Maths Clinic Gr11 ENG

MATHS ESSENTIALS
11
G R A D E
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Grade 11 Maths Essentials
Nature of Roots SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©
NUMBERS NATURE: Refers to the type of numbers that the roots are.
Non-real (R’)  
(Sometimes referred to as imaginary) ROOTS: The x-intercepts/solutions/zeros of a quadratic equation.
Real (R) Two real roots One real root No (0) real roots
Rational (Q)  Irrational (Q’) y y y

Integers and Fractions
EXAMPLE
Integers (Z) 
Positive and negative whole numbers π
2
Whole numbers (N0)  x
0+N All decimals that cannot  x x
be written as a fraction.
Natural numbers (N) 
1, 2, 3...        
OR OR OR
y y y
x
x x
QUADRATIC FORMULA THE DISCRIMINANT
−b ± b 2 − 4ac
x= −b ± b 2 − 4ac
2a x=
2a
a = the coefficient of x2  DETERMINING THE NATURE OF THE ROOTS
b = the coefficient of x  Indicated by Δ .
c = the constant term The DISCRIMINANT is used to determine the nature of the roots.
2
∴ Δ = b − 4ac
Used to factorise quadratic equations. Δ
EXAMPLE  EXAMPLE
Δ<0 Δ≥0
3x 2 + 2x − 4 = 0 NO Real Real
3x 2 + 2x − 4 = 0
a = 3 roots roots
b = 2 a = 3
c = −4 b = 2
c = −4 Δ>0 Δ=0
2 unequal 2 equal,
−b ± b 2 − 4ac Δ = b 2 − 4a c roots real roots
x =
2a
Δ = (2)2 − 4(3)(−4)
−(2) ± (2) 2 − 4(3)(− 4) Then solve for Δ
x = Δ = perfect square Δ ≠ perfect square
2(3) irrational roots
rational roots
Then solve for x
2
For more information about Science or Maths seminars, classes and resources, visit www.scienceclinic.co.za 
DISCRIMINANT  b2 - 4 a c
EXAMPLES NATURE OF ROOTS NUMBER OF REAL ROOTS
(∆ = b2 - 4ac)
a>0 a<0
y y
x2 + x + 1 = 0 Δ = b2 – 4ac x
= (1)2 – 4(1)(1)
0
=1–4
Non real
=–3
a b c Δ<0 x
y y
x2 – 6x + 9 = 0 Δ = b2 – 4ac x
= (–6)2 – 4(1)(9) Real (Δ = +)
1 (2 of the same)
= 36 – 36 Rational (Δ = perfect
=0 square)
a b c Δ=0 Equal (Δ = 0) x
x2 – 5x – 6 = 0 Δ = b2 – 4ac
= (–5)2 – 4(1)(–6) Real (Δ = +)
2 y y
= 25 + 24 Rational (Δ = perfect
= 49 square)
a b c Δ > 0 (perfect square) Unequal (Δ ≠ 0)
x
2x2 + 3x – 7 = 0 Δ = b2 – 4ac
= (3)2 – 4(2)(–7) Real (Δ = +)
2
= 9 + 56 Irrational (Δ ≠
= 65 perfect square)
a b c Δ > 0 (not perfect square) Unequal (Δ ≠ 0)
3
DETERMINING THE NATURE FOR WHICH VALUES OF k   PROVE THE NATURE OF THE ROOTS
OF ROOTS WITHOUT   WILL THE EQUATION HAVE   The nature of the roots will be supplied and the discriminant can be used to prove the nature, with either one, or no,
SOLVING THE EQUATION EQUAL ROOTS? unknown value.
The roots of an equation can be deter- The discriminant (Δ) can be used to calculate
Steps to prove the nature of roots (NO unknown): Steps to prove the nature of roots (ONE unknown):
mined by calculating the value of the the unknown value of k. (e.g. Ask yourself, for
discriminant (Δ). which values of k will the discriminant be 0?) 1. Put the equation in its standard form  1. Put the equation in its standard form 
2. Substitute the correct values in and calculate the dis- 2. Substitute the correct values in and calculate the dis-
Steps to determine the roots using Steps to determine the values of k using
criminant  criminant 
the discriminant: the discriminant:
3. Determine the roots and confirm whether they are as 3. Determine the roots and confirm whether they are as
1. Put the equation in its standard form 1. Put the equation in its standard form supplied supplied
2. Substitute the correct values in and 2. Substitute the correct values in and calculate EXAMPLE EXAMPLE
calculate the discriminant the discriminant
Prove the equation has two, unequal, irrational roots: For the equation x(6x – 7m) = 5m2, prove that the roots
3. Determine the nature of the roots of 3. Equate the discriminant to 0 and solve for k x2 = 2x + 9  are real, rational and unequal if m > 0  
the equation (quadratic equation)    
EXAMPLE  1. Standard form 1. Standard form
EXAMPLE 
x2 – 2x – 9 = 0  6x2 – 7mx – 5m2 = 0 
Determine the nature of the roots of    
For which values of k the equation will have
x2 = 2x +1 without solving the equa- a b c  a b c 
equal roots?
tion 
  2. Calculate the discriminant 2. Calculate the discriminant
REMEMBER: Δ = 0 for equal roots
1. Standard form  
Δ = b2 – 4ac  Δ = b2 – 4ac 
x2 = 2x +1   
Δ = (–2)2 – 4(1)(–9)  Δ = (–7m)2 – 4(6)(– 5m2) 
x2 – 2x – 1 = 0  1. Standard form
Δ = 4 + 36  Δ = 49m2 + 120m2 
  x2 + 2kx = –4x – 9k  Δ = 40  Δ = 169m2 
a b c  x2 + 2kx + 4x + 9k = 0
  3. Determine the roots 3. Determine the roots
2. Calculate the discriminant a b c 
The Roots are:  The Roots are: 
Δ = b2 – 4ac   
Real (Δ > 0)  Real (Δ > 0) 
Δ = (–2)2 – 4(1)(–1)  2. Calculate the discriminant
Unequal (Δ ≠ 0)  Unequal (Δ ≠ 0) 
Δ = 4 + 4  Δ = b2 – 4ac  Irrational (Δ ≠ perfect square) Rational (Δ = perfect square)
Δ = 8  Δ = (2k + 4)2 – 4(1)(9k) 
Δ = 4k2 +16k +16 – 36k 
3. Determine the nature of the Δ = 4k2 – 20k + 16 
roots
The Roots are:  3. Equate to zero (0) and solve for k
Real (Δ > 0)  0 = 4k2 – 20k + 16 (÷ 4) 
Unequal (Δ ≠ 0)  0 = k2 – 5k + 4 
Irrational (Δ ≠ perfect square) 0 = (k – 1)(k – 4) 
Therefore k = 1 or k = 4  
k needs to either be 1 or 4 to ensure that
the discriminant of the equation is 0 (the
discriminant must be 0 in order for equal
roots)
4
Quadratic Equations SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©
Quadratic Equations are equations of the second degree (i.e. the highest exponent of the variable is 2). The degree of the equation determines the maximum number of real roots/solutions/x-intercepts/zeros.
The standard form of a quadratic equation is:
a x 2 + bx + c = 0 wh ere a ≠ 0
SOLVING QUADRATIC EQUATIONS

DIFFERENCE OF TWO COMPLETE THE FRACTIONS AND
FACTORING QUADRATIC FORMULA ONE ROOT TWO ROOTS
SQUARES SQUARE RESTRICTIONS
1. Find the LCD and list restrictions 

1. Put in standard Substitute into the quadratic 1. Substitute the known 2. Solve for x 
1. Write in standard form  1. Substitute the roots into
form  formula: root 
−b ± b 2 − 4a c 2. Move C across  the equation 
3. Check your answers against your
2. Apply the zero x = 2. Solve for the variable 
2a 3. Divide both sides by A  restrictions 
factor law  3. Substitute the value 2. Use “FOIL” for the
4. Add (½ x b)2 to both sides  REMEMBER:  
3. List possible where a = coefficient of x2, b = of the variable and quadratic equation
5. Factorise and solve   0 x
solutions coefficient of x, c = constant term solve for the root
= 0 BUT = u nd e f i ne d
  x 0
x
2
  Eg. x = –2x + 63  Eg. –3x2 = –12 + 7x  Either method may be used Eg. x2 + 2x = 1 Eg. x2 + mx – 15 = 0, Eg. –9 and 7 are the Eg.
x−2
= x −1 3 − 2 −2 x
(½ . 2)2 where 5 is a root. roots of a quadratic
  x + 2x – 63 = 0 
2
–3x2 – 7x + 12 = 0 
x
  a = –3; b = –7; c = 12 Eg. x2 = 25  (1)
(5)2 + (5)m – 15 = 0 
equation
x−2
= x −1 3 + x −2 2
Find factors of 63 so x2 – 25 = 0  x2 = ± 25 x 2 + 2x + 1 = 1 + 1 25 + 5m – 15 = 0  x = –9 or x = 7 
LCD: (x − 2)(x − 3)
−(−7) ± (−7) 2 − 4(−3)(12) (x – 5)(x + 5) = 0  5m = –10  x+9=0 x–7=0
that F1 x F2 = –63   x = (x + 1)2 = ± 2 Restrictions: x − 2 ≠ 0; x − 3 ≠ 0
2(−3) x = 5 or x = –5  x = ±5 m = –2 
and F1 + F2 = 2     x(x − 2)(x − 3) 1(x − 2)(x − 3) 2(x − 2)(x − 3)
  x + 1= ± 2   = +
  7± 49 + 144 (x + 9)(x – 7) = 0  (x − 2) (x − 3) (x − 2)
x = Therefore x = ±5
x2 – 2x – 15 = 0 
x2 – 7x + 9x – 63 = 0 
(x + 9)(x – 7) = 0  −6 x + 1= − 2 or x + 1= 2
(x – 5)(x + 3) = 0 
7± 193 x2 + 2x – 63 = 0  x(x – 3) = 1(x – 2) + 2(x – 3) 
x + 9 = 0 or x – 7 = 0  x = x  = − 1 − 2 x = −1+ 2 x=5 or x = –3 
−6   (given) x2 – 3x = x – 2 + 2x – 6 
x = –9 x=7
7+ 193 7− 193
x2 – 3x – x – 2x + 2 + 6 = 0 
x = or x = x2 – 6x + 8 = 0 
−6 −6
(x – 4)(x – 2) = 0 
x–4=0 or x – 2 = 0 
Answer in surd form or can be
x=4 x = 2 
calculated/rounded off to 2 decimals  Check restrictions: x ≠ 2, x ≠ 3 
x = –3,48 OR x = 1,15 Thus, x = 4 is the only solution. 
Remember: General Steps for solving Quadratic Equations

Cannot
Sum
* LHS = Left Hand Side * RHS = Right Hand Side  factorise
* Fractions and their restrictions 2 perfect
squares
Finding factors:
Binomial Difference
* Factor 1 + Factor 2 = b * Factor 1 x Factor 2 = c
2. Factor out Highest
Zero factor law:  1. Standard Form
Common Factor
If A x B = 0 then A, B or both = 0
Trinomial Factoring
EXAMPLE
Factorise Quadratic Formula
x . y = 0 
x = 0 or y = 0 or (x + 1)(x – 3) = 0  Complete the
x + 1 = 0 or x – 3 = 0  square
5
Hyperbolas 
Functions and Graphs SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©
a
FLASHBACK: Revising  Grade 10 Functions y= + q q = asymptote 
EXAMPLE
2
x Sketch the graph with the equation: f (x) = + 2
Straight line graphs 
No gradient   x
y ‘a’ determines shape y
y = mx + c y-intercept  y=2 • Shape: a > 0 ∴ • Use a table and plot at least 2 other points
  + a −a
x
y2 − y1 x
y = + q y = + q y • x-intercept (y = 0)
Gradient: 1) x
y
x x -2 -1 0 1 2
x 2 − x1 Undefined gradient 2
0= + 2
2) ∥ lines m1 = m 2
y
y=q
y=q x y 1 0 ε 4 3
x 2
3) ⊥ lines m1 × m 2 = − 1
x=2 x −2 = Asymptote!
x x
y y −2x = 2 • Asymptotes NOTE: 
x = 0 Start with the asymp-
+ a −a x = −1
x y = mx + c x y = −mx + c y = −q y = −q totes when sketching
x y x y
• y-intercept (x = 0) y = 2
2 y
y=q y=q
y = → undefined
y y 0
x x
No y-intercept (1;4)
y = mx −c x
y = −mx −c (2;3)
x
y=2
(-2;1)
Parabolas (Quadratic functions)    Exponential Graphs 
y = a x2 + q y-intercept  y = ax + q OR y = a . (b x ) + q q = asymptote  (-1;0)
x
   
a>0 OR a<0 ‘a’ determines shape
EXAMPLE EXAMPLE
Sketch the graph with the equation: Sketch the graph with the equation: EXAMPLE
y = + a . b x + q; b > 1 y = + a . b x + q; 0 < b < 1 y = − a . b x + q; b > 1 y = − a . b x + q; 0 < b < 1
f (x) = x 2 − 4 f (x) = 2x 2 Sketch the graph with the equation
y y y y f (x) = 2x − 1  y
• Shape: a > 0 ∴ • Shape: a > 0 ∴ x

• Shape: a > 0 ∴
x
x
y=q
y=q y=q y=q y=q
y=q
• x-intercept (y = 0) • Use a table (on your calculator) x x x x • x-intercept (y = 0)
0 = x2 − 4 y y
0 = 2x − 1
x -2 -1 0 1 2
Option 1: Factorise
1 = 2x
0 = (x + 2)(x − 2) y 8 2 0 2 8 • Asymptote (y = q)
y 20 = 2 x
y = − 1 
x = − 2 OR x = 2 y
y = + a . b x − q; b > 1 y = + a . b x − q; 0 < b < 1 y = − a . b x − q; b > 1 y = − a . b x − q; 0 < b < 1 0= x
 
Option 2: Solve for x
y y
• y-intercept (x = 0)
y y
0 = x2 − 4 y
(-2;0) (2;0) (-2;8) (2;8) y = 20 − 1
4= x2 x x x y = 0
x x x x
± 4= x y=q y=q y=q yy =
= qq
(0;0)
y=q
(0;-4) (-1;2) (1;2) x

x = − 2 OR x = 2 y = -1
y
x
y
• y-intercept (x = 0)
y = − 4 
6
Grade 11 Functions: Quadratic Functions

  Steps for sketching y = a x 2 + b x + c Finding the equation in the form y = a (x − p)2 + q Finding the equation in the form y = a x 2 + b x + c
2
y = a(x − p) + q  Given the x-intercepts and another point
1. Determine the shape (‘a’) Given the turning point and another point
 
2. Find the x- and y-intercepts 1. Substitute the turning point into y = a (x − p)2 + q 1. Substitute the x-intercepts into
Shape: Horizontal shift: Vertical shift: −b y = a (x − x1)(x − x 2 )
3. Find the turning point ( ) 2. Substitute the other point into the equation to
• a>0 • x-value of 2a find ‘a’ 2. Substitute the other point in to find ‘a’
• y-value of
turning pt turning pt 4. Plot points and sketch graph  3. Determine the equation of the graph 3. Write/simplify your final equation
• a<0
• axis of   EXAMPLE 2 EXAMPLE 1 EXAMPLE 2
symmetry
Sketch f (x) = x 2 − 4x + 3 Find the equation of the following graph: Find the equation of the following graph:
Steps for sketching y = a (x − p)2 + q
• Shape: a > 0 ∴ y y
1. Determine the shape (‘a’)
2. Find the x- and y-intercepts • x-intercept (y = 0)
3. Find the turning point Option 1: 0 = x 2 − 4x + 3
4. Plot points and sketch graph 0 = (x − 3)(x − 1) (0;3)
(-1;0) x
EXAMPLE 1 x = 3 OR x = 1
Sketch f (x) = (x + 1)2 − 9 −b ± b 2 − 4a c (1;0) (3;0) x
Option 2: x =
2a
(1;-9)
• Shape: a > 0 ∴ y
−(−4) ± (−4)2 − 4(1)(3)
• x-intercept (y = 0) x =
2(1)
0 = (x + 1)2 − 9 4± 2
(-4;0) (2;0) x = • Turning point (p;q) • x-intercepts
9 = (x + 1)2 2 x = 1 OR x = 3
x p = 1 and q = − 9
± 9= x+ 1 x = 3 OR x = 1
y = a (x − 1)2 − 9 Formula: y = a (x − x1)(x − x 2 )
+ 3 = x + 1 OR − 3 = x + 1 • y-intercept (x = 0) 
y = 3 • Other point y = a (x − 1)(x − 3)
2 = x OR − 4 = x
• Turning point (p;q) 
(−1; 0) • Other point
(0;8)
(0;–8)
• y-intercept (x = 0) −b −(−4)
1) x-value of TP = =   0 = a (−1 − 1)2 − 9 (0; 3)
(-1;-9) 2a 2(1)
y = (0 + 1)2 − 9 9 = 4a 3 = a (−1)(−3)
x = 2 
y = −8 2) Subst. into original eq:  9 1= a
a =
• Turning point (p;q) y = (2)2 − 4(2) + 3  4
Remember:  • Equation
y = − 1 
(−1; − 9) (x − (−1))2 − 9  y • Equation
TP (2; − 1) y = 1(x − 1)(x − 3)
(x − p)2 + q  9
• Axis of symmetry • Axis of symmetry  y = (x − 1)2 − 9  y = x 2 − 4x + 3
4
x = −1 x = 2 (0;3)
NOTE: NOTE:
• Domain f (x) = x 2 • Domain 
If you need to write this equation in the
x ∈R (3;0)
x ∈R → moved 1 unit to the left form y = a (x − p)2 + q complete the square
→ moved 9 units down • Range  (1;0)
• Range y ≥− 1  y = (x − 2)2 + 3 − 4
(2;-1)
y ≥− 9  y = (x − 2)2 − 1 
7
Exponential Graphs Hyperbola

a
  Finding the equation in the form y = a b x−p + q   Finding the equation in the form y = + q
x−p a x −p
y = ab + q  y= + q 
  Given the asymptote and another point x −p Given the asymptotes and another point
1. Substitute the asymptote into the equation  
Vertical shift: 1. Substitute the asymptotes into the equation
Shape: Shape: Horizontal shift: Vertical shift:
y
y
2. Substitute the other point in

• asymptote
x
2. Substitute the other point into the equation
• b>1
x
3. Write/simplify your final equation • a>0 • asymptote • asymptote to find ‘a’

y
y
• 0<b<1 • a<0
x x
3. Write/simplify your final equation
EXAMPLE 2
Find the equation of the following graph given a EXAMPLE 2
Steps for sketching y = a b x−p + q Steps for sketching y = + q
y = b x+ 1 + q : x −p Find the equation of the following graph:
y
1. Determine the asymptote (‘q’) 1. Determine the asymptotes (y = ‘q’ and x = ‘p’)
y
1. Determine the shape (‘a’) 1. Determine the shape (‘a’)
2. Find the x- and y-intercepts 2. Find the x- and y-intercepts y=1
3. Plot points (at least 2 others) and sketch graph 3. Plot points (at least 2 others) and sketch graph (2;0) x
(-3;2)
EXAMPLE 1 EXAMPLE 1
Sketch f (x) = 2x+ 1 + 1 −1
x Sketch f (x) = −1
y = -2 x −2
x = -1
• Asymptote • Asymptote
• Asymptotes
y = 1 y y = 1 and x = − 1
x = 2 a
• Shape: a > 0 ∴ x
f (x) = + 1
• Asymptote y = −1 x − (−1)
• x-intercept (y = 0)
y
q = −2 a
• Shape: a < 0 ∴ f (x) = + 1
0= 2 x+ 1 + 1
x
x+ 1
y = b x+ 1 − 2 • x-intercept (y = 0)
−1 = 2 x+ 1 • Other point
• Other point −1
Not possible to solve for x 0= −1 (2; 0)
x −2
(−3; 2) a
∴ No x-intercept −1 0= + 1
2 = b −3+ 1 − 2 1= 2+ 1
x −2
• y-intercept (x = 0) a
4 = b −2 x −2 = −1 −1 =
y = 20+ 1 + 1 3
1 x = 1
y = 3 4= −3 = a
y b2
• y-intercept (x = 0) y
• Domain 1 • Equation
b2 = −1
4 y = −1 −3
x ∈R f (x) = + 1
(1;5) 1 1 −2 x+ 1
• Range b = ± b ≠− 1
(0;3) 2 2 y = − (1;0)  
(-1;2) 2 x
y > 1  y=1 1 Lines of Symmetry:  
b = + y = -1
2 • Domain (0;-½) Use point of intersection of asymptotes. (-1;1) 
x (3;-2)
• Equation x ∈R; x ≠ 2 y = x+ c (−1; 1)  y = −x + c (−1; 1) 
1 1 = − 1 + c  1 = 1 + c 
y = ( ) x+ 1 − 2  • Range
2 x=2 2 = c  0 = c 
y ∈R; y ≠ − 1  y = x+ 2 y = −x
8
Deductions from Graphs

DISTANCE NOTATION EXAMPLE 1
A f (x) = a x 2 + bx + c and g (x) = k x are sketched. D is the turning point of f(x) with the axis of symmetry at x=2.
Steps for determining VERTICAL DISTANCE • f (x) > 0  
(above the line y = 0) AB is 6 units.
1. Determine the vertical distance   B
y
y y
Vertical distance = top graph − (bottom graph)
2. Substitute the given x-value to derive your answer (-2;9)
x x
D
F
Steps for determining HORIZONTAL DISTANCE (i.e. where y is positive)
A E B x
1. Find the applicable x-values  • f (x) < 0 
A B
A B = xB − xA (largest − smallest) (below the line y = 0)
y y
Steps for determining MAXIMUM DISTANCE

x x
1. Determine the vertical distance 
Vertical distance = top graph − bottom graph Questions: Solutions:
(i.e. where y is negative) 
2. Complete the square  a. Determine the value of k. a. (−2; 9)  1 2 4
d. y = − (2) + (2) + 1 
y = a (x − p)2 + q A 9 = k −2  5 5
• f (x) ⋅ g (x) ≤ 0  b. Determine the x-values of A and B. 1 9 9
3. State the maximum distance  9=   y = ∴ D = (2; )
B −1 4 k2 5 5
y = a (x − p)2 + (q) → q is the max distance  c. Show that a = and b = . 1
(one graph lies above y = 0 and 5 5 k = ±  
NOTE: one graph lies below y = 0) 3
d. Determine the coordinates of D. 1
k = 9
• Distance is always positive 3 e. units (y-value of co-
• f (x) ≥g (x)  e. Determine the maximum distance of DE. 5
• Distance on a graph is measured in units top bottom  ordinate D is also TP)
(i.e. f(x) lies above g(x)) f. Determine the values of p for which: 
INTERSECTION OF GRAPHS −1 2 4 b. E = (2; 0) and A B = 6 u ni t s 
• f (x) = g (x)  x + x+ p< 0
Steps for determining POINTS OF INTERCEPTION 5 5 A = (−1; 0) x = − 1 
(point of intersection)  1 4
g. Determine for which values of x: B = (5; 0) x = 5 f. − x 2 + x + p < 0 
1. Equate the two functions  ROOTS & PARABOLAS 5 5
f (x) = g (x) i. f (x) ≥0 9
p< −  
• Equal, real roots f (x) c. y = a (x − x1)(x − x 2 )  5
2. Solve for x (look for the applicable x-value: A or B) y y ii. > 0
g (x) (−1; 0) and (5; 0)  NOTE:
3. Substitute the applicable x-value into any of the
y = a (x + 1)(x − 5)  • Interpret question as:
two equations to find ‘y’  x x iii. f (x) is increasing
f(x)
Use F (0; 1)  How many units must the
1 = a (+ 1)(−5)  graph move for the max.
g(x)
1 value to be < 0
A
• Non-real/ No real roots − = a 
y y 5
B 1
y = − (x 2 − 4x + 1) 
5 g.
x x
1 4
INCREASING/DECREASING y = − x2 + x + 1  i. x ∈[−1; 5]
5 5
  4 ii. x ∈(−1; 5)
• Real, unequal roots b =
5
Dec
y y
g
iii. x ∈(−∞; 2)
Dec
 
asin
g
asin
rea
rea
re
s
re
x x
Inc
ing
s
ing
Inc
9
Deductions from Graphs

EXAMPLE 2 Solutions:
f (x) = m x + c and g (x) = a(x − p)2 + q are sketched below. T is the turning point of g(x).
a. y = a (x + 2)2 + 8 (0; 0)  g. −2x 2 − 8x = − 2x − 8 
−8 = 4a  0 = 2x 2 + 6x − 8 
−2 = a and p = − 2 and q = 8  0 = 2(x − 1)(x + 4) 
y ∴ g (x) = − 2(x + 2)2 + 8  x = 1 or x = − 4 (NA) 
D (−4; 0)  y = − 2(1) − 8 
8
(-2;8) T ∴ m =
−4
= − 2 and c = − 8 y = − 10 
∴ FP = 10 units
B  
b. OD = 4 units
G
A P h. Max length is given by TP of parabola (L (x))
J O x c. TR = 8 units
D R given by L (x) = g (x) − f (x). Find the TP by  
completing the square.  
M -8 F ∴ Max BM = g (x) − f (x) 
d. TR: x = − 2
= − 2x 2 − 8x − (−2x − 8) 
H f = − 2x 2 − 6x + 8 
g e. g (x) = − 2(x + 2)2 + 8 = − 2(x 2 + 3x − 4) 
3 9
= − 2(x 2 + 4x + 4) + 8 = − 2[(x + )2 − 4 − ] 
2 4
= − 2x − 8x − 8 + 8 3 25
= − 2[(x + )2 − ] 
2 4
= − 2x 2 − 8x 3 25
= − 2(x + )2 +  
Questions: BM = g (x) − f (x) 2 2
25
Determine: BM = − 2x 2 − 8x − (−2x − 8)  ∴ Max of BM = units
2
a. The value of a , p, q, m and c. = − 2x 2 − 6x + 8 
BM = − 2(−1)2 − 6(−1) + 8 
b. The length of OD.
BM = 12 units i. k = -8
c. The length of TR.
d. The equation of TR.
f. 28 = − 2x − 8 − (−2x 2 − 8x)  j. x ∈(−∞; 0); x ≠ − 4
e. BM if OA = 1 unit. 28 = − 2x − 8 + 2x 2 + 8x 
f. OJ if GH = 28 units. 0 = 2x 2 + 6x − 36 
0 = 2(x 2 + 3x − 18) 
g. The length of FP.
0 = 2(x + 6)(x − 3) 
h. The maximum length of BM. x = −6 or x = 3 (NA) 
i. The value of k for which −2x 2 − 8x + k has two equal roots. ∴ OJ = 6 units
f (x)
j. For which value(s) of x will < 0?
g (x)
10
Exponents and Surds SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©
WHAT ARE: LAWS OF EXPONENTS

Exponents: Exponents occur when multiplying or dividing expressions/ Laws of exponents only apply to multiplication, division, brackets and roots. NEVER adding or subtracting
bases/variables numerous times by similar expressions/bases/variables
Surds: A surd is the Mathematical terminology for irrational roots, when Algebraic Notation Exponential Notation Exponential Law in operation
numbers are left in “root-form” as opposed to rounding them off to a deci-
mal place.
1 16 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 16 = 24 When we MULTIPLY the SAME bases we ADD the exponents.
HELPFUL HINTS FOR EQUATIONS\EXPRESSIONS 
F
1. Express larger numbers in exponential form by prime factorising 2 64 26 When we DIVIDE the SAME bases we MINUS the exponents (always top
= 4 = 22
2. Remove a common factor if two unlike terms are separated by a +/- 16 24 minus bottom).
3. Ensure your surds are always expressed in their simplest form
3 When we have the exponents outside the BRACKETS we DISTRIBUTE
4. Express surds in exponential form for simplification 43 = 64 (22 )3 = 26
5. Take note of the following: them into the brackets.
A common error, when solving for an unknown base with a fraction as
4 64 26
an exponent, is to multiply the exponents on both sides by the unknown = 1 = 20 = 1 Any base to the POWER OF ZERO is equal to one. (But 00 is undefined).
64 26
exponent’s inverse (so that the exponent will be 1). However, if you ex-
press these fractions as surds, you will notice the following: 5 3 3
a. An even power will always produce a positive AND negative solution
64 = 4 26 = 22 The POWER inside the root is DIVIDED by the size of the root.
4
x3 = 3 
6 4 × 9 = 36 22 × 32 = 62
3 x 4 = 3  When we have non-identical bases, but identical exponents, we keep the
exponents and multiply the bases. (This same rule will also apply for
x4 = 27  1 1 1
7 2× 3= 6 division).
x = ± 4 27 2 2 × 32 = 6 2
b. A negative number inside an even root cannot solve for a real solution  1 1
8 2× 2= 4= 2
1 2 2 × 2 2 = 21 Any square root multiplied by itself will equal the term inside the root.
−2 2 = x 
−2 = x 
CONVERTING SURDS INTO   OPERATIONS WITH SURDS
No real solution EXPONENTIAL FORM   Steps for working with surds: 
c. An unknown inside an even root cannot solve for a negative solution  (AND VICE VERSA) 1. Express the surd in its simplest surd form 
3
x 4 = − 2  The power inside the root becomes 2. Identify like terms (+ and −) or use Laws of Exponents ( × and ÷ )
4 x 3 = − 2  the NUMERATOR and the size of the Note: If you use your calculator, make sure to show the changes you made
root becomes the DENOMINATOR. i.e. 50 = 25 × 2 = 25 × 2 = 5 2
No real solution
EXAMPLE 1
 
D N EXAMPLE 2 EXAMPLE 3
ADDING AND SUBTRACTING LIKE-TERMS xN = x D
Simplify Simplify A rectangle has a length of
Like terms are terms in an equation/expression that have identical 31 7 + 1 and a width of
variables and exponents. To add/subtract these, simply add/subtract EXAMPLE 50 + 3 18 − 98 5 81 × 4 27 3 20
= 7 − 1. Determine the
their coefficients. Exponents never change when the operator is +/- 1. 5 x 2 = 5 2+ 9 2−7 2 5 9 length of the diagonal.
9× 3 3 10
2 2 2
= 7 2 ( 7 + 1) + ( 7 − 1) = r
EXAMPLE  2
= x 5 5 34 × 4 33 13
= = 3 20
5 32 × 3 7 + 2 7 + 1 + 7 − 2 7 + 1 = r2
1. 3x 2 y 4 − 5x 3 y + 2x 2 y 4 + x 3 y = 5x 2 y 4 − 4x 3 y 3
2. x 4
4 3 16 = r 2
35 × 34 20
=
2 1
= 313 4= r
= 4 x3
2. 3 2 + 5 3 − 8 2 + 3 = −5 2+ 6 3 35 × 32
11
RATIONALISING THE DENOMINATOR

The process of finding an equivalent fraction that can be expressed without a surd in the denominator
Steps for rationalising monomial denominators: Steps for rationalising binomial denominators:
1. Multiply the numerator and denominator by the 1. Multiply numerator and denominator by the  
denominator’s surd  binomial in the denominator with the opposite sign
2. Simplify (conjugate) 
2. Simplify 
EXAMPLE 1
Why do we do this?
Express the following with rational   Multiplying the binomial by itself will give us a trino-
denominators: mial with an irrational middle term. To avoid this,
we multiply the binomial by its conjugate (same
3 6+ 3 2 binomial with the opposite sign) to create a differ-
1. 2.
7 2 3 ence of two squares.
3 7 6+ 3 2 3
= × = × EXAMPLE 1
7 7 2 3 3
Express the following fractions with rational  
3 7 6 3+ 3 6 denominators:
= =
7 2×3 3 7
1. 2.
6 3+ 3 6 5− 7 x− 1
= x
6 5+ 7
3 1
= × x+
2 3+ 6 7 x
= 5− 7 5+ 7 = ×
2 x−
1
x+
1
15 + 3 7 x x
=
EXAMPLE 2 25 − 7 7
7 x+
x2 + 2 15 + 3 7 x
If x = 3 + 2, simplify: and express the an- = =
x −2 1
18 x− x
swer with a rational denominator
5+ 7 7x + 7
x2 + 2 =
1. 6 x
x −2 =
x2 − 1
( 3 + 2)2 + 2 x
=
( 3 + 2) − 2 7x + 7 x2 − 1
= ÷
x x
3+ 4 3+ 4+ 2
= 7(x + 1) x
3 = ×
x (x + 1)(x − 1)
9+ 4 3 3
= × 7x x
3 3 = ×
x (x − 1) x
9 3+ 4⋅3
= 7x x
3 =
x (x − 1)
= 3 3+ 4
7 x
=
(x − 1)
12
FACTORISING
Factorising is the opposite of distribution, which means that you will subtract the exponents when “taking out” factors. There are 6 different types of factorisation.
1. Common Factor: 2. Difference of two squares: 3. Sum or difference of two cubes:

Remove the highest common factor from the coefficients and   Applied when there are two perfect squares separated by a ‘−’ sign. Applied when there are two perfect cubes separated by a + /−.The
common variables. The square root of both terms will be in both pairs of brackets, one final answer will be a binomial in the one bracket and a trinomial in
with a + and the other with a − the other.
EXAMPLES A perfect square is a term whose number will not leave an irrational   A perfect cube is a term whose number will not leave an irrational  
solution once square-rooted, and whose exponents are divisible by 2. solution once cube-rooted, and whose exponents are divisible by 3.
Factorise the following:
EXAMPLES EXAMPLES
4x 5 8x 3 16x 2 Factorise the following:
1. 3x 5 y 4 + 9x 3y 5 − 12x 2 y 4 2. 3 − + Factorise the following:
9y 27y 2 3y
= 3x 2 y 4(x 3 + 3x y − 4)
3y ( 3y 2 9y )
4x 2 x 3 2x 1. x 3 − 8
= + + 4 1. 9x 2 − 4y 6 2. x 4 − 16
= (x − 2)(x 2 + 2x + 4)
3 3 2 2
= (3x + 2y )(3x − 2y ) = (x + 4)(x − 4)
4. Exponential Factorising: = (x 2 + 4)(x + 2)(x − 2)
x2 − 7 2. 27x 6 + 64y 9
Similar to common factorising (1). Remove the highest common   3.
factor, in this case, a base with its exponent(s). Exponents are sub- x+ 7 = (3x 2 + 4y 3)(9x 4 − 12x 2 y 3 + 16y 6 )
tracted from the same bases.
(x + 7)(x − 7) 4. a 2 + 2a b + b 2 − x 2 6. Trinomials:
=
EXAMPLES x+ 7 = (a + b)2 − x 2 Note: Ratio of exponents of term 1 to term 2 is 2:1. A combination
of factors of term 1 and term 3 must give you term 2.
Factorise the following: = (a + b + x)(a + b − x)
= x− 7
EXAMPLES
9 x+ 2 − 32 x 5. Grouping: Factorise the following: (Q2 - Q6 are conceptually the same)
1. 2x+ 3 − 2x+ 1 2. x 3
3 ⋅ 2 × 3x ⋅ 5 Remove the common binomial factor from the expression
= 2x (23 − 2) (32 ) x+ 2 − 32 x
= EXAMPLES 1. 3x 2 − 5x − 2 2. x 2 + 3x − 10
= 2x ⋅ 6 32 x ⋅ 8 ⋅ 5
Factorise the following:
= (3x + 1)(x − 2) = (x + 5)(x − 2)
32 x+ 4 − 32 x
=
32 x ⋅ 40 1. x (y − 4) + 3(y − 4) 2. a 2 + 2a b + b 2 − 3a − 3b
5x − 5x−2 2 1
3. 2x
3 (3 − 1)4 3. x 4 + 3x 2 − 10 4. x 3 + 3x 3 − 10
2 ⋅ 5x − 5x = = (y − 4)(x + 3) 2
= (a + b) − 3(a + b)
32 x ⋅ 40 1 1
5x (1 − 5−2 ) = (a + b)(a + b − 3) = (x 2 + 5)(x 2 − 2) = (x 3 + 5)(x 3 − 2)
= 80
5x (2 − 1) =
40 3. 5x − 15y + 9a y − 3a x
1
1− 5. 52 x + 3 ⋅ 5x − 10 6. 32 x + 3x+ 1 − 10
= 25 = 2 = 5(x − 3y) + 3a(3y − x)
1
= 5(x − 3y) − 3a(x − 3y) = (5x + 5)(5x − 2) = 32 x + 3 ⋅ 3x − 10
24
=
25 = (x − 3y)(5 − 3a) = (3x + 5)(3x − 2)
13
EQUATIONS
1. Linear Equations: 3. Simultaneous Equations: 5. Exponential Equations:
Move all the variables to the one side, and the constants to the Solve for two unknowns in two different equations using the substitu- Make sure that you get a term on the one side of the equation that
other to solve. Linear equations have only one solution. tion method. Remember to solve for both unknowns by substituting has a base that is equal to the base with the unknown exponent.
them back into the original equation. Then, drop the bases, equate the exponents and solve.
EXAMPLES
EXAMPLES
Solve: Hints:
Solve: • NEVER drop the base if the terms are separated by a + or −
1. 3(x − 2) + 10 = 5 − (x + 9) 2. (x − 2)2 − 1 = (x + 3)(x − 3) - Remove common factors until the equation is in its simplest
1. Equation 1: 2x + 3y = 18 2. Equation 1: y + 3x = 2
3x − 6 + 10 = 5 − x − 9 x 2 − 4x + 4 − 1 = x 2 − 9 form and then solve
Equation 2: − 3x + 5y = 11 Equation 2: y 2 − 9x 2 = 16 • Always convert decimals to fractions and then to bases with
3x + 4 = − x − 4 −4x + 3 = − 9 negative exponents
From 1: 2x + 3y = 18 From 1: y + 3x = 2
4x = − 8 −4x = − 12 2x = − 3y + 18 y = − 3x + 2...1a
x = −2 x = 3 −3y + 18
x = ....1a Sub 1a into 2: y 2 − 9x 2 = 16 EXAMPLES
2
(−3x + 2)2 − 9x 2 = 16 1. 4x = 8 2. 0,0625x = 64
2. Quadratic Equations: Sub 1a into 2: −3x + 5y = 11
1 x
( 16 )
9x 2 − 12x + 4 − 9x 2 = 16 22 x = 23
( )
Move everything to one side and equate to zero. By factorising the −3y + 18 = 26
−3 + 5y = 11
trinomial, you should find two solutions. 2 −12x = 12 2x = 3
1 x
( 24 )
9y − 54 x = − 1...3 3 = 26
EXAMPLES + 5y = 11 x =
2 2
Sub 3 into 1: y + 3(−1) = 2
Solve: (Q3 - Q6 are the most likely exam-type questions) 9y − 54 + 10y = 22 2−4x = 26
y = 5
1. x2 + 5 = 6x 2. (3x − 4)(5x + 2) = 0 19y = 76 3. 2 ⋅ 3x+ 1 + 5 ⋅ 3x = 33 −4x = 6
(−1; 5) −3
x 2 − 6x + 5 = 0 3x = 4 or 5x = − 2 y = 4....3 3x (2 ⋅ 3 + 5) = 33 x =
4 −2 2
(x − 5)(x − 1) = 0 x = or x = Sub 3 into 1: 2x + 3(4) = 18 3x (11) = 33
3 5
x = 5 or x = 1 2x = 6 3x = 31
9
x = 3 x = 1 5. 0,5x ⋅ 1+ = 10
2 1 16
3. x 4 + 3x 2 − 10 = 0 4. x 3 + 3x 3 − 10 = 0 (3; 4)
1 x
(2)
25
1 1 4. 273x+ 1 = 812 x+ 5 ⋅ = 10
(x 2 + 5)(x 2 − 2) = 0 (x 3 + 5)(x 3 − 2) = 0 4. Surd Equations: 16
1 1 Isolate the surd on the one side of the equation. Power both sides of (33)3x+ 1 = (34 )2 x+ 5 5
x2 = − 5 or x2 = 2 x3 = − 5 or x 3 = 2 2−x ⋅ = 10
the equation by the root. Ensure that you check your solutions by 39x+ 3 = 38x+ 20 4
No sol. or x = ± 2 x = − 125 or x = 8 substituting your answers back into the original equation. 2−x = 8
9x + 3 = 8x + 20
EXAMPLES 2−x = 23
x = 17
5. x + 3 x − 10 = 0 6. 22 x − 6 ⋅ 2x − 16 = 0 Solve: −x = 3
1 1. x −2 = 3 2. x + 5−x = 3
x+ 3x 2 − 10 = 0 (2 x + 2)(2 x − 8) = 0 x = −3
1 1 x −2 = 9 x+ 5= x+ 3 Check:
(x 2 + 5)(x 2 − 2) = 0 2x = − 2 or 2 x = 8 L HS = (−1) + 5 − (−1)
1 1 x = 9+ 2 x+ 5= x2 + 6x + 9 L HS = 3 R HS = 3
x2 = − 5 or x2 = 2 No sol. or 2 x = 23 ∴ x = −1
x = 11 0= x2 + 5x + 4 L HS = (−4) + 5 − (−4)
x = − 5 or x = 2 x = 3 L HS = 5 R HS = 3
0 = (x + 1)(x + 4)
No sol. or x = 4 ∴ x ≠−4
x = − 1 or x ≠ − 4
14
Number Patterns SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©
Patterns/ Sequences: ordered set of numbers

REMINDERS: Linear: Quadratic:
  Constant first difference between consecutive terms. Constant second difference between consecutive terms.
F
1. Consecutive: directly follow one another Tn = general term  Tn = general term
Tn = dn+ c d = constant difference  Tn = a n2 + bn+ c
2. Common/constant difference: difference n = number of the term  n = number of the term 
between two consecutive terms in a
pattern Notice how this is similar to a linear function y = m x + c Notice how this is similar to the quadratic equation and formula for the parabola
d = T2 − T1
Steps to determine the nth term: Steps to determine the nth term:
3. General term Tn: also referred to as the 1. Find the constant difference 1. Find the constant difference
nth term. 2. Substitute the constant difference (d) and the term value, along with the 2. Use the value of the second difference to find “a”
term number
• General term for linear patterns: 3. Use the “a” value and first difference to find “b”
3. Substitute the c- and d-values to define the nth term.
Tn = dn + c 4. Use “a” and “b” to find “c”
• General term for quadratic patterns:
Tn = a n2 + b n + c EXAMPLE EXAMPLE
1. Determine the nth term of the following sequence: Determine the nth term of the following sequence:
4. T1; T2; . . . . T100: Terms indicated by T T1 T2 T3 T4 T1 T2 T3 T4
and the number of the term as a sub- Term 1 
2; 7; 12; 17 6; 17; 34; 57
script. 7−2 12 − 7 17 − 12
(a + b + c)
17 − 6 34 − 17 57 − 34
5. Objective: First difference 

5 5 5 11 17 23
(3a + b)
7−2 12 − 7
a. Find the values of the variables Second difference 
b. Use the values to find the general Using term 3 where T3 = 12  6 6
(2a)
term Tn = 5n + c
c. Use the general term to calculate 12 = 5(3) + c Second difference = 2a
specific term values
12 = 15 + c 6 = 2a
d. Use specific term values to find the
term number 12 − 15 = c 3= a
−3 = c
First difference = 3a + b
11 = 3a + b
∴ Tn = 5n + 3
11 = 3(3) + b
2= b
2. Determine the 100th term
T100 = 5(100) − 3 Term 1 = a + b + c
= 500 − 3 6 = (3) + (2) + c
= 497 6−3−2 = c
1= c
∴ T100 = 497
∴ Tn = 3n2 + 2n + 1
15
Solving Quadratic Number Patterns

EXAMPLE 1 EXAMPLE 3
Prove that the second difference is 2a. The relationship between the term value (Tn) and the term number (n) can be plotted on a graph.
Tn = a n2 + b n + c
n 1 2 3 4
The terms will then be: Tn 6 17 34 57
T1 = a (1)2 + b (1) + c
For Tn = 3n2 + 2n + 1
T1 = a + b + c
4
T2 = a (2)2 + b (2) + c
3
T2 = 4a + 2b + c n 2
1
0
T3 = a (3)2 + b (3) + c
Tn
T3 = 9a + 3b + c Use the quadratic equation for the graph above (Tn = 3n2 + 2n + 1) and find the next two terms.
a+ b+ c 4a + 2b + c 9a + 3b + c Term 5: T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 OR n=5
6; 17; 34; 57; + 29 86 T5 = 3(5)2 + 2(5) + 1
3a + b 5a + b First difference = 75 + 10 + 1
11 17 23 29 = 86
+6
2a Second difference
6 6 6
EXAMPLE 2
Determine the term number for a specific value:   Term 6: T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 OR n=6
Which term is equal to 80 in the quadratic pattern with the general term
Tn = 2n2 + n + 2? 6; 17; 34; 57; 86; + 35 121 T6 = 3(6)2 + 2(6) + 1
= 108 + 12 + 1
80 = 2n2 + n + 2 Prove that n = 6 11 17 23 29 35 = 121

+6
0 = 2n2 + n + 2 − 80 T6 = 2(6)2 + (6) + 2
6 6 6 6
0 = 2n2 + n− 79 = 72 + 6 + 2
0 = (2n + 13)(n− 6) = 80
Now find the value of the 100th term:
2n + 13 = 0 or n− 6 = 0
T100 = 3(100)2 + 2(100) + 1
2n = 13 or n= 6
13 = 30 000 + 200 + 1
n= BUT no half terms/decimal number of terms
2 = 30 201
∴ n= 6
16
Solving Quadratic Number Patterns
EXAMPLE 4 EXAMPLE 6
Find the general term by inspecting the pictures Researchers investigate the change in a new cell. Each hour they record the growth of the cell. In the table below, you can
review the recorded changes. The researchers realised that the size of the cell followed a quadratic pattern.
T1 T2 T3
2. Determine the size of the cell at 20:00 that evening.

Time Hour monitored Size (pm)
Recording started at 07:00, ∴ 20:00 - 07:00 = 13 hrs 
08:00 1 3
1 by 2, + 1
2 by 3, + 1
09:00 2 7 T1 T2 T3 T4
3 by 4, + 1
Term 1  3; 7; 13; 21
10:00 3 x (a + b + c)
T1 = 3: 1 × 2 + 1: n(n + 1) + 1 11:00 4 21 First difference  4 6 8

(3a + b)
12:00 5 31
T2 = 7: 2 × 3 + 1: n(n + 1) + 1 Second difference  2 2
13:00 6 43 (2a)
T3 = 13: 3 × 4 + 1: n(n + 1) + 1 Second difference = 2a

1. What is the size of the cell after 3 hours (x)? 2 = 2a
∴ Tn = n(n + 1) + 1 T1 T2 T3 T4 1= a
3; 7; x; 21 First difference = 3a + b
= n2 + n+ 1
4 = 3(1) + b
4 x-7 21 - x 1st difference 4−3= b
EXAMPLE 5
Determine the value of x if 6; 15; x ; 45... is a quadratic sequence 1= b
(x - 7) - 4 (21 - x) - (x - 7) 2nd difference Term 1 = a + b + c
T1 T2 T3 T4
3 = (1) + (1) + c
6; 15; x; 45
NB: Because this is a quadratic sequence,   3−1−1= c
the second difference is equal! 1= c
9 x - 15 45 - x 1st difference
∴ (x − 7) − 4 = (21 − x) − (x − 7)
Tn = 1n2 + 1n + 1
(x - 15) - 9 (45 - x) - (x - 15) 2nd difference x − 11 = 21 − x − x + 7
∴ T13 = 1(13)2 + 1(13) + 1
x + 2x = 28 + 11
NB: Because this is a quadratic sequence,   = 169 + 13 + 1
  the second difference is equal! 3x = 39
= 183
x = 13
(x − 15) − 9 = (45 − x) − (x − 15)
∴ At 20:00, the size of the cell will be 183 pm
x − 24 = 45 − x − x + 15
x + 2x = 45 + 24 + 15
3x = 84
x = 28
17
Finance - Simple and Compound Interest SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©
SIMPLE INTEREST A = accumulated amount COMPOUND INTEREST EXAMPLE

REMINDERS: A = P(1 + in)
P = original amount
A = P(1 + i )n Calculate the future value of your investment after
n = number of periods three years at an interest rate of 15% per annum
1.Inflation:  OR OR compounded:
r = interest rate as a %
The rate at which prices increase r r n
A = P(1 +
100 )
A = P(1 +
100 )
r
over time n i = interest rate   a) Annually 
100 A = P (1 + i ) n
2.Consumer Price Index (CPI):  = 15 000(1 + (0,15))3
the average prices of a basket of EXAMPLE  = R 22 813,13
goods Determine the difference in the accumulated amounts when investing your savings of R 15 000 for 4 years
b) Semi-annually 
3.Exchange Rates:  at two different banks, both offer 6,5% however one offers simple interest and the other compound.
A = P (1 + i ) n
The value of one currency for the 6
15 000(1 + (
2 ))
0,15
purpose of conversion to another SIMPLE INTEREST =
A = P (1 + i n) = R 23 149,52
4.Population Growth: 
Change of population size over A = 15 000(1 + (0,065)(4)) c) Quarterly 
MONEY
time A = R18 900 res
t A = P (1 + i ) n
nte
di 12
15 000(1 + (
4 ))
n 0,15
5.Hire Purchase:  ou =
COMPOUND INTEREST mp
Co t
Short term loan, deposit payable. interes = R 23 331,81
A = P (1 + i ) n Simple
Calculated using simple interest.
A = 15 000(1 + (0,065))4 TIME d) Monthly 
6.Reducing balance loan:  A = R19 296,99 A = P (1 + i ) n
Interest is paid on the reducing 36
15 000(1 + (
12 ))
0,15
balance, the lower the balance, =
the less you have to pay. HIRE PURCHASE  
= R 23 495,16
You buy a washing machine of R4 000 by  POPULATION GROWTH  
7.Nominal interest rate:  signing a 2 year hire purchase agreement, you Notice: As compounding periods increase during the
Pf u tu re = Ppresent (1 + i ) n
Quoted period and compounded pay an R800 deposit. Calculate the year, so the 
period is different eg 15% per a) total amount you will repay if the interest accumulated amount increases.
annum compounded monthly. rate is 12% Pfuture = future population size
8.Effective interest rate:  b) your monthly installment. Ppresent = present population size
EXAMPLE 
Quoted period and compound   i = average population (%)
If R13 865 is received after 6 years of being invested
period is equal eg 0,75% per n= number of years
and the interest rate was 16% compounded  
month compounded monthly. a) Deposit : R800
annually, what was the original amount invested?
P = 4 000 − 800 The population of lions is 2 567 in 2015.  A = P (1 + i )n
COMPOUND PERIODS = 3 200
If the growth rate is 1,34%, calculate the number of 13 865 = P (1 + 0,16)6
A = P (1 + i n) lions in 2020.
Annually: 1 per year 13 865 = 2,44P
= 3 200(1 + (0,12)(2)) 13 865
= R 3 968   = P
Semi-annually: 2 per year 2,44
2020 − 2015 = 5 P = 5 690,78
Quarterly: 4 per year
b) A = R 3 968 Pfu tu re = Ppresent(1 + i)n ∴R 5 690,78 was the principal amount invested.
Monthly: 12 per year
2 years = 24 equal payments = 2567(1 + 0,0134)5 OR use the following formulae:
Daily: 365 per year*  = 2743
3 968 (note that the number of lions will be an integer) A = P (1 + i )n To find A
*(excl leap years) = R165,33
24
P = A(1 + i )−n To find P
18
Finance SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©
NOMINAL VS EFFECTIVE INTEREST RATES  CHANGING INTEREST RATES DEPRECIATION (DECAY)

(COMPOUND INTEREST) If the interest rate changes after a set period of time: Depreciation is the loss or decrease of value at a specified rate over time.
Annual effective rate is equivalent to the nominal rate per 1. Determine the accumulated amount after the first period Depreciation: Loss of value over time
2. Set the accumulated amount as the initial amount for the  A= Book or scrap value
annum compounded monthly, because it produces the Book value: Value of equipment at a given time after
second period P= Present value
same accumulated amount. depreciation
3. Determine the accumulated amount after the second period. i = Depreciation rate
iNom n Scrap value: Book value of equipment at the end of its
1 + ieff = (1 +
n )
n= time period
EXAMPLE useful life
R100 000 is invested for 6 years at an interest rate of LINEAR DEPRECIATION COMPOUND DEPRECIATION
ieff = effective rate (annual) 16% per annum compounded quarterly. Thereafter the Also known as simple decay or  Also known as  
iNom = nominal rate accumulated amount is reinvested for 5 years at an  straight line depreciation depreciation on a reducing balance
n = number of compoundings per year interest rate of 14% compounded semi-annually. Calculate
the value of the investment at the end of this period. A = P(1 − in) A = P(1 − i)n
EXAMPLE  Straight Line Depreciation Reducing Balance Depreciation
A = P (1 + i ) n
Convert a nominal rate of 18% per annum   24 periods :  
0,16 24
100 000(1 +
4 )
compounded monthly to an annual effective rate. A =
Value of Asset (R)
Value of Asset (R)

4 period (quarterly) p.a.
over 6 years
A = R 256 330,42
0,18 12
1 + ieff = (1 + 12 )
A = P (1 + i ) n
0,18 12
(1 + )
ieff = −1 10 periods :  
0,14 10
256 330,42(1 +
2 )
12 A = 2 period (semi-annual)
ieff = 0,196 p.a. over 6 years
A = R 504 239,91
∴ ieff = 19,6 % Number of periods Number of periods
EXAMPLE
EXAMPLE My new car , to the value of R 200 000 depreciates at a rate of 9% per annum.
EXAMPLE 
R30 000 was left to you in a savings account. The interest What would the value of my car be after 6 years? Compare a linear depreciation
You invest R25 000 at 14% per annum compounded
to a reducing balance depreciation.
monthly for a period of 12 months. Use the annual  rate for the first 4 years is 12% per annum compounded
effective rate to show that the same accumulated semi-annually. Thereafter the rates change to 18% per LINEAR DEPRECIATION  REDUCING BALANCE DEPRECIATION 
amount will be obtained as when using the nominal annum compounded monthly and you leave the money for A = P (1 − i n) A = P (1 − i ) n
another 3 years. What is the future value of the  = 200 000(1 − (0,09)(6)) = 200 000(1 − 0,09)6
rate.
investment after the savings period. = R 92 000 = R113 573,85
0,14 12
1 + ieff = (1 + 12 ) The exponent A = P (1 + i ) n
8 periods :   EXAMPLE
(12) is calculated 0,12 8
30 000(1 +
2 )
0,14 12
(1 + 12 )
ieff = −1 by noting there A = 2 period (semi-annual) The value of a piece of equipment depreciates from R15 000 to R5 000 in four
will be 12   p.a. over 4 years years. What is the rate of depreciation calculated on the:
ieff = 0,1493 A = R47 815,44  
compounding
∴ ieff = 14,93 % a) Straight line method b) Reducing balance depreciation
periods: once a
A = P (1 + i ) n A = P (1 − i n) A = P (1 − i ) n
month for 12
A = P (1 + i ) n 0,18 36
36 periods :  
47 815,44(1 +
12 )
months. A = 12 period (monthly)
5 000 = 15 000((1 − (x)4) 5 000 = 15 000(1 − i )4
12
25 000(1 + ( 12 ))
0,14 5 000 = 15 000 − 60 000x 1
= p.a. over 3 years = (1 − i )4
A = R 81 723,25 −10 000 = −60 000x 3
= R 28 733,55 x = 0,1667 4 1 −1 = −x
Alternatively: A = P (1 + i ) n × (1 + i ) n 3
A = P (1 + i )n 0,12 8 0,18 36 −0,2401... = −i
30 000(1 +
2 )
× (1 +
12 )
= Depreciation rate = 16,67%
= 25 000(1 + 0,1493)1 i = 0,2401... × 100
= R 28 733,55 = R 81 723,26 r = 24 %
19
Finance SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©
ADDITIONAL PAYMENTS OR WITHDRAWALS

Timelines assist in visualising and keeping track of different rates and payments. Set up each
section with information about the number of terms, compound periods and interest rates.
EXAMPLE EXAMPLE
You deposit R5 000 into a savings account and 4 years later you add R4 500. The You take out a loan to buy a new iPad. You make an additional payment of R 5 000
interest for the first 3 years was 11% compounded quarterly, then it changed to four years after taking out the loan. Two years later you repay the final amount of
12,5% compounded monthly. Calculate the savings at the end of the 6th year. R 6 000. During the first four years of the loan the interest rate is 14% per annum
compounded semi annually. For the last two years the rate changed to 11% per
annum compounded quarterly. How much did you initially borrow?
n = 3 year × 4 n = 1 year × 12 n = 2 year × 12
= 12 = 12 = 24 n = 4 year × 2 n = 2 year × 4
=8 =8
0,11 0,125 0,125
Y0 != Y3 != Y4 != Y6 0,14 0,11
4 12 12 != !=
Y0 2 Y4 4 Y6
+4500
+5000 +6000
Working backwards, we need the value of the the loan at Y4:
Y3 = P (1 + i )n
0,11 12
5000(1 +
4 )
= P = A(1 + i )−n
A = P (1 + i )n To find A
0,11 −8
6000(1 +
4 )
= R 6923,92 P =
P = A(1 + i )−n To find P
P = R4 829,44
Y4 = P (1 + i ) n + 4500
0,125 12 That means that the loan amount at the end of Y4, before the
6923,92(1 +
12 )
= + 4500
payment of R5000 was made, was R9 829,44.
= R12 340,76
Work backing backwards, we determine the initial amount bor-
rowed / loan amount at Y0.
Y6 = P (1 + i ) n
12 340,76(1 +
0,125 24 A(1 + i )−n
12 )
= P =
If withdrawals are made
0,14 −8
9829,44(1 +
2 )
= R15 825,37 from the savings account, P =
use subtraction instead
P = R 5 720,82
OR combine the steps into a single calculation
6000[(1 + 5000][(1 +
2 ) ]
0,11 −8 0,14 −8
4 )
OR P = +
= R 5 720,82
5000[(1 +
4 ) ][(
+ 4500][(1 +
12 ) ]
0,11 12 0,125 12 0,125 24
12 )
Y6 = 1+
= R15 825,37
20
Probability SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©
Theoretical Probability of an event happening: Relative frequency or Experimental probability: Theoretical Probability of an event happening:
number of possible times event can occur number of times the event occured S = {sample set}
P(E ) = P(E ) =
number of possible outcomes number of trials done A = {event A}
n(E ) B = {event B}
=
n(S) A ∪ B = {A union B} = in sets A or B
A ∩ B = {A intersection B} = in sets A and B
E = event S = sample space 
Addition Rule: Mutually Exclusive: Exhaustive Events:
n(A ∪ B) = n(A) + n(B) − n(A ∩ B) A ∩ B = {} Events are exhaustive when they cover all elements in the sample
set.
P(A ∪ B) = P(A) + P(B) − P(A ∩ B)  
 
S
A and B are mutually exclusive events as they have no elements
in common.
A and B are inclusive events as they have elements in common.
A B
S
S A ∩ B = {2; 6} 1  2 5
NOTE: 3  4 6
A B A ∪ B = {1; 2; 3; 4; 5; 6; 7; 8}
A B n(A ∪ B ) = n(A) + n(B )
n(A) = 5
1 5 1  2 5
6 n(A ∩ B ) = 0
4 2 7 n(B ) = 5 3  4 6
3 8 P (A ∪ B ) = P (A) + P (B )
n(A ∩ B ) = 2
9
9 n(A ∪ B ) = 8
Complimentary Events: Independent Events: Dependent Events:
Events A and B are complimentary events if they are mutually Independent events are two events that do not affect each Dependent events are when the first event (A) affects the  
exclusive and exhaustive. other’s outcomes. E.g. choosing two coloured marbles from a bag, outcome of the second event (B). E.g. choosing two coins from a
with replacement, thus, the first choice doesn’t affect the outcome wallet without replacing the first coin. The first choice affects the
of the second choice. second choice as the coin in hand in no longer available for the  
second choice.
n(not in A) = n(A′) = 1 − n(A)
Thus, the multiplication rule holds
P(A′) = 1 − P(A) = P(B)
P(A and B) = P(A ∩ B) = P(A) × P(B)
21
Probability SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©
TREE DIAGRAMS CONTINGENCY TABLE (OR TWO-WAY TABLE)

EXAMPLE 1 EXAMPLE 2 EXAMPLE 1
Questions:
Questions: Questions: In a group of 26 learners, 10 wear glasses, 8 are left handed and 6 of the students
The girls’ hockey team has a match on Saturday. A bag containing 4 red metal balls, 5 blue metal balls and 3 green are both left-handed and wear glasses.
There is an 85% chance Makayla will play goalie. metal balls. A ball is chosen at random and not replaced and then 1. Complete the missing information in the table below. 
If she does there is a 70% chance the team will another ball is chosen at random again. Draw a tree diagram to list  
win but if she doesn’t play there is a 45% all possible events   Left-handed Right-handed TOTAL
chance they will win the game. Use the tree diagram to determine the probabilities of the following:   a b c
Glasses
Draw a tree diagram to help answer the follow-  
1. a blue metal ball in the first drawn. No glasses d e f
ing questions:  
2. a red metal ball then a green metal ball is drawn.
  TOTAL g h i
1. What is the probability of Makayla playing 3. two metal balls of the same colour are drawn.
goalie and the team winning?
2. Calculate that if you pick any one of the 26 learners at random that they will be:
2. What is the probability of the team losing the Solutions:
match on Saturday? a. Right handed
0,27 b. Right handed and not wear glasses
Red (R;R)
Solutions: 0,33 0,45 Solutions:

Red Blue (R;B)
0,7 1. a = 6; b = 4; c = 10; d = 2; e = 14; f = 16; g = 8; h = 18; i = 26
Win
0,85 Mikayla 0,27
goalie Green (R;G) 18
2. P(RH) = = 0,69
(MG) 0,3 26
Loose
0,36 14
0,45 Red (B;R) 3. P(RH and NG) = = 0,54
Win 26
0,15 Mikayla
0,42 0,36
not goalie Blue Blue (B;B) EXAMPLE 2
  0,55
(MNG) Questions:
Loose
0,27 A survey was conducted asking learners which hand they use to write with and
Green (B;G)
1. P(MG and win) = 0,85 × 0,7  what colour ink they prefer. The results are summarised below.
= 0,6 0,36 Hand used to write with
Red (G;R)
Left (L) Right (R) Total
2. P(MG and loose) + P(MNG and loose)  0,25 0,45 Ink Blue (Bu) a b 24
Green Blue (G;B)
= 0,85 × 0,3 + 0,15 × 0,55  colour Black (Ba) c d 56
= 0,34 0,18 Total 50 30 80
Green (G;G)
The survey concluded that “the hand used to write with” and “Ink colour” are 
1. P(B and any) = 0,42 × 0,36 + 0,42 × 0,36 + 0,42 × 0,27  independent. Calculate the values of a, b and c.
= 0,42 Solutions:
P(L and BU) = P(L) × P(Bu)
2. P(R then G) = 0,33 × 0,27  a 50 24
80
= 80
× 80
= 0,09
a = 15
3. P(RR or BB or GG) = 0,33 × 0,27 + 0,42 × 0,36 + 0,25 × 0,18  ∴ b = 24 − 15 = 9
= 0,29 c = 50 − 15 = 35 
22
Probability - Venn Diagram SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©
EXAMPLE 1 EXAMPLE 2
V ∪M (V ∪ M )′ or V′ ∩ M′
Questions: Questions:
V M V M Calculate from the Venn diagram for a grade 6 group 120 Gr 12 girls at Girls High where asked about their participation
in which the number of equally likely ways the in the school’s culture activities:
events (Reading(R); Sports(S) and Art(A)) can occur • 61 girls did drama (D)
has been filled in: • 29 girls did public speaking (P)
• 48 girls did choir (C)
• 8 girls did all three
S S Gr 6 • 11 girls did drama and public speaking
• 13 girls did public speaking and choir
R S • 13 girls did no culture activities 
M V
10 97 1. Draw a Venn diagram to represent this information.
V M V M 20
2. Determine the number of Girls who participate in drama and
5 choir.
25 8 3. Determine the probability that a grade 12 pupil chose at ran-
dom will:
3
S S a. only do choir.
2
b. not do public speaking.
A c. participate in at least two of these activities.
V∩M (V ∩ M )′ or V′ ∪ M′
V M V M 1. P(A⋂R⋂S) Solutions:
2. P(R and A and not S) 1.   Gr 12
3. P(A or R)   D P
4. P(S or R and not A)  
3 13
S S 61–x
 
Solutions: 8
 
5 1 x 5
V′ ∪ M V ∪ M′ 1. P(A ∩ R ∩ S) = =  
170 34
  48–x 13
V M V M 25 5
2. P(R and A and not S) = = C
170 34
70 7 2. (61 − x) + 3 + 13 + x + 8 + 5 + (48 − x) + 13 = 120 
3. P(A or R) = =
170 17 −x = 120 − 151 
S S ∴ x = 31 
127
4. P(S or R and not A) = ∴ 61 − x = 30 and 48 − x = 17
170
M′ 3.
17
V M a. P(C only) = = 0,14
120
30 + 31 + 17 + 13 91
b. P(P′) = = = 0,76
120 120
3 + 30 + 8 + 5 46
S c. P(at least 2) = = = 0,38
120 120
23
Trigonometry SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©
BASIC DEFINITIONS BASIC CAST DIAGRAM FUNDAMENTAL TRIG   REDUCTION FORMULAE

Shows the quadrants where each trig ratio is + IDENTITIES Reducing all angles to acute angles. 
Memorise: 180° – θ 360° + θ
90⁰ S A θ
 
sin θ =
o
soh sin A
Opposite
Hy
h
S A = tan A 180° + θ
T C
360° – θ
cos A
po
a
cos θ = cah sin + all +
t
h
en
o EXAMPLES
us
tan θ = toa II I 0⁰
180⁰
e
a Reduce to an acute angle and simplify if possible (without

III IV 360⁰
sin2 B + cos2 B = 1 a calculator):
T C can be written as 1. sin 125o 2. cos 260 o
θ cos + = sin(180 o − 55o) = cos(180 o + 80 o)
Adjacent
tan + sin2 B = 1 − cos2 B
= sin 55o = − cos 80 o
cos2 B = 1 − sin2 B   (QII so sin is +) (QIII so cos is -)
These are our basic trig ratios.  270⁰
EXAMPLE tan 660 o

3. = tan(360 o + 300 o)
On the Cartesian Plane Special Angles
1. In which quadrant does θ lie if tanθ < 0 and
cosθ > 0?
= tan 300 o (QI so tan is +)
Remember:
y = tan(360 o − 60 o)
r = 2 (x; y) 60 o is a
= − tan 60 o (QIV so tan is -) special angle
  tanθ - cosθ +
y 3
sin θ = cosθ + = −
r
r   (0; 2) 1
y x tanθ -
cos θ = r (1; 3) = − 3
y Quadrant IV
tan θ = ( 2; 2) tan(180 o − β)cos(180 o + β)cos2 (360 o − β)
θ
x
x 90o 4.   + sin2(180 o + β )
x 60o sin(360 + β)
2. In which quadrant does θ lie if sinθ < 0 and ( 3; 1) (−tan β)(−cos β)(cos β) 2
cosθ < 0?  45o = sin β
+ (−sin β )2
30o cos3 β
Remember: cosθ - = tan β . sin β
+ sin2 β
sinθ - sinθ - cos3 β
• x2 + y2 = r2 (Pythagoras)   cosθ - =
sin β
. + sin2 β
  o
(2; 0) cos β sin β
• Angles are measured upwards from the posi- 0 Remember:
tive (+) x-axis (anti-clockwise) up to the hy- = cos2 β + sin2 β
Identities
potenuse (r). Quadrant III  = 1
EXAMPLE 1
Pythagoras Problems 2 cos θ + tan θ
1
Steps:  If 3sinθ – 2 = 0 and tanθ < 0, determine 2 cos θ + without using a calculator and using a diagram. − 5 1
tan θ = 2( )+ Remember:
1. Isolate the trig ratio  2 2 2 3 2 x
x + y = r ( ) cos θ = r
2. Determine the quadrant  1. 3 sin θ − 2 = 0 2. 3. 4.   − 5
3. Draw a sketch and use Pythagoras  2 y tanθ - r=3 x 2 + (2)2 = (3)2 and
4. Answer the question sin θ = 3 r sinθ + sinθ + =
−2 5
−
5
y
y=2 x2 = 5 3 2 tan θ =
tanθ - x
θ x = ± 5 −4 5 − 3 5
= 6
∴ Q u a dr a nt I I ∴x = − 5 −7 5
= 6
24
Trigonometry SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©
NEGATIVE ANGLES CO-FUNCTIONS FULL CAST DIAGRAM

Angles measured downwards (clockwise) from the B If A + B = 90∘ then sinA and cosB are Memorise the following diagram:
positive x-axis, which can be seen as Quadrant IV. known as co-functions.  
90°
 
90° + θ 90° – θ
sinA = sin(90⁰ – B)  
y A = cosB θ
180° – θ
360° + θ
EXAMPLES
S II I A 0°
1. sin 30 o 2. cos 25o  180°
T III IV C 360°
x = sin(90 o − 60 o) = cos(90 o − 65o)  180° + θ 360° – θ
–A = cos 60 o = sin 65o θ – 180° –θ
NOTE:  θ – 90°
Look at the quadrant first, THEN use  
* Reductions Co-functions 270°
the reduction/co-function formulae
Method 1: Q IV Method 2: Get rid of negative PROVING IDENTITIES

3. sin(90 o − α) Q I, so sin +    
sin(–A) = –sinA Add 360° to the angle to make 
= cos α 90 o ∴ sin ↔ cos Steps: 
cos(–A) = cosA it positive.  1. Separate LHS and RHS  
tan(–A) = –tanA    2. Start on the more complex side  
4. cos(90 o + β ) Q II, so cos −   3. Prove that the sides are equal.
EXAMPLES = − sin β 90 o ∴ sin ↔ cos
EXAMPLES
Simplify without the use of a calculator: sin(–330°)   cos x 1
1. cos2 x . tan2 x = sin2 x 3.   tan x + =  
o 1 + sin x cos x
NB: Negative Angle 5. sin(θ − 90 ) Q I V, so sin −    
= − cos θ 90 o ∴ sin ↔ cos  
o LHS = cos2 x . tan2 x  cos x
1) Q I V 2) + 360     LHS = tan x +  
sin(−330 o) = sin(−330 o)    1 + sin x
6. Simplify to a ratio of 10⁰:  2 sin2 x sin x cos x
= − sin 330 o = sin(360 o − 330 o)  = cos x . =   +  
a) cos 100 o Q II, so cos −   cos2 x cos x 1 + sin x
= − sin(360 o − 30 o) = sin 30 o 
1 = cos(90 o + 10 o) 90 o ∴ sin ↔ cos 
= − (−sin 30 ) o
=   = sin2 x = RHS sin x (1 + sin x) + cos x (cos x)
2 = − sin 10 o  =
o   cos x (1 + sin x)
= sin 30  
1 b) tan 170 o Q II, so tan −  
= = tan(180 o − 10 o) 180 o ∴ r edu c t i on  sin x + sin2 x + cos2 x
2 2. 1 − 2 sin x . cos x = (sin x − cos x)2 =
= − tan 10 o  cos x (1 + sin x)
   
PROBLEM SOLVING: RHS = (sin x − cos x)2   sin x + 1
=  
If cos25° = p, express the following in terms of p (i.e. get all angles to 25°): cos x (1 + sin x)
= sin2 x + cos2 x − 2 sin x . cos x  
1. cos(−385 ) o
negative angle, so a) + 360° 3. sin(335
  o
)  1
= 1 − 2 sin x . cos x = LHS = = RHS
= cos(−25o) or b) Q IV  o o
= sin(360 − 25 ) Q IV, sin -  cos x
= cos 25o - 385 Q I  = − sin 25o  
= p ∴ + cos REMEMBER: Correct angle is 25° BUT wrong sin ratio. Thus draw sketch. 4. tan(155o) Method 1: Ratio Method 2: Sketch 
= tan(180 o − 25o) Q II, tan -    
−y −sin 25o −y
2. sin(65o)  Given cos25⁰ = p x So, − sin 25o =   = − tan 25o  = =  
= sin(90 o − 25o) Q I, sin +  r   cos 25o x
1 r  
 
= cos(25o)  1 This can be solved in two ways:  
r = y = √1 –p2 − 1 − p2 − 1 − p2 − 1 − p2
= p  = =  
(Pythag) = = − 1 − p2   p p
x=p 1
25
Trig Equations SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©
BASICS SQUARES CO-FUNCTIONS FACTORISING

Steps: Hints: Hints: Steps:
• Isolate trig ratios • Do all four quadrants (± means the ratio • sin and cos with different angles • Solve as you would a quadratic equation
must be both + and -)
• Reference angle (don’t put negative  • Introduce the co-function with 90° - z
EXAMPLES
into calculator) EXAMPLE
• The angle you change is the reference angle
Solve for x:
• Choose quadrants Solve for β:
EXAMPLES
➡ sin or cos: 2 Quadrants 4 sin2 β − 3 = 0 
  Solve for x: 1. tan2 x − 2 tan x + 1 = 0 
➡ tan: 1 Quadrant 3
2
sin β =   1. cos x = sin(x − 10 o)  (tan x − 1)(tan x − 1) = 0 
• General solutions 4 cos x = cos(90 o − (x − 10 o)) 
  tan x = 1
➡ sin θ or cos θ + k 360∘; k ∈ℤ cos x = cos(100 o − x)
3 Reference∠ : 45∘ 
➡ tan θ + k180∘; k ∈ℤ sin β = ± Reference∠ : 100∘ − x 
4  
 
REMEMBER: Only round off at the end Reference∠ : 60∘  QI: x = 45∘ + k180∘; k ∈ℤ
QI: x = 100∘ − x + k 360∘; k ∈ℤ 
  2x = 100∘ + k 360∘   
Common formulae: QI: β = 60∘ + k 360∘; k ∈ℤ 
  x = 50∘ + k180∘   
θ = sin−1 a + k 360∘ or QII: β = 180∘ − 60∘ + k 360∘  QII: x = 360∘ − (100∘ − x) + k 360∘  2. cos2 x + sin x . cos x = 0 
θ = (180∘ − sin−1 a) + k 360∘ (k ∈ℤ) = 120∘ + k 360∘  x − x = 260∘ + k 360∘ 
QIII: β = 180∘ + 60∘ + k 360∘  0 = 260∘ + k 360∘  cos x (cos x + sin x) = 0 
θ = ± cos−1 a + k 360∘ (k ∈ℤ)
= 240∘ + k 360∘  No real solution  cos x = 0 OR cos x = − sin x
θ = tan−1 a + k180∘ (k ∈ℤ)
QIV: β = 360∘ − 60∘ + k 360∘   
= 300∘ + k 360∘ cos x −sin x
EXAMPLES 2. sin(x + 30 o) = cos 2x  Use trig graph: =
o o
sin(x + 30 ) = sin(90 − 2x) cos x cos x
Solve for θ:
SINθ AND COSθ Reference∠ : 90∘ − 2x  tan x = − 1
1. 3 sin θ − 1 = 0  90⁰ 270⁰
1 Steps:  
Reference∠ : 45∘
sin θ =   QI: x + 30∘ = 90∘ − 2x + k 360∘; k ∈ℤ 
3 • sin and cos with the same angle 3x = 60∘ + k 360∘ 
  x = 90∘ + k180∘; k ∈ℤ QII: x = 135∘ + k180∘ 
• Divide by cos to get tan x = 20∘ + k120∘   
sin + in QI and QII
QII: x + 30∘ = 180∘ − (90∘ − 2x) + k 360∘ 
Reference∠ : 19,47∘  EXAMPLE x + 30∘ = 90∘ + 2x + k 360∘ 
  −x = 60∘ + k 360∘  3. 2 cos2 x + 3 sin x = 0
Solve for α:
QI: θ = 19,47∘
+ k 360∘;
k ∈ℤ  x = − 60∘ − k 360∘ 2(1 − sin2 x) + 3 sin x = 0
QII: θ = 180∘ − 19,47∘ + k 360∘; k ∈ℤ  2 sin 2α − cos 2α = 0 
2 sin2 x − 3 sin x − 2 = 0
= 160,53∘ + k 360∘ 2 sin 2α = cos 2α  NOTE: Specific Solutions
 
2 sin 2α cos 2α If they ask for x ∈[−360∘; 360∘ ], choose integer (2 sin x + 1)(sin x − 2) = 0
=   values for k  
cos 2α cos 2α −1
2. tan(3θ + 30 o) + 1 = 0   
(...-3; -2; -1; 0; 1; 2; 3...)   sin x = OR sin x = 2
o
tan(3θ + 30 ) = − 1 2 tan 2α = 1  so that x falls in the given intervals. 2
 
1
  tan 2α =   Reference∠ : 30∘ No real solution 
2 x = 30∘ + k120∘
tan − in QII  
x = − 330∘; − 210∘; − 90∘; 30∘; 150∘; 270∘ 
Reference∠ : 45∘  tan + in QI
k = − 3; k = − 2; k = − 1; k = 0; k = 1; k = 2  QIII: x = 180∘ + 30∘ + k 360∘; k ∈ℤ 
  Reference∠ : 26,57∘  OR  x = 210∘ + k 360∘ 
QII: 3θ + 30∘ = 180∘ − 45∘ + k180∘; k ∈ℤ    x = − 60∘ + k 360∘  QIV: x = 360∘ − 30∘ + k 360∘; k ∈ℤ 
3θ = 105∘ + k180∘  QI: 2α = 26,57∘ + k180∘; k ∈ℤ  x = − 60∘; 300∘  x = 330∘ + k 360∘
θ = 35∘ + k 60∘ α = 13,28∘ + k 90∘  k = 0; k = 1
26
Trig Graphs SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©
VERTICAL SHIFT
IMPORTANT!
When sketching trig graphs, you need to label the   Notes for sin x and cos x : • y = sin x + q or y = cos x + q or y = tan x + q
following:  ❖ Key points (intercepts/turning pts) every 90° If q > 0 : upwards (e.g: y = sin x + 1)  
! both axes ! x- and y-intercepts   If q < 0 : downwards (e.g: y = cos x − 2)
❖ Period (1 complete graph): 360°
! turning points ! endpoints (if not on the axes)  EXAMPLE y
! asymptotes (tan graph only) ❖ Amplitude (halfway between min and max): 1
y = cos x − 1 x ∈[0∘; 360∘ ] (solid line)
BASICS y = cos x (dotted line - for comparison)

Notes for tan x :
• y = sin x for x ∈[−360∘; 360∘ ] ❖ Key points every 45° 360°
y 0° x
❖ Period (1 complete graph): 180° x
(90°;-1) (270°;-1)
❖ No amplitude can be defined
(-270°; 1) (90°; 1)
❖ Asymptotes at x = 90o + k180o, k ∈ℤ (180°; -2)
-360° -180° 180° 360°
0° x
AMPLITUDE CHANGE PERIOD CHANGE
(-90°; -1) (270°; -1) • y = a . sin x or y = a . cos x or y = a . tan x • y = sin b x or y = cos b x or y = tan b x
 
If a > 1 : stretch upwards   The value of b indicates how many graphs are completed in the ‘regular’ period of
 
0 < a < 1 : compress downward  that graph (i.e. sin x /cos x : 360∘ and tan x : 180∘)
a < 0 : reflection in x-axis
EXAMPLES
• y = cos x for x ∈[−360∘; 360∘ ]
EXAMPLES y 1. y = cos 3x x ∈[0∘; 360∘ ]  
y (90°; 2)
1. y = 2 sin x    
(solid line) * Normal period: 360°  
(-360°; 1) (360°; 1) * New period: 120° (3 graphs in 360°)  
y = sin x   * Critical points every 90/3 = 30°
(dotted line -   180° 360°
-270° -90° 90° 270° y
for comparison) 0° x
0° x
(120°; 1) (240°; 1) (360°; 1)
(-180°; -1) (180°; -1) * Amplitude = 2
30° 150° 270°
(270°; -2)
0° 90° 210° 330° x
• y = tan x for x ∈[−360∘; 360∘ ] (180°;3)

(60°;-1) (180°;-1) (300°;-1)
2. y = − 3 cos x   y
y (solid line) y
 
y = cos x    
1
(dotted line -   2. y = tan x x ∈[0∘; 360∘ ] 
(45°; 1) for comparison) 2 (90°; 1)
 
0° 90° 270° xx * Normal period: 180°  
-360° -180° 0° 180° 360° x
* Range: y ∈[−3; 3] * New period: 360°   -360° 360° x
(½ graph in 180°) 
* Critical points:  
every 45/0,5 = 90°
-3 (360°; -3)
x = -270° x = -90° x = 90° x = 270°
x = -180° x = 180°
27
HORIZONTAL SHIFT EXAMPLE Solutions: 

• y = sin(x − p) or y = cos(x − p) or y = tan(x − p) Given f (x) = cos(x + 60∘ ) and g (x) = sin 2x 1. cos(x + 60∘ ) = sin 2x
If p > 0 : shift right (e.g: y = sin(x − 30∘ ))  Questions: cos(x + 60∘ ) = cos(90∘ − 2x)
p < 0 : shift left (e.g: y = cos(x + 45)) Reference ∠ : 90∘ − 2x
1. Determine algebraically the points of intersection of 
How to plot a horizontal shift: f (x) and g (x) for x ∈[-90°;180°] QI: x + 60∘ = 90∘ − 2x + k 360∘; k ∈ℤ 
• Plot the original curve 2. Sketch f (x) and g (x) for x ∈[-90°;180°] 3x = 30∘ + k 360∘ 
• Move the critical points left/right x = 10∘ + k120∘ 
• Label the x-cuts and turning points 3. State the amplitude of f (x) QIV: x + 60∘ = 360∘ − (90∘ − 2x) + k 360∘; k ∈ℤ 
• Calculate and label the endpoints and y-cut 4. Give the period of g (x) x + 60∘ = 270∘ + 2x + k 360∘ 
−x = 210∘ + k 360∘ 
EXAMPLES 5. Use the graphs to determine the values of x for which: x = − 210∘ + k 360∘
1. y = cos(x + 45∘ )
for x ∈[−360∘; 360∘ ] (dotted line)  a. g (x) is increasing and positive but x ∈[−90∘; 180∘ ]
y = cos x (solid line - for comparison) b. f (x) is increasing and positive ∴ x = 10∘; 130∘; 150∘
y
c. f (x) ≥g (x) - i.e. f (x) is above g (x) 2.
g (x) = sin 2x
(315°; 1) d. f (x) ⋅ g (x) ≥0 - i.e. product is + or 0
(-45°; 1)
y f (x) = cos(x + 60∘ )
(-360°; ½2 )
2
6. Explain the transformation that takes y = s i nx to 
2 2
2 (360°; 2)
-315° -135° 225°
y = sin(2x − 60∘ ) (-60°; 1) (45°; 1)
45° x 3
(-90°; ½)2
-90° ½ 30° 90° 180°

(-225°; -1) (135°; -1) x
0° (180°; -½)
Endpoints:   (-45°; -1) (120°; -1) (135°; -1)

2 2
cos(−360∘ + 45∘ ) = and c os (−360∘ + 45∘ ) =
2 2
y-cut:  For f(x):  
  2 3 1
cos(0∘ + 45∘ ) = Endpoints: cos(−90∘ + 60∘ ) = and cos(180∘ + 60∘ ) = −
2 2 2
1
  y-cut: cos(0∘ + 60∘ ) =
2
2. y = sin(x − 30∘ ) for x ∈[0∘; 360∘ ] (dotted line) 
y = sin x (solid line - for comparison)
3. 1
y
(120°; 1) 4. 180∘
30° 210°
x
5. a. x ∈(0∘; 45∘ )
(360°; -½)
-½ b. x ∈[−90∘; − 60∘ )
(300°; -1)
c. x ∈[−90∘; 10∘ ] ∪ (130∘; 150∘ )
d. x ∈[0∘; 30∘ ] ∪ [90∘; 180∘ ] also at x = − 90∘
Endpoints:  
1 1
sin(0∘ + 45∘ ) = − and sin(360∘ − 30∘ ) = −
2 2
y-cut:  6. Rewrite y = sin(2x − 60∘ ) in the form y = sin b (x − p) = sin(2(x − 30∘ )) 
The y-cut is one of the endpoints Transformation: b = 2 ∴ period is halved 
p = 30 ∴ shifted 30 to the right° 
 
28
USING TRIG GRAPHS TO FIND RESTRICTIONS ON IDENTITIES

i.e. answering the question  
“for which values of x will this identity be undefined?”
Identities are undefined if:
• the function is undefined 
t a nx has asymptotes at x = 90∘ + k180∘; k ∈ℤ
• any denominator is zero
Reminder:
A
is undefined
0
EXAMPLES
1. For which values of x will cos2 x ⋅ tan2 x = sin2 x be defined?
• t a nx is undefined at x = 90∘ + k180∘; k ∈ℤ 
∴ will be defined at x ∈ℝ and x ≠ 90∘ + k180∘; k ∈ℤ
• no denominators that could be zero
cos x 1
2. For which values of x will tan x + = be undefined?
1 + sin x cos x
• t a nx is undefined at x = 90∘ + k180∘; k ∈ℤ
• fractions are undefined if the denominator = 0
∴ if 1 + sin x = 0 or if cos x = 0
* 1 = sin x = 0 
∴ sin x = − 1
y
y = sinx
Use trig graphs for 0; ± 1
x
-1
(270°; -1) ∴ x = 270∘ + k 360∘; k ∈ℤ
* cos x = 0
y
y = cosx
Use trig graphs for 0; ± 1
90° 270° xx
∴ x = 90∘ + k180∘; k ∈ℤ
x = 90∘ + k180∘; k ∈ℤ
x = 270∘ + k 360∘; k ∈ℤ can be summarised as: x = 90∘ + k180∘; k ∈ℤ
x = 90∘ + k180∘; k ∈ℤ
29
Euclidean Geometry SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©
FLASHBACK: Theory CIRCLE GEOMETRY

from previous grades Theorem 1: Converse of Theorem 1: Converse two of Theorem 1:
(line from centre ⟂ chord) (line from centre mid-pt. chord) (perp bisector of chord)
A The line segment joining the centre of a circle to the The perpendicular bisector of a chord passes through
A line drawn from the centre of a circle perpendicular
midpoint of a chord is perpendicular to the chord. the centre of the circle.
to a chord bisects the chord.
K L
  J
1 2
N M P
B C If JK = K L, then
OK ⊥ J L O
B̂ = C1̂ (∠'s opp. = sides)
Â + B̂ + C1̂ = 180∘ (sum ∠'s of Δ) O
C2̂ = Â + B̂ (ext. ∠'s of Δ)
EXAMPLE GIVEN: R T = R P and M R ⊥ T P

Given circle centre M with a diameter of 20 cm and
GIVEN: Circle centre O with chord N P ⊥ MO . chord DF of 12 cm.
D RTP: M R goes through the centre of the circle.
F
RTP: N M = M P
PROOF:
2
1 2
1 K Choose any point, say M, on A D.
M 3 PROOF:
Join M T and M P
Join ON and OP  
E In ΔM R P and ΔM R T
G In ΔMON and ΔMOP   PR = R T (given)
N MÔ = P MO
̂ (OM⟂PN, given)
K2̂ = M̂1 (corres. ∠'s DE//GF)   M R = M R (common)
ON = OP (radii) M R̂ P = M R̂ T = 90∘ (∠‘s on a str. line)
K2̂ = M̂3 (alt. ∠'s DE//GF)
OM = OM (common) Determine the length of of chord AC.
K2̂ + M̂2 = 180∘ (co-int. ∠'s DE//GF) ΔM R T ≡ ΔM R P (SAS)
∴ ΔMON = ΔMOP (RHS)
∴ M T = MP
M̂1 = M̂3 (vert. opp. ∠'s) NM = MP Join MF
∴All points on A D are equidistant from P and T and
K2̂ + K1̂ = 180∘ (∠'s on a str. line) DE = E F = 6 cm (line from centre ⟂ chord)
the centre is equidistant from P and T.
MF = 10 cm (radius) ∴The centre lies on A D.
x2 = 10 2 − 62 (Pythag. Th.)
x2 = 64
P
x = 8 cm
∴ MB = 8 − 3 = 5 cm (given)
T Join M A
R
M A ⊥ AC (line from centre mid-pt. chord0
P T 2 = PR 2 + R T 2 (Pythag. Th.) M A = 10 cm (radius)
A B 2 = 10 2 − 52 (Pythag. Th.)
A B 2 = 75
A B = 8,66 cm
∴ AC = 17,32 cm
30
CIRCLE GEOMETRY
Theorem 2: EXAMPLE 1
Theorem 3: Converse Theorem 3:
(∠ at centre = 2 x ∠ at circum.) (∠ in semi-circle) (chord subtends 90°)
Determine the value of x:
The angle subtended by an arc at the cen- The angle subtended by the diameter at the If a chord subtends an angle of 90° at the circumference
tre of the circle is twice the angle the arc   circumference of a circle is a right angle. of a circle, then that chord is a diameter of the circle.
subtends at any point on the circumference
of the circle.
If A MC is the diameter then B̂ = 90∘. If B̂ = 90∘ then A MC is the diameter.

x = 54∘ ÷ 2 (∠ at centre = 2 x ∠ at circum.)
∴ x = 27∘ ALTERNATIVE DIAGRAMS:
EXAMPLE
In circle O with diameter AC, D C = A D
EXAMPLE 2
and B2̂ = 56∘. Determine the size of D Â B
Determine the value(s) of x and y:
D
B
GIVEN: Circle centre M with arc A B 
x
subtending A M̂ B at the centre and A Ĉ B at
the circumference. 2
E y O1 3
RTP: A M̂ B = 2 × A Ĉ B 88°
PROOF: CO = OB (radii)
A M = B M = C M (radii) A C C2̂ = B2̂ = 56∘ (∠ ‘s opp. = sides)
Â = C2̂ (∠ ‘s opp. = sides)
O1̂ = 68∘ (sum ∠ ‘s of Δ)
B̂ = C1̂ (∠ ‘s opp. = sides) 
x = 44∘ (∠ at centre = 2 x ∠ at circum.) A2̂ = 34∘ (∠ at centre = 2 x ∠ at circum.)
OB = OC (radii) D̂ = 90∘ (∠ in semi-circle)
M̂1 = Â + C2̂ (ext. ∠ of Δ)
Ĉ = 44∘ (∠ ‘s opp. = sides) A1̂ = C1̂ (∠‘s opp. = sides, DC = AD)
∴ M̂1 = 2C2̂
O3̂ = 92∘ (sum ∠ ‘s of Δ) A1̂ = 45∘ (sum ∠ ‘s of Δ)
O2̂ = 88∘ (vert. opp. ∠ ‘s)  ∴ D Â B = 34∘ + 45∘ = 79∘
M̂2 = B̂ + C1̂ (ext. ∠ of Δ)
∴ M̂2 = 2C1̂
88∘ + 92∘ + 88∘
y =
2
∴ M̂1 + M̂2 = 2(C1̂ + C2̂ ) y = 137,5∘ (∠ at centre = 2 x ∠ at circum.)
∴ A M̂ B = 2 × A Ĉ B
31
CIRCLE GEOMETRY
Theorem 4: COROLLARIES: Converse Theorem 4:
(∠ in same seg.) (line subt. = ∠’s)
a) Equal chords (or arcs) subtend equal
Angles subtended by a chord (or arc) at the If a line segment joining two points subtends equal angles at two other points on the same side of the line
angles at the circumference.
circumference of a circle on the same side of segment, then these four points are concyclic (that is, they lie on the circumference of a circle.)
the chord are equal.
K L = ST then P̂ = M̂ (= chords, = ∠’s)
GIVEN: Circle centre N with arc R T subtending If Ŵ = U,̂ then W U Z Y is a cyclic quadrilateral.
R P̂ T and R M̂ T in the same segment. b) Equal chords subtend equal angles at  
EXAMPLE 1 EXAMPLE 2
centre of the circle.
RTP: R P̂ T = R M̂ T Given circle centre O with Ĉ = 36∘ Given circle A BC D with A B | | E F.
PROOF:
Join N R and N T to form N1̂ .
1
M̂ = × N1̂ (∠ at centre = 2 x ∠ at circum.)
2
1
P̂ = × N1̂ (∠ at centre = 2 x ∠ at circum.)
2
If A B = C D then O1̂ = O2̂ (= chords, = ∠’s)
∴ R M̂ T = R P̂ T
c) Equal chords in equal circles subtend Questions:

equal angles at their circumference. Calculate the values of angles: a) Prove C DE F is a cylindrical quad.
O1̂ , Â and B.̂ b) If D2̂ = 38∘, calculate E2̂
Solutions:
a) B1̂ = C1̂ (∠‘s same seg.) 
O1̂ = 2 × 36∘ = 72∘ (∠ at centre = 2 x ∠ at circum.) B1̂ = F1̂ (corres. ∠ ‘s, AB||EF) 
∴ C1̂ = F1̂  
Â = B̂ = Ĉ = 36∘ (∠‘s same seg.) ∴ C DE F cyc . quad (line subt = ∠‘s)
b) D2̂ = E2̂ = 38∘ (∠‘s same seg quad CDEF)

If HF = PQ then Ĝ = R̂ (= chords, = ∠’s)
32
CIRCLE GEOMETRY
Theorem 5: Converse Theorem 5: Theorem 6:
(opp. ∠‘s quad supp) EXAMPLE 1
(opp. ∠‘s cyc. quad) (ext. ∠ cyc quad)
If the opposite angles of a quadrilateral are  GFE is a double chord and H1̂ = 75∘
The opposite angles of a cyclic quadrilateral are The exterior angle of a cyclic quadrilateral is
supplementary. supplementary, then the quadrilateral is cyclic. equal to the interior opposite angle.
If Q̂ + Y ̂ = 180∘
or Ĉ + L̂ = 180∘
GIVEN: Circle centre C with quad QUA D.   L Q̂ D = Â (ext. ∠ cyc quad)

Then QC Y L  Determine the value of D.̂
RTP: Q̂ + Â = 180∘ is cyclic Converse Theorem 6:

H1̂ = F1̂ = 75∘ (ext. ∠ cyc quad)
(ext. ∠ = int. opp. ∠)
F1̂ = D̂ = 75∘ (ext. ∠ cyc quad)
PROOF: If the exterior angle of a quadrilateral is equal to
Join UC and D C the interior opposite angle, then the quadrilateral
C1̂ = 2 Â (∠ at centre = 2 x ∠ at circum.) is cyclic.
EXAMPLE 2
C2̂ = 2Q̂ (∠ at centre = 2 x ∠ at circum.) Given circle GH JK with GM ⊥ H J and EXAMPLE 2
GL ⊥ L J. G3̂ = 24∘ A BC D is a parallelogram and B Â D = F1̂ .
C1̂ + C2̂ = 360∘ (∠‘s around a pt.)
Prove that CE F G is a cyclic quad.
∴ 2 Â + 2Q̂ = 360∘
∴ Â + Q̂ = 180∘
EXAMPLE 1
Calculate the value of α.  
If L Q̂ D = Â then QUA D is cyclic

a) Is quadrilateral GL J M a cyclic quad?
b) Is quadrilateral GL J H a cyclic quad?
a) M̂2 = 90∘ (Given GM ⊥ H J) 

L̂ = 90∘ (Given GL ⊥ L J)  B Â D = C1̂ (opp. ∠‘s parm)
  ∴ GL J M cyc quad (opp ∠’s quad suppl) B Â D = F1̂ (given)
55∘ − α + 41∘ + 3α = 180∘ (opp. ∠‘s cyc. quad)
∴ C1̂ = F1̂
2α = 180∘ − 96∘ b) Ĥ = 180∘ − 24∘ − 90∘ (sum ∠‘s of Δ) 
∴ CE F G is a cyc quad (ext. ∠ = int. opp. ∠)
2α = 84∘ Ĥ = 66∘ 
∴ α = 42∘ GL J H not cyclic (opp ∠‘s = 156° not 180°)
33
CIRCLE GEOMETRY
Theorem 7: EXAMPLE 1 Theorem 8: Theorem 9: Converse Theorem 9:
(tan ⟂ radius) (tan from same pt.) (tan-chord th.) (∠ betw. line and chord)
Given circle centre O with tangent Z Y U 
and M N = F G. If Ĥ = 18∘ determine the   Two tangents drawn to a circle from the same The angle between a tangent to a circle and If a line is drawn through the end
A tangent to a circle is 
size of Y2̂ . point outside the circle are equal in length. a chord drawn from the point of contact is point of a chord, making with the
perpendicular to the radius
equal to an angle in the alternate segment. chord an angle equal to an angle
at its point of contact.
in the alternate segment, then
the line is a tangent to the circle.
GIVEN: Tangents T PK and SR K to circle  

centre O.
RTP: PK = R K GIVEN: Tangent TA N to circle O, and
Y1̂ = Ĥ = 18∘ (equal chords, = ∠‘s) PROOF: chord AC subtending B.̂
If TA N is a tangent to 
Construct radii OR and OP and join OK. RTP: A1̂ = C2̂ If Â = Ĉ or A2̂ = B, ̂
circle P, then PA ⊥ TA N Y1̂ + Y2̂ = 90∘ (tan ⟂ radius)
In ΔOPK and ΔOR K PROOF: TA N a tangent
∴ Y2̂ = 90∘ − 18∘ = 72∘ OP = OR (radii) Draw in diameter AOD an join D C.
Converse Theorem 7:
OK = OK (common) A1̂ + A2̂ = 90∘ (tan ⟂ radius)
(line seg ⟂ radius)
̂ = O R̂ K = 90∘ (tan ⟂ radius)
O PK
EXAMPLE 2 C1̂ + C2̂ = 90∘ (∠ in semi-circle)
A line drawn perpendicular
Prove that T PK is a tangent to circle centre ∴ ΔOPK ≡ ΔOR K (RHS) A2̂ = C1̂ (∠’s in same seg)
to the radius at the point
O and radius of 8 cm, if OK = 17 cm and   ∴ PK = R K ∴ A1̂ = C2̂
where the radius meets the
PK = 15 cm.
circumference is a tangent to
EXAMPLE
the circle.
PK and K N are tangents to circle centre EXAMPLE 1
M. If N1̂ = 24∘, determine the size of P K̂ N. T R N is a tangent at R and SR = RQ.
If R1̂ = x, find five angles equal to x.
R1̂ = P1̂ = x (tan-chord th.)

Q2̂ = x (tan-chord or ∠’s in same seg)
Q2̂ = S2̂ = x (∠‘s opp. = sides)
OK 2 = 172 = 289 S2̂ = P2̂ = x (∠‘s same seg)
OP 2 + PK 2 = 82 + 152 P2̂ = R 4̂ = x (tan-chord th.) 
= 289
If PA ⊥ TA N, then TA N is a
M N̂ K = 90∘ (tan ⟂ radius)
tangent to circle P.
∴ OK 2 = OP 2 + PK 2
∴ N2̂ = 66∘
∴ OP ⊥ T PK (conv. Pythag. Th.)
PK = N K (tan from same pt.)
∴ T PK is a tan to circle O (line seg ⟂ radius) N2̂ = N PK
̂ = 66∘ (∠ ‘s opp. = sides)
∴ P K̂ N = 48∘ (sum ∠‘s of Δ) 
34
CIRCLE GEOMETRY
EXAMPLE 2
In the figure, A D and A E are tangents to the circle DE F. The straight
line drawn through A, parallel to F D meets E D produced at C and E F
produced at B . The tangent A D cuts E B at G.
Hints when answering Geometry Questions

• Read the given information and mark on to the diagram if not already
done.
• Never assume anything. If not given or marked on diagram is not true
unless proved.
• As you prove angles equal or calculate angles mark them on to the dia-
a) Prove that A BDE is a cyclic quadrilateral given E2̂ = x. gram and write down statement and reason there and then.
b) If it is further given that E F = DF, prove that A BC is a tangent to the 
• Make sure that by the end of the question you have used all the given
circle passing through the points B, F and D. information.
• If asked to prove something, it is true. 
a) E2̂ = D2̂ = x (tan-chord th.)  For EXAMPLE if ask to prove ABCD a cyclic quad, then it is, but if you
D2̂ = A2̂ = x (alt ∠’s AB||FD)  can’t then you can use it as one in the next part of the question.
∴ A BDE a cyc quad (line seg subt. = ∠’s) 
b) E2̂ = D3̂ = x (∠‘s opp. = sides) 

F1̂ = E2̂ + D3̂ = 2x (ext. ∠ of Δ) 
A E = A D (tan from same pt.) 
E1̂ + E2̂ = D2̂ + D3̂ = 2x (∠‘s opp. = sides) 
∴ B3̂ = 2x (ext. ∠ cyc quad) 
B3̂ = F1̂  
∴ A BC tan to circle (∠ betw. line and chord) 
 
ALTERNATIVE 
F1̂ = B1̂ (alt ∠’s AB||FD) 
B1̂ = D2̂ + D3̂ (∠‘s same seg) 
D1̂ = E1̂ (∠‘s same seg) 
E1̂ = D3̂ (tan-chord th.) 
∴ B1̂ = D2̂ + D1̂  
∴ A BC tan to circle (∠ betw. line and chord)
35
Analytical Geometry SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©
What is Analytical Geometry? EXAMPLE 3. Midpoint formula 

x + x1 y2 + y1
M(x ; y) = ( 2
2 )
Analytical Geometry (Co-ordinate Geometry): ;  
Given: A(−2; 3) and C( p; − 5) are points on a Cartesian Plane.
Application of straight line functions in conjunction 2
with Euclidean Geometry by using points on a  1. If AC = 10 units determine the value(s) of p. −2 + 4 3 + (−5)
Cartesian Plane. = ( ; ) 
2 2
2. If C(4; − 5), determine the equation of the line AC.
FLASHBACK M(1; − 1) 
3. Determine the co-ordinates of M, the midpoint of AC.
Straight line parallel to the x-axis: m = 0
5
Straight line parallel to the y-axis: m = undefined 4. If B( − 1; ) determine if A, B and C are collinear. 4. Prove collinearity by proving that the points
3
share a common gradient. 
5. Determine the equation of the line perpendicular to AC passing
Straight line equation:
through B.   m = Δy   m =
Δy
 
y = mx + c Δx Δx
 
5 5
3− − (−5)
3 3
m  AB =   mBC =  
Gradient formula: −2 − (−1) −1 − 4
SOLUTION  
Δy y − y1 4
m= = 2 m  AB = −
4 mBC = −
Δx x 2 − x1 1. Draw a sketch diagram. C has two potential x-coordinates for p.  3 3
 
 
Parallel gradients: ∴ A, B and C are collinear 
d= (x 2 − x1)2 + (y2 − y1)2  
m1 = m 2
10 = ( p − (−2))2 + (−5 − 3)2  
5. Line equation requires solving m 2 and c w.r.t. B. 
Perpendicular gradients: 100 = ( p + 2)2 + 64 
mAC × m 2 = − 1 
m1 × m 2 = − 1 100 = p 2 + 4p + 4 + 64 
4
− × m 2 = − 1 
0 = p 2 + 4p − 32  3
Distance: 0 = ( p + 4)( p + 8)  3
m2 =  
2 2 p = 4 or p = − 8  4
d= (x 2 − x1) + (y2 − y1)
 
2. Line equation requires solving m and c.  y = m x + c 

Co-linear:
5 3
( 3 ) = 4 (−1) + c 
  Δy
mAB = mBC OR dAB + dBC = dAC m =   y = m x + c 
  Δx
Collinear points A, B and C lie on the same line 4
  y − y1 (3) = − (−2) + c  29
mAC = 2   3 c =
  x 2 − x1 12
1
Midpoint formula:   c =  
3 − (−5) 3  
x 2 + x1 y2 + y1 =  
M(x ; y) = (
2 )
  −2 − 4
; 4 29
2   4 ∴y = x+  
= − 3 12
Midpoint Theorem: If two midpoints on adjacent   3
sides of a triangle are joined by a straight line, the 4 1
line will be parallel to and half the distance of the ∴y = − x+  
3 3
third side of the triangle.
36
Analytical Geometry GradeSCIENCE
11 Examples:
CLINIC 2019 ©
Grade 11 Examples:
Converting gradient (m) into angle of inclination (θ) Converting a positive gradient into an angle EXAMPLE
Example 1:
Example 1:
Δy m > 0 
mAB = y Given: straight line with the equation 3y − 4x = − 5. Determine the
tan−1(m) = θ Given: straight line with the equation
Δx Given: straight line with the equation
The reference angle is equal to the angle of inclination. angle of inclination correct to two decimal places. 
Determine the angle of inclination co
B
and Determine the angle of inclination co
Given: A(−1; − 6) and B(3; 5) are two points on a straight line.  𝑦
𝑦 3𝑦 −
o Δy Determine the angle of inclination. 3y − 4x = − 5 3𝑦=−
tan θ = = - make y the subject 3𝑦
a Δx 3y = 4x − 5  3𝑦 =4
m = tan θ  4 5 𝑦=
therefore; y = x− 𝑦 =3
θ x y2 − y1 - note that m>0 𝑥
= tan θ  3 3 𝑥
x 2 − x1
∴ mAB = tan θ θ
A 5 − (−6) 𝑚=
= tan θ  m = tan θ  4𝑚 =
3 − (−1) - sub. m and solve θ 4= 𝑡
4 3 =
11 = tan θ
( 4 )= θ
The angle of inclination (θ) is always in relation to a horizontal plane in tan−1 3 3
an anti-clockwise direction. tan−1
4 tan−
∴ θ = 70∘  tan−1( ) = θ 53,13
y 3 53,1
B
∴ θ = 53,13∘  - m>0; ref. ∠ = angle of inclination
Positive gradient: Angle of Example 2:

inclination Example 2:
m > 0 
Converting a negative gradient into an angle
EXAMPLE Given: straight line with the equation
tan−1(m) = θ m< 0 Given: straight line with the equation
θ tan−1(m) = ref ∠ Given: straight line with the equation 3x + Determine the angle
5y = 7. Determine theof
  inclination co
x Determine the angle of inclination co
The reference angle is equal angle of inclination correct to two decimal places. 
to the angle of inclination. θ Angle of inclination: 𝑦 𝑦
A 𝑦 3𝑥 +
θ + ref ∠ = 180∘ (∠‘s on str. line) 𝐵(3; 5) 3𝑥 +
5𝑦 =
3x + 5y = 7 5𝑦 =
- make y the subject
Given: C (−5; 3) and D (7; − 2) are two points on a straight line.  𝑦=−
5y = − 3x + 7  𝑦=
Determine the angle of inclination.
3 7
𝑦 y = − x− - note that m<0
A y 5 5
Negative gradient: 𝑥 𝑚=
Angle of 𝐶(−5; 3)
11 𝑥
𝑥 3𝑚 =
m< 0 inclination 3= 𝑡
m = tan θ  5 =
tan−1(m) = ref ∠ - sub. m as a positive value  5
3
  5 = tan θ to determine the ref. ∠ tan−1
Angle of inclination: 𝑥 5 tan−
4
θ + ref ∠ = 180∘ (∠‘s on str. line) Ref ∠ θ 3
𝐴(−1; −6)
(5) = θ
x 12 30,96
𝐷(7; −2) tan−1 30,9
𝜃=1
Ref ∠ 𝜃=
The angle of inclination must be  B m = tan θ  θ + ref . ∠ = 180∘ ∴ ref . ∠ = 30,96∘ 𝜃=1
𝜃=
calculated from the reference angle. 5
= tan θ  θ = 180∘ − 22,6∘
12
= 157,4∘  θ + ref ∠ = 180∘ - m<0; ref. ∠ + θ = 180°
5
tan−1( ) = θ θ = 180∘ − 30,96∘ 
12
∴ ref . ∠ = 22,6∘ θ = 149,04∘ 
37
𝑦 and resources, visit www.scienceclinic.co.za 
For more information about Science or Maths seminars, classes
𝐹(4; 2)
𝑦
Analytical Geometry 𝑦 SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©
Finding an angle that is not in   Converting an angle  

EXAMPLE 𝐶(−5; 3)
relation to a horizontal plane into a gradient
Given: In the diagram: Straight line with the equation 2y − x = 5, which passes through A and B. Straight line
Construct a horizontal plane, parallel to the x-axis. 5 ref. ∠ into m = tan θ.
Sub. the
with the equation y + 2x = 10, which passes through B and C. M is the midpoint of BC. A, B and C are vertices 𝑥
This will allow you to use the ‘sum of adjacent ̂ = θ. A and M lie on the x-axis. Remember to12add the – sign to answers for
of Δ A BC. M AC y 𝐷(7; −2)
angles on a straight line’ in order to calculate the negative gradients.
 
value of the angle.
Questions:
  y B Given: E and F (4; 2) are points on a straight
1. Determine the following:
J(–4; 3) line with an angle of inclination of 36,9°.
a. The co-ordinates of A A M
θ x Determine the value of m correct to two 
K(6;2)
b. The co-ordinates of M. 2y – x = 5 decimal places.
C
x c. The co-ordinates of B. 𝑦
𝐹(4; 2)
2. What type of triangle is A BC? Give a reason for your answer. y + 2x = 10
θ
L(–2; –3) 3. If A(−5; 0) and B(3; 4), show that A B = BC (leave your answer in simplest surd 36,9° 𝑥
form).
y
4. If C(7; − 4), determine the co-ordinate of N, the midpoint of AC.
J(–4; 3) 𝐸
5. Hence, or otherwise, determine the length of MN.
K(6;2)
6. If A BCD is a square, determine the co-ordinates of D. m = tan θ 
x 7. Solve for θ correct to one decimal places.  m = tan(36,9∘ )
m = 0,75 
Solutions: 
α θ β a. 2y − x = 5 1 5
x − cut : 0 = x+   3. dAB = (−5 − 3)2 + (0 − 4)2 dBC = (3 − 7)2 + (4 − (−4))2
L(–2; –3)
2y = x + 5 2 2
= 4 5 = 4 5
1 5 0= x+ 5 HELPFUL HINTS: 
y = x+ ∴ A B = BC
6 5 2 2 −5 = x
mJL = − = −3 mKL =
( )
2 8 ∴ A(−5; 0) −5 + 7 0 + (−4) 1. Make a quick rough sketch if you are
4. N (x ; y) = ;
m = t a nα m = t a nβ b. y + 2x + 10 x − cut : 0 = − 2x + 10   2 2 given co-ordinates without a drawing.
5 N (1; − 2)
3 = t a nα = t a nβ y = − 2x + 10 2x = 10
8 2. Always make y the subject if you are
t a n−1(3) = α x = 5 5. M N = 2 5 (Midpt theorem)
given straight line equations.
(8)
5
71,6∘ = α  t a n−1 = β ∴ M(5; 0)
1 5 6. If A BC D is a square, then AC is the diagonal, which  
y = − 2(3) + 10   3. Know your types of triangles and quad-
c. x + = − 2x + 10 makes N the midpoint for both diagonals ∴ D (−3; − 8)
32∘ = β  2 2 rilaterals. Proving them or using their
y = 4
x + 5 = − 4x + 20 properties is a common occurrence.
∴ B(3; 4) Δy
7. mAC = m = t a nθ
5x = 15 Δx
4. The angle of inclination is ALWAYS in
θ = 180∘ − (α + β ) x = 3 0 − (−4) 1
= − = t a nθ relation to the horizontal plane.
2. A BC is a right-angled triangle: −5 − 7 3
= 180∘ − (71,6∘ + 32∘ )
( 3)
1 1
= 76,4∘ mAD × mBC = − 1  = − t a n−1 − = θ
3
∴ b = 90∘ θ = 18,4∘
38
Statistics SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©
REMINDER REPRESENTING DATA

Ungrouped data = discrete
Discrete data: Data that can be counted, e.g. the Grouped data = continuous
number of people.
NB: Always arrange data in ascending order.
Continuous data: quantitative data that can be
measured, e.g. temperature range.
FREQUENCY TABLE STEM AND LEAF PLOTS BAR GRAPH HISTOGRAM
Measures of central tendency: a descriptive 
summary of a dataset through a single value that Mark Tally Frequency Stem Leaf 7
reflects the data distribution.
4 || 2 0 1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 4 6
Measures of dispersion: The dispersion of a data
set is the amount of variability seen in that data 5 || 2 1 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 1 5
set. 4
6 |||| 4 2 5, 5, 7, 7, 8, 8
Cumulative frequency: The total of a frequency 3
and all frequencies so far in a frequency distribution 7 |||| 5 3 0, 1, 1, 1, 2, 2
2
Variance: measures the variability from an  8 |||| 4 4 0, 4, 8, 9
average or mean. a Small change in the numbers of 1
9 || 2 5 2, 6, 7, 7, 8
a data set equals a very small variance 0
10 | 1 0~10 10~20 20~30 30~40
Standard Deviation: the amount the data value 6 3, 6
or class interval differs from the mean of the data
set.
FREQUENCY POLYGON OGIVES INDICATORS OF POSITION
Outliers: Any data value that is more than 1,5 IQR Quartiles
to the left of Q1 or the right of Q3, i.e. 8 100
The three quartiles divide the data
Outlier < Q1 – (1,5×IQR) or into four quarters.
80 Q1 = Lower quartile or first quartile
6
Cumulative frequency
Outlier > Q3 + (1,5×IQR)
Q2 = Second quartile or median
Causation: the action of causing something 60 Q3 = Upper quartile or third quartile
Univariate: Data concerning a single variable 4
Percentiles
Bivariate: Data concerning two variables 40 Indicates which percentage of data is
Interpolation: an estimation of a value within two 2 below the specific percentile.
20 Q1= 25th percentile
known values in a sequence of values.
Q2= 50th percentile
Extrapolation: an estimation of a value based on 0 0 Q3= 75th percentile
extending a known sequence of values or facts  [0–3[ [3–6[ [6–9[ [9–12[ [12–15[
beyond the area that is certainly known
All other percentiles can be
MEASURES OF DISPERSEMENT calculated using the formula:
Range Interquartile range Semi-Interquartile range p
i= (n)
1 100
range = max value − min value IQR = Q 3 − Q1 semi − IQR = (Q − Q1)
2 3 where;
Note: range is greatly influenced Note: spans 50% of the data set Note: good measure of dispersion i = the position of the pth percentile
by outliers for skewed distribution
p = the value of the ith position
39
MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY FOR MEASURES OF DISPERSION AROUND THE MEAN

UNGROUPED DATA Variance
Standard deviation
Mean Variance measures the variability from an average or mean.
Standard deviation is the amount the data value or class interval differs
sum of all values
x̄ = from the mean of the data set. 
total number of values The variance for a population is calculated by:
Σx 1. Calculate the mean(the average).
x̄ = 2. Subtracting the mean from each number in the data set and then Σ f (x − x̄ )2
n σ =
where;
squaring the result. The results are squared to make the negatives n
positive. Otherwise negative numbers would cancel out the positives
x̄ = mean where;
in the next step. It’s the distance from the mean that’s important,
Σx = sum of all values n = number of data values
not positive or negative numbers.
n = number of values x = midpoint of interval
3. Averaging the squared differences.
Mode x̄ = estimated mean
The mode is the value that appears most frequently in a
EXAMPLE:
set of data points.
Continuous data is grouped into class intervals which consist of an upper class boundary (maximum value) and lower class values (minimum value).
Bimodal: a data set with 2 modes
Trimodal: a data set with 3 modes Midpoint
Class interval frequency ( f × x) (x − x̄ )2 f (x − x̄ )2
Median uper class barrier + lower class barrier
(f ) x =
The median is the middle number in a set of data points. 2
1 0 ≤ x ≤ 10 3 10 + 0 3 × 5 = 15 (5 × 15,71)2 = 114,7 3(114,7) = 344,11
position of median = (n+ 1) = 5
2 2
Where; 10 ≤ x ≤ 20 7 20 + 10 7 × 15 = 105 (15 × 15,71)2 = 0,5 7(0,5) = 3,53
= 15
n = number of values 15
If n = odd number, the median is part of the data set. 20 ≤ x ≤ 30 4 30 + 20 4 × 25 = 100 (25 × 15,71)2 = 88,3 4(88,3) = 354,22
= 25
If n = even number, the median will be the average  2
between the two middle numbers. total : 14 14 220 Σf(x − x)2 = 692, 86
FIVE NUMBER SUMMARY
Mean:
1. Minimum value
sum of all frequency × mean value
2. Lower quartile Q1 mean(x ) =
total frequency
3. Median
4. Upper quartile Q3 220
=
5. Maximum value 14
BOX AND WHISKER PLOT = 15,71
A box and whisker plot is a visual representation of the
Standard deviation:
five number summary.
Σ f (x − x )2
σ =
e
e
le
le
m
n
rt i
rt i
re
re
a
a
t
t
qu
qu
ex
ex
n
692,86
r
r
ia
we
we
pe
pe
=
ed
Up
Up
Lo
Lo
14
M
A small Standard deviation tells us the numbers

= 7,03 are clustered closely around the mean, a larger
standard deviation indicates more scattered data.
10 20 30 40 50 60
40
MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY EXAMPLE:

FOR GROUPED DATA Step 1: Determine cumulative frequencies form a frequency table.
We conduct a survey on the ages of people who visit the corner shop, 80 people partake in the survey.
Estimated mean
sum of all frequency × mean value Class interval Frequency Cumulative frequency Interpretation Graph points
mean(x ) =
total frequency 0 ≤ x < 15 0 0 0 participants are younger than 15. (15;0)
15 ≤ x < 30 14 0 + 14 = 14 14 people were younger than 30. (30;14)
where;
30 ≤ x < 45 22 14 + 22 = 36 36 people were younger than 45. (45;36)
x̄ = estimated mean
n = number of values 45 ≤ x < 60 30 36 + 30 = 66 66 people were younger than 60. (60;66)
Modal class interval

60 ≤ x < 75 14 66+ 14 = 80 All participants were younger than 75. (75;80)
The modal class interval is the class interval that Step 2: Represent information on a cummulative frequency/ogive curve Coordinates (x;y)
contains the greatest number of data points. 100 The x-coordinate represents the upper boundary of the class interval.
Median class interval The graph takes on the y-coordinate represents the cumulative frequency.
The median class interval is the interval that contains 80 shape of an S-curve.
Cumulative frequency
the middle number in a set of data points. Interpretations from the graph:
60
1 Median
position of median = (n+ 1) There is an even nr of data items in our set (80) so the median liesmidway between the two
2 middle values. The median is halfway between the 40th and 41st term. Find the value on the 
40
Where; y-axis and draw a line from that point to determine the value on the x-axis.
n = number of values 20 Quartiles

If n = odd number, the median is part of the data Similar to the method used to find the median you can determine the upper or lower quartiles
from the graph.
0
set.
If n = even number, the median will be the average Percentiles
The median and quartiles divide the data into 50% and 25% respectively, should you need to
between the two middle numbers. calculate a different percentile this can be done by calculation or read from the graph.
Calculation of the 90th percentile: 0,9 × 80 = 72
So 90% of the data is below the 72nd value which will be int the last class interval.
SYMMETRIC AND SKEWED DATA

Symmetric Skewed
Symmetric data has a balanced shape, with mean, median and mode close together. Skewed data is data that is spread more towards one side or the other.
mode = mean = median
median
median
mode
mean
mode
mean
Skewed left: Negatively skewed if the tail extends to the left Skewed right: Positively skewed if the tail extends to the right
41

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MATHS ESSENTIALS

www .scienceclinic.co.za facebook.com/scienceclinicsa © Science Clinic (Pty) Ltd 2019

Rational (Q) Irrational (Q’) y y y

QUADRATIC FORMULA THE DISCRIMINANT

SOLVING QUADRATIC EQUATIONS

1. Find the LCD and list restrictions

Remember: General Steps for solving Quadratic Equations

• Shape: a > 0 ∴ • Shape: a > 0 ∴ x

(0;-4) (-1;2) (1;2) x

Grade 11 Functions: Quadratic Functions

Exponential Graphs Hyperbola

2. Substitute the other point in

3. Write/simplify your final equation • a>0 • asymptote • asymptote to find ‘a’

Deductions from Graphs

Steps for determining MAXIMUM DISTANCE

Deductions from Graphs

WHAT ARE: LAWS OF EXPONENTS

RATIONALISING THE DENOMINATOR

1. Common Factor: 2. Difference of two squares: 3. Sum or difference of two cubes:

Patterns/ Sequences: ordered set of numbers

5. Objective: First difference

Solving Quadratic Number Patterns

The terms will then be: Tn 6 17 34 57

80 = 2n2 + n + 2 Prove that n = 6 11 17 23 29 35 = 121

Solving Quadratic Number Patterns

T1 = 3: 1 × 2 + 1: n(n + 1) + 1 11:00 4 21 First difference 4 6 8

T3 = 13: 3 × 4 + 1: n(n + 1) + 1 Second difference = 2a

SIMPLE INTEREST A = accumulated amount COMPOUND INTEREST EXAMPLE

NOMINAL VS EFFECTIVE INTEREST RATES CHANGING INTEREST RATES DEPRECIATION (DECAY)

Value of Asset (R)

Value of Asset (R)

ADDITIONAL PAYMENTS OR WITHDRAWALS

OR combine the steps into a single calculation

Addition Rule: Mutually Exclusive: Exhaustive Events:

Complimentary Events: Independent Events: Dependent Events:

P(A and B) = P(A ∩ B) = P(A) × P(B)

TREE DIAGRAMS CONTINGENCY TABLE (OR TWO-WAY TABLE)

Solutions: 0,33 0,45 Solutions:

BASIC DEFINITIONS BASIC CAST DIAGRAM FUNDAMENTAL TRIG REDUCTION FORMULAE

a Reduce to an acute angle and simplify if possible (without

EXAMPLE tan 660 o

NEGATIVE ANGLES CO-FUNCTIONS FULL CAST DIAGRAM

Method 1: Q IV Method 2: Get rid of negative PROVING IDENTITIES

BASICS SQUARES CO-FUNCTIONS FACTORISING

BASICS y = cos x (dotted line - for comparison)

• y = tan x for x ∈[−360∘; 360∘ ] (180°;3)

HORIZONTAL SHIFT EXAMPLE Solutions:

-90° ½ 30° 90° 180°

Endpoints: (-45°; -1) (120°; -1) (135°; -1)

USING TRIG GRAPHS TO FIND RESTRICTIONS ON IDENTITIES

FLASHBACK: Theory CIRCLE GEOMETRY

EXAMPLE GIVEN: R T = R P and M R ⊥ T P

If A MC is the diameter then B̂ = 90∘. If B̂ = 90∘ then A MC is the diameter.

K L = ST then P̂ = M̂ (= chords, = ∠’s)

c) Equal chords in equal circles subtend Questions:

b) D2̂ = E2̂ = 38∘ (∠‘s same seg quad CDEF)

GIVEN: Circle centre C with quad QUA D. L Q̂ D = Â (ext. ∠ cyc quad)

RTP: Q̂ + Â = 180∘ is cyclic Converse Theorem 6:

If L Q̂ D = Â then QUA D is cyclic

a) M̂2 = 90∘ (Given GM ⊥ H J)

GIVEN: Tangents T PK and SR K to circle

R1̂ = P1̂ = x (tan-chord th.)

Hints when answering Geometry Questions

b) E2̂ = D3̂ = x (∠‘s opp. = sides)

Rational (Q)  Irrational (Q’) y y y

1. Find the LCD and list restrictions 

5. Objective: First difference 

T1 = 3: 1 × 2 + 1: n(n + 1) + 1 11:00 4 21 First difference  4 6 8

NOMINAL VS EFFECTIVE INTEREST RATES  CHANGING INTEREST RATES DEPRECIATION (DECAY)

BASIC DEFINITIONS BASIC CAST DIAGRAM FUNDAMENTAL TRIG   REDUCTION FORMULAE

HORIZONTAL SHIFT EXAMPLE Solutions: 

Endpoints:   (-45°; -1) (120°; -1) (135°; -1)

GIVEN: Circle centre C with quad QUA D.   L Q̂ D = Â (ext. ∠ cyc quad)

a) M̂2 = 90∘ (Given GM ⊥ H J) 

GIVEN: Tangents T PK and SR K to circle  

b) E2̂ = D3̂ = x (∠‘s opp. = sides) 

What is Analytical Geometry? EXAMPLE 3. Midpoint formula 

2. Line equation requires solving m and c.  y = m x + c 

Finding an angle that is not in   Converting an angle  