% black fur mice
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❖ Don’t change the format. This is the format that is accepted in

the examinations. The part in the brackets must not be written in
your answer. It is just to help you understand how to work out
the cross.
❖ P1 and F1 together is allocated 1 mark and the Meiosis and
Fertilisation together is allocated 1 mark in the format.
Now you work out this example….

Question
In rabbits , black fur is dominant(B) over white fur(b). Two heterozygous
rabbits were crossed with each other. Show, using a genetic cross, the
phenotype and genotype of the F1 offspring. (6 marks)
Answer
P1 Phenotype Black fur x Black fur

Genotype Bb x Bb (Remember the question states
Meiosis heterozygous parent mice)
Gametes B, b x B, b
Fertilisation (punnet square can be used)
F1 Genotype BB, Bb, Bb, bb
Phenotype 3 black fur: 1 white fur

75% black fur: 25% white fur
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❖ Sometimes the question may ask for the genetic cross to show a
ratio or percentage. REMEMBER TO READ THE QUESTION
PROPERLY AS IT MAY BE A COMPULSORY MARK IN THE
EXAMINATIONS.
Here is another example taken from a past exam paper…..
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Answer
❖ QUESTION 2 from above is an example of INCOMPLETE

DOMINANCE
❖ What is INCOMPLETE DOMINANCE and CO DOMINANCE?
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INCOMPLETE DOMINANCE
Where the alleles blend or mix together to form an intermediate

phenotype. Example, when a plant with homozygous red flowers is
crossed with a plant with homozygous white flowers the result is
PINK FLOWERS in the F1 generation.
❖ Please note we use ONLY capital letters to represent alleles.

SMALL LETTERS MUST NOT BE USED TO REPRESENT THE
ALLELES.
This is how the cross would look……
P1 Phenotype Red flowers x White flowers

Genotype RR x WW
Meiosis
Gametes R,R W,W
Fertilisation
F1 Genotype RW , RW, RW, RW

Phenotype 100% pink flowers
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CO DOMINANCE
It is where the NO ONE ALLELE DOMINATE or BOTH ALLELES
DOMINATE EQUALLY. Example, when a plant with homozygous RED
flowers is crossed with a plant with homozygous WHITE flowers and the
result is flowers with patches of RED and WHITE.
❖ We use only capital letters in the cross to represent the alleles.

SMALL LETTERS must not be used to represent the alleles.
This is how the cross would look…..
P1 Phenotype Red flowers x White flowers

Genotype RR x WW
Meiosis
Gametes R, R x W,W
Fertilisation
F1 Genotype RW, RW, RW, RW

Phenotype 100% flowers with equal patches of RED and
WHITE
❖ PLEASE NOTE THE CROSS FOR INCOMPLETE DOMINANCE

AND CO DOMINANCE LOOKS ALMOST THE SAME…EXCEPT
FOR THE F1 PHENOTYPE CHANGES.
Pedigree diagrams to follow……
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Grade 12 Life Sciences Notes.

Genetics and Inheritance NN

➢ WHAT IS GENETICS? …..It is the STUDY OF HEREDITY. It is about

➢ WHAT ARE GENES?....In a previous section ,we came across the

➢ A GENE is controlled by ALLELES.

IMPORTANT TERMINOLOGY TO STUDY:

1. Genetics – is the study of heredity.

2. Genes- a segment or portion of a DNA molecule that codes for a

3. Genome- all the chromosomes or genes that make up an organism.

4. Allele- the alternate form of a gene. Alleles are represented by

5. Phenotype- is the external or physical appearance of an organism.

6. Genotype- is the genetic make-up or genetic composition of an

7. Homozygous/ Pure breeding - having the same alleles for a

8. Heterozyous / Hybrid - having different alleles for a particular

9. Dominant allele- it is the allele that is shown or expressed in the

10. Recessive allele- is the allele that is hidden or masked or can’t be

12.Homozygous recessive- having BOTH RECESSIVE ALLELES for a

Lets start with a Monohybrid cross……..

This is how the cross must be set out…….

P1 Phenotype Black fur x Black fur

❖ Don’t change the format. This is the format that is accepted in

Now you work out this example….

P1 Phenotype Black fur x Black fur

F1 Genotype BB, Bb, Bb, bb

Phenotype 3 black fur: 1 white fur

Here is another example taken from a past exam paper…..

❖ QUESTION 2 from above is an example of INCOMPLETE

Where the alleles blend or mix together to form an intermediate

❖ Please note we use ONLY capital letters to represent alleles.

This is how the cross would look……

P1 Phenotype Red flowers x White flowers

F1 Genotype RW , RW, RW, RW

❖ We use only capital letters in the cross to represent the alleles.

This is how the cross would look…..

P1 Phenotype Red flowers x White flowers

F1 Genotype RW, RW, RW, RW

❖ PLEASE NOTE THE CROSS FOR INCOMPLETE DOMINANCE

Pedigree diagrams to follow……

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