Maths Clinic Gr12 ENG SmartPrep v1.2 1

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G R A D E
12
MATHS ESSENTIALS
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Grade 12 Maths Essentials
Nature of Roots SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©
NUMBERS NATURE: Refers to the type of numbers that the roots are.
Non-real (R’)
(Sometimes referred to as imaginary) ROOTS: The x-intercepts/solutions/zeros of a quadratic equation.
Real (R) Two real roots One real root No (0) real roots
Rational (Q) Irrational (Q’) y y y

Integers and Fractions
EXAMPLE
Integers (Z)
Positive and negative whole numbers π
2
Whole numbers (N0) x
0+N All decimals that cannot x x
be written as a fraction.
Natural numbers (N)
1, 2, 3...
OR OR OR
y y y
x
x x
QUADRATIC FORMULA THE DISCRIMINANT
−b ± b 2 − 4ac
x= −b ± b 2 − 4ac
2a x=
2a
a = the coefficient of x2 DETERMINING THE NATURE OF THE ROOTS
b = the coefficient of x Indicated by Δ .
c = the constant term The DISCRIMINANT is used to determine the nature of the roots.
2
∴ Δ = b − 4ac
Used to factorise quadratic equations. Δ
EXAMPLE EXAMPLE
Δ<0 Δ≥0
3x 2 + 2x − 4 = 0 NO Real Real
3x 2 + 2x − 4 = 0
a = 3 roots roots
b = 2 a = 3
c = −4 b = 2
c = −4 Δ>0 Δ=0
2 unequal 2 equal,
−b ± b 2 − 4ac Δ = b 2 − 4a c roots real roots
x =
2a
Δ = (2)2 − 4(3)(−4)
−(2) ± (2) 2 − 4(3)(− 4) Then solve for Δ
x = Δ = perfect square Δ ≠ perfect square
2(3) irrational roots
rational roots
Then solve for x
3
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DISCRIMINANT b2 - 4 a c
EXAMPLES NATURE OF ROOTS NUMBER OF REAL ROOTS
(∆ = b2 - 4ac)
a>0 a<0
y y
x2 + x + 1 = 0 Δ = b2 – 4ac x
= (1)2 – 4(1)(1)
0
=1–4
Non real
=–3
a b c Δ<0 x
y y
x2 – 6x + 9 = 0 Δ = b2 – 4ac x
= (–6)2 – 4(1)(9) Real (Δ = +)
1 (2 of the same)
= 36 – 36 Rational (Δ = perfect
=0 square)
a b c Δ=0 Equal (Δ = 0) x
x2 – 5x – 6 = 0 Δ = b2 – 4ac
= (–5)2 – 4(1)(–6) Real (Δ = +)
2 y y
= 25 + 24 Rational (Δ = perfect
= 49 square)
a b c Δ > 0 (perfect square) Unequal (Δ ≠ 0)
x
2x2 + 3x – 7 = 0 Δ = b2 – 4ac
= (3)2 – 4(2)(–7) Real (Δ = +)
2
= 9 + 56 Irrational (Δ ≠
= 65 perfect square)
a b c Δ > 0 (not perfect square) Unequal (Δ ≠ 0)
4
DETERMINING THE NATURE FOR WHICH VALUES OF k PROVE THE NATURE OF THE ROOTS
OF ROOTS WITHOUT WILL THE EQUATION HAVE The nature of the roots will be supplied and the discriminant can be used to prove the nature, with either one, or no,
SOLVING THE EQUATION EQUAL ROOTS? unknown value.
The roots of an equation can be deter- The discriminant (Δ) can be used to calculate
Steps to prove the nature of roots (NO unknown): Steps to prove the nature of roots (ONE unknown):
mined by calculating the value of the the unknown value of k. (e.g. Ask yourself, for
discriminant (Δ). which values of k will the discriminant be 0?) 1. Put the equation in its standard form 1. Put the equation in its standard form
Steps to determine the roots using 2. Substitute the correct values in and calculate the dis- 2. Substitute the correct values in and calculate the dis-
Steps to determine the values of k using
the discriminant: criminant criminant
the discriminant:
3. Determine the roots and confirm whether they are as 3. Determine the roots and confirm whether they are as
1. Put the equation in its standard form 1. Put the equation in its standard form supplied supplied
2. Substitute the correct values in and 2. Substitute the correct values in and calculate EXAMPLE EXAMPLE
calculate the discriminant the discriminant
Prove the equation has two, unequal, irrational roots: For the equation x(6x – 7m) = 5m2, prove that the roots
3. Determine the nature of the roots of 3. Equate the discriminant to 0 and solve for k x2 = 2x + 9 are real, rational and unequal if m > 0
the equation (quadratic equation)
EXAMPLE 1. Standard form 1. Standard form

EXAMPLE
x2 – 2x – 9 = 0 6x2 – 7mx – 5m2 = 0
Determine the nature of the roots of For which values of k the equation will have
x2 = 2x +1 without solving the equa- a b c a b c
equal roots?
tion
REMEMBER: Δ = 0 for equal roots 2. Calculate the discriminant 2. Calculate the discriminant
1. Standard form
Δ = b2 – 4ac Δ = b2 – 4ac
x2 = 2x +1 Δ = (–2)2 – 4(1)(–9) Δ = (–7m)2 – 4(6)(– 5m2)
x2 – 2x – 1 = 0 1. Standard form
Δ = 4 + 36 Δ = 49m2 + 120m2
x2 + 2kx = –4x – 9k Δ = 40 Δ = 169m2
a b c x2 + 2kx + 4x + 9k = 0
3. Determine the roots 3. Determine the roots
2. Calculate the discriminant a b c
The Roots are: The Roots are:
Δ = b2 – 4ac Real (Δ > 0) Real (Δ > 0)
Δ = (–2)2 – 4(1)(–1) 2. Calculate the discriminant
Unequal (Δ ≠ 0) Unequal (Δ ≠ 0)
Δ = 4+4 Δ = b2 – 4ac Irrational (Δ ≠ perfect square) Rational (Δ = perfect square)
Δ = 8 Δ = (2k + 4)2 – 4(1)(9k)
Δ = 4k2 +16k +16 – 36k
3. Determine the nature of the Δ = 4k2 – 20k + 16
roots
The Roots are: 3. Equate to zero (0) and solve for k
Real (Δ > 0) 0 = 4k2 – 20k + 16 (÷ 4)
Unequal (Δ ≠ 0) 0 = k2 – 5k + 4
Irrational (Δ ≠ perfect square) 0 = (k – 1)(k – 4)
Therefore k = 1 or k = 4
k needs to either be 1 or 4 to ensure that
the discriminant of the equation is 0 (the
discriminant must be 0 in order for equal
roots)
5
Quadratic Equations SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©
Quadratic Equations are equations of the second degree (i.e. the highest exponent of the variable is 2). The degree of the equation determines the maximum number of real roots/solutions/x-intercepts/zeros.
The standard form of a quadratic equation is:
a x 2 + bx + c = 0 wh ere a ≠ 0
SOLVING QUADRATIC EQUATIONS

DIFFERENCE OF TWO COMPLETE THE FRACTIONS AND
FACTORING QUADRATIC FORMULA ONE ROOT TWO ROOTS
SQUARES SQUARE RESTRICTIONS
1. Find the LCD and list restrictions

1. Put in standard Substitute into the quadratic 1. Substitute the known 2. Solve for x
1. Write in standard form 1. Substitute the roots into
form formula: root
−b ± b 2 − 4a c 2. Move C across the equation
3. Check your answers against your
2. Apply the zero x = 2. Solve for the variable
2a 3. Divide both sides by A restrictions
factor law 3. Substitute the value 2. Use “FOIL” for the
4. Add (½ x b)2 to both sides REMEMBER:
3. List possible where a = coefficient of x2, b = of the variable and quadratic equation
5. Factorise and solve 0 x
solutions coefficient of x, c = constant term solve for the root
= 0 BUT = u nd e f i ne d
x 0
x
Eg. x2 = –2x + 63 Eg. –3x2 = –12 + 7x Either method may be used Eg. x2 + 2x = 1 Eg. x2 + mx – 15 = 0, Eg. –9 and 7 are the Eg.
x−2
= x −1 3 − 2 −2 x
x2 + 2x – 63 = 0 –3x2 – 7x + 12 = 0 (½ . 2)2 where 5 is a root. roots of a quadratic
x
a = –3; b = –7; c = 12 Eg. x2 = 25 (1)
(5)2 + (5)m – 15 = 0
equation
x−2
= x −1 3 + x −2 2
Find factors of 63 so x2 – 25 = 0 x2 = ± 25 x 2 + 2x + 1 = 1 + 1 25 + 5m – 15 = 0 x = –9 or x=7
LCD: (x − 2)(x − 3)
−(−7) ± (−7) 2 − 4(−3)(12) (x – 5)(x + 5) = 0 5m = –10 x+9=0 x–7=0
that F1 x F2 = –63 x = (x + 1)2 = ± 2 Restrictions: x − 2 ≠ 0; x − 3 ≠ 0
2(−3) x = 5 or x = –5 x = ±5 m = –2
and F1 + F2 = 2 x(x − 2)(x − 3) 1(x − 2)(x − 3) 2(x − 2)(x − 3)
7± 49 + 144 x + 1= ± 2 (x + 9)(x – 7) = 0 = +
(x − 2) (x − 3) (x − 2)
x = Therefore x = ±5
x2 – 2x – 15 = 0
x2 – 7x + 9x – 63 = 0
(x + 9)(x – 7) = 0 −6 x + 1= − 2 or x + 1= 2
(x – 5)(x + 3) = 0
7± 193 x2 + 2x – 63 = 0 x(x – 3) = 1(x – 2) + 2(x – 3)
x + 9 = 0 or x – 7 = 0 x = −1− 2 x = −1+ 2 x=5 or x = –3
x = x2 – 3x = x – 2 + 2x – 6
x = –9 x=7 −6 (given)
7+ 193 7− 193
x2 – 3x – x – 2x + 2 + 6 = 0
x = or x = x2 – 6x + 8 = 0
−6 −6
(x – 4)(x – 2) = 0
x–4=0 or x–2=0
Answer in surd form or can be
x=4 x=2
calculated/rounded off to 2 decimals Check restrictions: x ≠ 2, x ≠ 3
x = –3,48 OR x = 1,15 Thus, x = 4 is the only solution.
Remember: General Steps for solving Quadratic Equations

Cannot
Sum
* LHS = Left Hand Side * RHS = Right Hand Side factorise
* Fractions and their restrictions 2 perfect
squares
Finding factors:
Binomial Difference
* Factor 1 + Factor 2 = b * Factor 1 x Factor 2 = c
2. Factor out Highest
Zero factor law: 1. Standard Form
Common Factor
If A x B = 0 then A, B or both = 0
Trinomial Factoring
EXAMPLE
Factorise Quadratic Formula
x.y=0
x = 0 or y = 0 or (x + 1)(x – 3) = 0 Complete the
x + 1 = 0 or x – 3 = 0 square
6
Exponents and Surds SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©
WHAT ARE: LAWS OF EXPONENTS

Exponents: Exponents occur when multiplying or dividing expressions/ Laws of exponents only apply to multiplication, division, brackets and roots. NEVER adding or subtracting
bases/variables numerous times by similar expressions/bases/variables
Surds: A surd is the Mathematical terminology for irrational roots, when Algebraic Notation Exponential Notation Exponential Law in operation
numbers are left in “root-form” as opposed to rounding them off to a deci-
mal place.
1 16 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 16 = 24 When we MULTIPLY the SAME bases we ADD the exponents.
HELPFUL HINTS FOR EQUATIONS\EXPRESSIONS
F
1. Express larger numbers in exponential form by prime factorising 2 64 26 When we DIVIDE the SAME bases we MINUS the exponents (always top
= 4 = 22
2. Remove a common factor if two unlike terms are separated by a +/- 16 24 minus bottom).
3. Ensure your surds are always expressed in their simplest form
3 When we have the exponents outside the BRACKETS we DISTRIBUTE
4. Express surds in exponential form for simplification 43 = 64 (22 )3 = 26
5. Take note of the following: them into the brackets.
A common error, when solving for an unknown base with a fraction as
4 64 26
an exponent, is to multiply the exponents on both sides by the unknown = 1 = 20 = 1 Any base to the POWER OF ZERO is equal to one. (But 00 is undefined).
64 26
exponent’s inverse (so that the exponent will be 1). However, if you ex-
press these fractions as surds, you will notice the following: 5 3 3
a. An even power will always produce a positive AND negative solution
64 = 4 26 = 22 The POWER inside the root is DIVIDED by the size of the root.
4
x3 = 3
6 4 × 9 = 36 22 × 32 = 62
3 x4 = 3 When we have non-identical bases, but identical exponents, we keep the
exponents and multiply the bases. (This same rule will also apply for
x4 = 27 1 1 1
7 2× 3= 6 division).
x = ± 4 27 2 2 × 32 = 6 2
b. A negative number inside an even root cannot solve for a real solution 1 1
8 2× 2= 4= 2
1 2 2 × 2 2 = 21 Any square root multiplied by itself will equal the term inside the root.
−2 2 = x
−2 = x
CONVERTING SURDS INTO OPERATIONS WITH SURDS
No real solution EXPONENTIAL FORM Steps for working with surds:
c. An unknown inside an even root cannot solve for a negative solution (AND VICE VERSA) 1. Express the surd in its simplest surd form
3
x4 = −2 The power inside the root becomes 2. Identify like terms (+ and −) or use Laws of Exponents ( × and ÷ )
4 x3 = − 2 the NUMERATOR and the size of the Note: If you use your calculator, make sure to show the changes you made
root becomes the DENOMINATOR. i.e. 50 = 25 × 2 = 25 × 2 = 5 2
No real solution
D N EXAMPLE 1 EXAMPLE 2 EXAMPLE 3

ADDING AND SUBTRACTING LIKE-TERMS xN = x D
Simplify Simplify A rectangle has a length of
Like terms are terms in an equation/expression that have identical 31 7 + 1 and a width of
variables and exponents. To add/subtract these, simply add/subtract EXAMPLE 50 + 3 18 − 98 5 81 × 4 27 3 20
= 7 − 1. Determine the
their coefficients. Exponents never change when the operator is +/- 1. 5 x 2 = 5 2+ 9 2−7 2 5 9 length of the diagonal.
9× 3 3 10
2 2 2
= 7 2 ( 7 + 1) + ( 7 − 1 ) = r
EXAMPLE 2
= x 5 5 34 × 4 33 13
= = 3 20
5 32 × 3 7 + 2 7 + 1 + 7 − 2 7 + 1 = r2
1. 3x 2 y 4 − 5x 3 y + 2x 2 y 4 + x 3 y = 5x 2 y 4 − 4x 3 y 3
2. x 4
4 3 16 = r 2
35 × 34 20
=
2 1
= 313 4= r
2. 3 2 + 5 3 − 8 2 + 3 = −5 2+ 6 3 = 4 x3 35 × 32
7
RATIONALISING THE DENOMINATOR

The process of finding an equivalent fraction that can be expressed without a surd in the denominator
Steps for rationalising monomial denominators: Steps for rationalising binomial denominators:
1. Multiply the numerator and denominator by the 1. Multiply numerator and denominator by the
denominator’s surd binomial in the denominator with the opposite sign
2. Simplify (conjugate)
2. Simplify
EXAMPLE 1 Why do we do this?

Express the following with rational Multiplying the binomial by itself will give us a trino-
denominators: mial with an irrational middle term. To avoid this,
we multiply the binomial by its conjugate (same
3 6+ 3 2 binomial with the opposite sign) to create a differ-
1. 2.
7 2 3 ence of two squares.
3 7 6+ 3 2 3
= × = × EXAMPLE 1
7 7 2 3 3
Express the following fractions with rational
3 7 6 3+ 3 6 denominators:
= =
7 2×3 3 7
1. 2.
1
6 3+ 3 6 5− 7 x−
= x
6 5+ 7
3 1
= × x+
2 3+ 6 7 x
= 5− 7 5+ 7 = ×
2 x−
1
x+
1
15 + 3 7 x x
=
EXAMPLE 2 25 − 7 7
7 x+
x2 + 2 15 + 3 7 x
If x = 3 + 2, simplify: and express the an- = =
x −2 1
18 x− x
swer with a rational denominator
5+ 7 7x + 7
x2 + 2 =
1. 6 x
x −2 =
x2 − 1
( 3 + 2)2 + 2 x
=
( 3 + 2) − 2 7x + 7 x2 − 1
= ÷
x x
3+ 4 3+ 4+ 2
= 7(x + 1) x
3 = ×
x (x + 1)(x − 1)
9+ 4 3 3
= × 7x x
3 3 = ×
x (x − 1) x
9 3+ 4⋅3
= 7x x
3 =
x (x − 1)
= 3 3+ 4
7 x
=
(x − 1)
8
FACTORISING
Factorising is the opposite of distribution, which means that you will subtract the exponents when “taking out” factors. There are 6 different types of factorisation.
1. Common Factor: 2. Difference of two squares: 3. Sum or difference of two cubes:

Remove the highest common factor from the coefficients and Applied when there are two perfect squares separated by a ‘−’ sign. Applied when there are two perfect cubes separated by a + /−.The
common variables. The square root of both terms will be in both pairs of brackets, one final answer will be a binomial in the one bracket and a trinomial in
with a + and the other with a − the other.
EXAMPLES A perfect square is a term whose number will not leave an irrational A perfect cube is a term whose number will not leave an irrational
solution once square-rooted, and whose exponents are divisible by 2. solution once cube-rooted, and whose exponents are divisible by 3.
Factorise the following:
EXAMPLES EXAMPLES
4x 5 8x 3 16x 2 Factorise the following:
1. 3x 5 y 4 + 9x 3y 5 − 12x 2 y 4 2. 3 − + Factorise the following:
9y 27y 2 3y
= 3x 2 y 4(x 3 + 3x y − 4)
3y ( 3y 2 9y )
4x 2 x 3 2x 1. x 3 − 8
= + + 4 1. 9x 2 − 4y 6 2. x 4 − 16
= (x − 2)(x 2 + 2x + 4)
3 3 2 2
= (3x + 2y )(3x − 2y ) = (x + 4)(x − 4)
4. Exponential Factorising: = (x 2 + 4)(x + 2)(x − 2)
x2 − 7 2. 27x 6 + 64y 9
Similar to common factorising (1). Remove the highest common 3.
factor, in this case, a base with its exponent(s). Exponents are sub- x+ 7 = (3x 2 + 4y 3)(9x 4 − 12x 2 y 3 + 16y 6 )
tracted from the same bases.
(x + 7)(x − 7) 4. a 2 + 2a b + b 2 − x 2 6. Trinomials:
=
EXAMPLES x+ 7 = (a + b)2 − x 2 Note: Ratio of exponents of term 1 to term 2 is 2:1. A combination
of factors of term 1 and term 3 must give you term 2.
Factorise the following: = (a + b + x)(a + b − x)
= x− 7
EXAMPLES
9 x+ 2 − 32 x 5. Grouping: Factorise the following: (Q2 - Q6 are conceptually the same)
1. 2x+ 3 − 2x+ 1 2. x 3
3 ⋅ 2 × 3x ⋅ 5 Remove the common binomial factor from the expression
= 2x (23 − 2) (32 ) x+ 2 − 32 x
= EXAMPLES 1. 3x 2 − 5x − 2 2. x 2 + 3x − 10
= 2x ⋅ 6 32 x ⋅ 8 ⋅ 5
Factorise the following:
= (3x + 1)(x − 2) = (x + 5)(x − 2)
32 x+ 4 − 32 x
=
32 x ⋅ 40 1. x (y − 4) + 3(y − 4) 2. a 2 + 2a b + b 2 − 3a − 3b
5x − 5x−2 2 1
3. 2x
3 (3 − 1)4 3. x 4 + 3x 2 − 10 4. x 3 + 3x 3 − 10
2 ⋅ 5x − 5x = = (y − 4)(x + 3) 2
= (a + b) − 3(a + b)
32 x ⋅ 40 1 1
5x (1 − 5−2 ) = (a + b)(a + b − 3) = (x 2 + 5)(x 2 − 2) = (x 3 + 5)(x 3 − 2)
= 80
5x (2 − 1) =
40 3. 5x − 15y + 9a y − 3a x
1
1− 5. 52 x + 3 ⋅ 5x − 10 6. 32 x + 3x+ 1 − 10
= 25 = 2 = 5(x − 3y) + 3a(3y − x)
1
= 5(x − 3y) − 3a(x − 3y) = (5x + 5)(5x − 2) = 32 x + 3 ⋅ 3x − 10
24
=
25 = (x − 3y)(5 − 3a) = (3x + 5)(3x − 2)
9
EQUATIONS
1. Linear Equations: 3. Simultaneous Equations: 5. Exponential Equations:
Move all the variables to the one side, and the constants to the Solve for two unknowns in two different equations using the substitu- Make sure that you get a term on the one side of the equation that
other to solve. Linear equations have only one solution. tion method. Remember to solve for both unknowns by substituting has a base that is equal to the base with the unknown exponent.
them back into the original equation. Then, drop the bases, equate the exponents and solve.
EXAMPLES
EXAMPLES
Solve: Hints:
Solve: • NEVER drop the base if the terms are separated by a + or −
1. 3(x − 2) + 10 = 5 − (x + 9) 2. (x − 2)2 − 1 = (x + 3)(x − 3) - Remove common factors until the equation is in its simplest
1. Equation 1: 2x + 3y = 18 2. Equation 1: y + 3x = 2
3x − 6 + 10 = 5 − x − 9 x 2 − 4x + 4 − 1 = x 2 − 9 form and then solve
Equation 2: − 3x + 5y = 11 Equation 2: y 2 − 9x 2 = 16 • Always convert decimals to fractions and then to bases with
3x + 4 = − x − 4 −4x + 3 = − 9 negative exponents
From 1: 2x + 3y = 18 From 1: y + 3x = 2
4x = − 8 −4x = − 12 2x = − 3y + 18 y = − 3x + 2...1a
x = −2 x = 3 −3y + 18
x = ....1a Sub 1a into 2: y 2 − 9x 2 = 16 EXAMPLES
2
(−3x + 2)2 − 9x 2 = 16 1. 4x = 8 2. 0,0625x = 64
2. Quadratic Equations: Sub 1a into 2: −3x + 5y = 11
1 x
( 16 )
9x 2 − 12x + 4 − 9x 2 = 16 22 x = 23
( )
Move everything to one side and equate to zero. By factorising the −3y + 18 = 26
−3 + 5y = 11
trinomial, you should find two solutions. 2 −12x = 12 2x = 3
1 x
( 24 )
9y − 54 x = − 1...3 3 = 26
EXAMPLES + 5y = 11 x =
2 2
Sub 3 into 1: y + 3(−1) = 2
Solve: (Q3 - Q6 are the most likely exam-type questions) 9y − 54 + 10y = 22 2−4x = 26
y = 5
1. x2 + 5 = 6x 2. (3x − 4)(5x + 2) = 0 19y = 76 3. 2 ⋅ 3x+ 1 + 5 ⋅ 3x = 33 −4x = 6
(−1; 5) −3
x 2 − 6x + 5 = 0 3x = 4 or 5x = − 2 y = 4....3 3x (2 ⋅ 3 + 5) = 33 x =
4 −2 2
(x − 5)(x − 1) = 0 x = or x = Sub 3 into 1: 2x + 3(4) = 18 3x (11) = 33
3 5
x = 5 or x = 1 2x = 6 3 x = 31
9
x = 3 x = 1 5. 0,5x ⋅ 1+ = 10
2 1 16
3. x 4 + 3x 2 − 10 = 0 4. x 3 + 3x 3 − 10 = 0 (3; 4)
1 x
(2)
25
1 1 4. 273x+ 1 = 812 x+ 5 ⋅ = 10
(x 2 + 5)(x 2 − 2) = 0 (x 3 + 5)(x 3 − 2) = 0 4. Surd Equations: 16
1 1 Isolate the surd on the one side of the equation. Power both sides of (33)3x+ 1 = (34 )2 x+ 5 5
x2 = − 5 or x2 = 2 x3 = − 5 or x 3 = 2 2−x ⋅ = 10
the equation by the root. Ensure that you check your solutions by 39x+ 3 = 38x+ 20 4
No sol. or x = ± 2 x = − 125 or x = 8 substituting your answers back into the original equation. 2−x = 8
9x + 3 = 8x + 20
EXAMPLES 2−x = 23
x = 17
5. x + 3 x − 10 = 0 6. 22 x − 6 ⋅ 2x − 16 = 0 Solve: −x = 3
1 1. x −2 = 3 2. x + 5−x = 3
x+ 3x 2 − 10 = 0 (2 x + 2)(2 x − 8) = 0 x = −3
1 1 x −2 = 9 x+ 5= x+ 3 Check:
(x 2 + 5)(x 2 − 2) = 0 2x = − 2 or 2 x = 8 L HS = (−1) + 5 − (−1)
1 1 x = 9+ 2 x+ 5= x2 + 6x + 9 L HS = 3 R HS = 3
x2 = − 5 or x2 = 2 No sol. or 2 x = 23 ∴ x = −1
x = 11 0= x2 + 5x + 4 L HS = (−4) + 5 − (−4)
x = − 5 or x = 2 x = 3 L HS = 5 R HS = 3
0 = (x + 1)(x + 4)
No sol. or x = 4 ∴ x ≠−4
x = − 1 or x ≠ − 4
10
Sequences and Series SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©
Patterns/ Sequences: ordered set of numbers

REMINDERS: Linear: Quadratic:
F
Constant first difference between consecutive terms. Constant second difference between consecutive terms.
1. Consecutive: directly follow one another Tn = general term Tn = general term
Tn = dn+ c Tn = a n2 + bn+ c
2. Common/constant difference: difference d = constant difference n = number of the term
between two consecutive terms in a
pattern Notice how this is similar to a linear function y = m x + c Notice how this is similar to the quadratic equation and formula for the parabola
d = T2 − T1
Steps to determine the nth term: Steps to determine the nth term:
3. General term Tn: 1. Find the constant difference 1. Find the constant difference
Also referred to as the nth term. 2. Substitute the constant difference (d) and the term value, along with the 2. Use the value of the second difference to find “a”
term number
• General term for linear patterns: 3. Use the “a” value and first difference to find “b”
3. Substitute the c- and d-values to define the nth term.
Tn = dn + c 4. Use “a” and “b” to find “c”
• General term for quadratic patterns:
Tn = a n2 + b n + c EXAMPLE EXAMPLE
1. Determine the nth term of the following sequence: Determine the nth term of the following sequence:
4. T1; T2; . . . . T100: Terms indicated by T T1 T2 T3 T4 T1 T2 T3 T4
and the number of the term as a sub- Term 1
2; 7; 12; 17 6; 17; 34; 57
script. 7−2 12 − 7 17 − 12
(a + b + c)
17 − 6 34 − 17 57 − 34
5. Objective: First difference

5 5 5 11 17 23
(3a + b)
a. Find the values of the variables. 17 − 11 23 − 17
b. Use the values to find the general Second difference
term Using term 3 where T3 = 12 6 6
(2a)
c. Use the general term to calculate Tn = 5n + c
specific term values 12 = 5(3) + c Second difference = 2a
d. Use specific term values to find the
12 = 15 + c 6 = 2a
term number
12 − 15 = c 3= a
−3 = c
First difference = 3a + b
11 = 3a + b
∴ Tn = 5n− 3
11 = 3(3) + b
2= b
2. Determine the 100th term
T100 = 5(100) − 3 Term 1 = a + b + c
= 500 − 3 6 = (3) + (2) + c
= 497 6−3−2 = c
1= c
∴ T100 = 497
∴ Tn = 3n2 + 2n + 1
11
Sequences and Series - Arithmetic Sequence SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©
ARITHMETIC SEQUENCE EXAMPLE 2 EXAMPLE 3

A sequence formed by adding a common difference (d) to the previous term m ; 2m + 2 and 5m + 3 are three consecutive terms of an arithmetic Find the arithmetic sequence if the 6th term is 10
sequence. and the 14th term is 58.
∴ d = T2 − T1 = T3 − T2
Tn = general term a) Determine the value of m. For n = 6;
Tn = a + (n− 1)d n = number of the term b) If the 12th term is 28, determine the sequence. Tn = a + (n− 1)d
10 = a + 5d . . . . . . . . . . . eq1
a = T1
Steps to determine the nth term: a) Arithmetic series, thus;
d = first difference
1. Find the constant difference (d) T2 − T1 = T3 − T2 For n = 14;
2. Use T1 as “a” (2m + 2) − m = (5m + 3) − (2m + 2) Tn = a + (n− 1)d
m + 2 = 3m + 1 58 = a + 13d . . . . . . . . . . . eq 2
−2m = − 1
1
EXAMPLE 1 m =
2 eq2 − eq1;
Given: –6; –2; 2; 6; 10; ...; 110. Determine: a + 13d = 58
b)
d = T2 − T1 −a + 5d = 10
a) the general term. 8d = 48
= (2m + 2) − m
b) which term in the sequence exceeds 84. ∴d = 6
= 2( 1 ) + 2 − 1
c) the value of the 14th term. 2 2
5
d) How many terms there are in the sequence. = b into eq1;
2
10 = a + 5d
Tn = a + (n− 1)d 10 = a + 5(6)
–6; –2; 2; 6; 10; ...; 110 28 = a + (12 − 1)( 5 ) a = −20
–2–(–6) 2–(–2) 6–2 10–6 2
a+ ( )
55
28 =
2 NOTE: If asked for sequence, it means the
4 4 4 4 First difference (d)
1 first three terms
a =
2
a) Tn = a + (n− 1)d
(2)
1 5
Tn = − 6 + (n− 1)4 ∴ Tn = + (n− 1) Tn = a + (n− 1)d
2
Tn = 4n− 10 T1 = −20 + (1 − 1)(6)
NOTE: If asked for sequence, it means the first three terms T1 = −20
b) 4n− 10 > 84
4n > 94 T1 = m
n > 23,5 1 Tn = a + (n− 1)d
T1 =
∴ 24th term 2 T2 = −20 + (2 − 1)(6)
T1 = −14
c) Tn = 4n− 10 T2 = 2m + 2
2( ) + 2
1
T14 = 4(14) − 10 T2 =
2 Tn = a + (n− 1)d
T14 = 46 T2 = 3 T1 = −20 + (3 − 1)(6)
T1 = −8
T3 = 5m + 3
d) Tn = 4n− 10
5( ) + 3
1
110 = 4n− 10 =
2
4n = 120 ∴ − 20; − 14; − 8
11
n = 30 =
2
1 11
∴ ; 3;
2 2
12
Sequences and Series - Geometric Sequence SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©
GEOMETRIC SEQUENCE EXAMPLE 2 EXAMPLE 3

A sequence formed by multiplying the previous term 4g–2 ; g+1 ; g–3 are the first three terms of a The 6th term of a geometric sequence is 3, and the 11th term is 27.
by a common ratio (r). geometric sequence.
Determine the sequence.
a) Determine the value of g if g is an integer and hence show
Tn = general term that the first three terms are 18; 6; 2.
T2 T For n = 6;
∴r = = 3 n = number of the term
T1 T2 b) Write down the nth term of the sequence Tn = a ⋅ r n−1
a = T1
3 = a ⋅ r 5 . . . . . . . . . . . eq1
Tn = a ⋅ r n−1 r = common ratio
T2 T3
a) r = = For n = 11;
T1 T2
Steps to determine the nth term: g + 1
=
g −3 Tn = a ⋅ r n−1
4g − 2 g + 1
1. Find the common ratio 27 = a ⋅ r 10 . . . . . . . . . . . eq 2
(g + 1)(g + 1) = (g − 3)(4g − 2)
2. Use T1 as “a” g2+ g + 1 = 4g 2 − 14g + 6
3g 2 − 16g + 5 = 0 eq2 ÷ eq1;
EXAMPLE 1
(3g − 1)(g − 5) = 0 ar 10 27
=
Given sequence 6; 18; 54; ....; 118 098. Determine: ar 5 3
1
a) the next 2 terms ∴g ≠ (not an integer) or g = 5 33
3 r5 =
1
b) the nth term 32
T1 = 4g − 2
3− 1
c) how many terms there are in the sequence. = 4(5) − 2 r5 = 3 2
5
= 18 r5 = 32
1
6; 6 18; 18 54; ....; 118 098 T2 = g + 1 r = 32 = 3
18 54 = (5) + 1
= 6
3 3 r into eq1;
a) r = 3 T3 = g −3
3 = a ⋅ r5
= (5) − 3
5
Tn = a ⋅ r n−1 Tn = a ⋅ r n−1 = 2 3 = a ⋅ ( 3)
T4 = 6 ⋅ 34−1 T5 = 6 ⋅ 35−1 1
∴ 18; 6; 2 a =
( 3)
T4 = 162 T5 = 486 4
T2 1
b) a =
b) r = 9
Tn = a ⋅ r n−1 T1
6
= 6 ⋅ 3n−1 =
18 Tn = a ⋅ r n−1 Tn = a ⋅ r n−1 Tn = a ⋅ r n−1
= 2 × 3 ⋅ 3n−1 1
= 1−1 2−1 3−1
( 9 )( 3 ) ( 9 )( 3 ) ( 9 )( 3 )
1 1 1
= 2 ⋅ 3n 3 T1 = T1 = T1 =
1 1
c) Tn = 2 ⋅ 3n Tn = a ⋅ r n−1 T1 =
9 T1 =
3 T1 =
3
n−1 9
118 098 = 2 ⋅ 3n = 18 ⋅ ( 1 )
59 049 = 3n 3
310 = 3n or n = log3 59 049 = 2 × 32 × 3−n+ 1 1 3 1
∴n = 10 ∴n = 10 ∴ ; ;
= 2 ⋅ 33−n 9 9 3
13
Sequences and Series - Series SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©
A series is the sum of a number of terms in a sequence and is represented by Sn.

General Term for an arithmetic series: ARITHMETIC SERIES
Tn = a + (n− 1)d
PROOF:
Sum of the arithmetic series:
n Sn = a + [a + d ] + [a + 2d ] + ... + [a + (n− 3)d ] + [a + (n− 2)d ] + [a + n− 1)d ]
Sn = [2a + (n− 1)d ]
2 + Sn = [a + (n− 1)d ] + [a + (n− 2)d ] + [a + (n− 3)d ] + ... + [a + 2d ] + [a + d ] + a
Last term: 2Sn = [2a + (n− 1)d ] + [2a + (n− 1)d ] + [2a + (n− 1)d ] + [2a + (n− 1)d ] + [2a + (n− 1)d ] + [2a + (n− 1)d ] + [2a + (n− 1)d ]
l = a + (n− 1)d ∴ 2Sn = n[2a + (n− 1)d ]
n
2 [2a
n ∴ Sn
n
= + (n− 1)d ]
∴ Sn = [a + l ] 2n
2
EXAMPLE 1 EXAMPLE 2
Determine the sum of the following: The sixth term of an arithmetic sequence is 23 and the sum of the first six terms is 78.
Determine the sum of the first twenty-one terms.
a) The first 25 terms of 18 + 13 + 8 + ... b) The series 5 + 8 + 11 + ... + 35 n
1. Tn = a + (n− 1)d 3. q2 − q1 : 5. Sn = 2
[2a + (n− 1)d ]
d = −5 a = 5; d = 3; l = 35 23 = a + (6 − 1)d 23 = a + 5d 21
− 26 = 2a + 5d S21 = [2(3) + (21 − 1)(4)]
23 = a + 5d . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . eq1 2
n 3 = a
Sn = [2a + (n− 1)d ] Find n : = 903
2
25 n
S25 = [2(18) + (25 − 1)(−5)] 35 = 5 + (n− 1)(3) Sn =
n
[a + l] 2. Sn = 2
[2a + (n− 1)d ] 4. a into eq1 :
2 2
6 23 = a + 5d
= −1050 30 = 3(n− 1) 11 78 = [2a + (6 − 1)d ]
S11 = [5 + 35] 2 23 − (3) = 5d
10 = n− 1 2
= 220 26 = 2a + 5d . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . eq 2 d = 4
∴n = 11
GEOMETRIC SERIES
PROOF:
General Term for a geometric series: Sn = a + ar + ar2 + a r3 + ... + a r n−2 + a r n−1
Tn = a ⋅ r n−1
r Sn = ar + ar2 + a r3 + ... + a r n−2 + a r n−1 + arn
Sum of the geometric series: Sn − r Sn = a − arn
a (1 − r n) a (r n − 1) Sn(1 − r) = a (1 − r n)
Sn = if r < 1 OR Sn = if r > 1
(1 − r) (r − 1) a(1 − r n)
∴ Sn =
(1 − r)
EXAMPLE 1 EXAMPLE 2
Given the series –2 +6 –18 +54 +.... Determine: 3 1533
The sum of the geometric series 6 + ⋯ +
is .
a) the sum to nine terms b) the value of n if the sum of the series is –797 162. 12 128
Determine the common ratio and the number of terms in the sequence.
T2 6 a(1 − r n) a(1 − r n) r
r = = = −3 Sn = Tn = a r n−1 Sn = rn =
(1 − r) 256
T1 −2 3
(1 − r)
−2(1 − (−3) n) = 6r n−1 1
( 256 )
128 1n 2
a(1 − r n) −797 162 = 6 1− r =
Sn = (1 − (−3)) 1 2 256
(1 − r) = r n−1 1533
= 1n
−3 188 648 = −2( )
1 − (−3) n 256 128 1−r =
1
−2(1 − (−3)9 ) 1 2 512
768(1 −
256 )
S9 = 1 594 324 = 1 − (−3) n r n ⋅ r −1 = 15339(1 − r) =
r
(1 − (−3)) 256 2−n= 2−9
= −9 842 (−3) n = −1 594 323 r n⋅ r
1
=
1
1533 − 1533r = 768 − 3r ∴n = 9
256
(−3) n = (−3)13 r 1530r = 765
rn = 1
∴n = 13 256
r =
2
14
Grade 12 Maths Essentials Sequences and Series - Series SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©
SUM TO INFINITY (S∞) SIGMA NOTATION

Consider the following values of Sn as n →∞, in the following series: Sigma notation is denoted by Σ, which means ‘the sum of’.
1. 2 + 4 + 6 + 8 + ⋯ = ∞ (Arithmetic and d = 2) end term EXAMPLE

7 Start term : 3
2. 2 + 0 − 2 − 4 − 6 + ⋯ = ∞ (Arithmetic and d = − 2)
Σ Formula for the series (T ) n
∑
2n End term : 7
3. 2 + 4 + 8 + 16 + ⋯ = ∞ (Geometric and r = 2) start term n= 3 Series formula : Tn=2n
4. 2 − 4 + 8 − 16 + 32 + ⋯ = ∞ (Geometric and r = − 2) r
∑7n= 3 2n = 2(3) + 2(4) + 2(5) + 2(6) + 2(7)
∑
(Tn)
1 1
5. 8 + 4 + 2 + 1 +
2
+ ⋯= ∞ (Geometric and r = 2 ) n= p = 6 + 8 + 10 + 12 + 14
= 50
Note for 5: T1 = a n
Sn = [a + l] a=6
n= r −p + 1 2
8(1 − ( 1 ) 20 ) 8(1 − ( 1 )30 ) 8(1 − ( 1 )40 ) 8(1 − ( 1 )80 ) =
5
[6 + 14] d=2
2 2 2 2
S20 = S30 = S40 = S80 = 3
1− 1 1− 1 1− 1 1− 1 Find the first three terms to check if arithmetic = 50 n=r–p+1
2 2 2 2
= 15,9999 = 15,9999 = 16 = 16 or geometric. Then use formula for Sn. =7–3+1
∴ S∞ = 16
EXAMPLE 1 EXAMPLE 2
Thus only a geometric series with −1 < r < 1, r ≠ 0, , will have a sum to infinity, as S∞ Write the following in sigma Determine the following:
will approach a set value. This is known as a convergent series, or a series that notation: ∞ 18
converges. 10 2−n
∑ ∑
a) b) 2 − 5n
2 + 10 + 50 + ⋯ + 781 250
1 1 n= 1 n= 4
If r = , p ∈ N, then as lim = 0, therefore 1 − r ∞ = 1 − 0 = 1, and therefore;
p p→∞ p
a First find the first three terms to check if arithmetic or geometric.
r = 5; a = 2
S∞ =
1−r 10 + 1 + 0,1 + ⋯ −18 − 23 − 28
∴ Tn = 2 ⋅ 5n−1
EXAMPLE 1 EXAMPLE 2 ∴ n = 0,1 ∴ d = −5
·
For which value(s) of k will the series Use the sum to infinity to write 0,4 as
4(k − 2) + 8(k − 2)2 + 16(k − 2)3 + ⋯ converge? a proper fraction. Tn = 2 ⋅ 5n−1 S∞ =
a n = r −p + 1
1−r
781 250 = 2 ⋅ 5n−1 10 = 18 − 4 + 1
S∞ = = 15
T2 ·
0,4 = 0,4 + 0,04 + 0,004 + 0,0004 + ⋯ 390 625 = 5n−1 1 − 0,1
r = S∞ = 11,11
T1 58 = 5n−1
n
8(k − 2) 2 ∴n = 9 Sn = [3a + (n− 1)d ]
2
r = T2
4(k − 2) r = 15
T1 = [2(−18) + (15 − 1)(−5)]
r = 2(k − 2) 2
9
r =
0,04
2 ⋅ 5n−1 = −795
∑
0,4
∴
n= 1
−1 < r < 1 , r ≠ 0 r = 0,1
−1 < 2(k − 2) < 1 , 2(k − 2) ≠ 0
1 1
− < k −2 < , k −2 ≠ 0 S∞ =
a
2 2 1−r
1 1
1 < k < 2 , k ≠ 2 =
0,4
2 2
1 − 0,1
4
=
9
15
Functions and Graphs Grade 11 Recap SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©
Grade 11 Functions: Quadratic Functions

Steps for sketching y = a x 2 + b x + c Finding the equation in the form y = a (x − p)2 + q Finding the equation in the form y = a x 2 + b x + c
2
y = a(x − p) + q Given the x-intercepts and another point
1. Determine the shape (‘a’) Given the turning point and another point
2. Find the x- and y-intercepts 1. Substitute the turning point into y = a (x − p)2 + q 1. Substitute the x-intercepts into
Shape: Horizontal shift: Vertical shift: −b y = a (x − x1)(x − x 2 )
3. Find the turning point ( ) 2. Substitute the other point into the equation to
• a>0 • x-value of 2a find ‘a’ 2. Substitute the other point in to find ‘a’
• y-value of
turning pt turning pt 4. Plot points and sketch graph 3. Determine the equation of the graph 3. Write/simplify your final equation
• a<0
• axis of EXAMPLE 2 EXAMPLE 1 EXAMPLE 2
symmetry
Sketch f (x) = x 2 − 4x + 3 Find the equation of the following graph: Find the equation of the following graph:
Steps for sketching y = a (x − p)2 + q
y
1. Determine the shape (‘a’) • Shape: a > 0 ∴ y
2. Find the x- and y-intercepts • x-intercept (y = 0)

3. Find the turning point Option 1: 0 = x 2 − 4x + 3
(0;3)
4. Plot points and sketch graph 0 = (x − 3)(x − 1)
(-1;0) x
EXAMPLE 1 x = 3 OR x = 1
(1;0) (3;0) x
Sketch f (x) = (x + 1)2 − 9 −b ± b 2 − 4a c (1;0)
Option 2: x =
2a
(1;-9)
• Shape: a > 0 ∴ y
−(−4) ± (−4)2 − 4(1)(3)
• x-intercept (y = 0) x =
2(1)
0 = (x + 1)2 − 9 4± 2
(-4;0) (2;0) x = • Turning point (p;q) • x-intercepts
9 = (x + 1)2 2 x = 1 OR x = 3
x p = 1 and q = − 9
± 9= x+ 1 x = 3 OR x = 1
y = a (x − 1)2 − 9 Formula: y = a (x − x1)(x − x 2 )
+ 3 = x + 1 OR − 3 = x + 1 • y-intercept (x = 0)
y = 3 • Other point y = a (x − 1)(x − 3)
2 = x OR − 4 = x
• Turning point (p;q)
(−1; 0) • Other point
(0;8)
(0;–8)
• y-intercept (x = 0) −b −(−4)
1) x-value of TP = = 0 = a (−1 − 1)2 − 9 (0; 3)
(-1;-9) 2a 2(1)
y = (0 + 1)2 − 9 9 = 4a 3 = a (−1)(−3)
x = 2
y = −8 2) Subst. into original eq: 9 1= a
a =
• Turning point (p;q) y = (2)2 − 4(2) + 3 4
Remember: • Equation
y = −1
(−1; − 9) (x − (−1))2 − 9 y • Equation
TP (2; − 1) y = 1(x − 1)(x − 3)
(x − p)2 + q 9
• Axis of symmetry • Axis of symmetry y = (x − 1)2 − 9 y = x 2 − 4x + 3
4
x = −1 x = 2 (0;3)
NOTE: NOTE:
• Domain f (x) = x 2 • Domain
If you need to write this equation in the
x ∈R (3;0)
x ∈R → moved 1 unit to the left form y = a (x − p)2 + q complete the square
→ moved 9 units down • Range (1;0)
• Range y ≥− 1 y = (x − 2)2 + 3 − 4
(2;-1)
y ≥− 9 y = (x − 2)2 − 1
16
Exponential Graphs Hyperbola

a
Finding the equation in the form y = a b x−p + q Finding the equation in the form y = + q
x−p a x −p
y = ab + q y= + q
Given the asymptote and another point x −p Given the asymptotes and another point
1. Substitute the asymptote into the equation
Vertical shift: 1. Substitute the asymptotes into the equation
Shape: Shape: Horizontal shift: Vertical shift:
y
y
2. Substitute the other point in

• asymptote
x
2. Substitute the other point into the equation
• b>1
x
3. Write/simplify your final equation • a>0 • asymptote • asymptote to find ‘a’

y
y
• 0<b<1 • a<0
x x
3. Write/simplify your final equation
EXAMPLE 2
Find the equation of the following graph given a EXAMPLE 2
Steps for sketching y = a b x−p + q Steps for sketching y = + q
y = b x+ 1 + q : x −p Find the equation of the following graph:
y
1. Determine the asymptote (‘q’) 1. Determine the asymptotes (y = ‘q’ and x = ‘p’)
y
1. Determine the shape (‘a’) 1. Determine the shape (‘a’)
2. Find the x- and y-intercepts 2. Find the x- and y-intercepts y=1
3. Plot points (at least 2 others) and sketch graph 3. Plot points (at least 2 others) and sketch graph (2;0) x
(-3;2)
EXAMPLE 1 EXAMPLE 1
Sketch f (x) = 2x+ 1 + 1 −1
x Sketch f (x) = −1
y = -2 x −2
x = -1
• Asymptote • Asymptote
• Asymptotes
y = 1 y y = 1 and x = − 1
x = 2 a
• Shape: a > 0 ∴ x
f (x) = + 1
• Asymptote y = −1 x − (−1)
• x-intercept (y = 0)
y
q = −2 a
• Shape: a < 0 ∴ f (x) = + 1
0= 2 x+ 1 + 1
x
x+ 1
y = b x+ 1 − 2 • x-intercept (y = 0)
−1 = 2 x+ 1 • Other point
• Other point −1
Not possible to solve for x 0= −1 (2; 0)
x −2
(−3; 2) a
∴ No x-intercept −1 0= + 1
2 = b −3+ 1 − 2 1= 2+ 1
x −2
• y-intercept (x = 0) a
4 = b −2 x −2 = −1 −1 =
y = 20+ 1 + 1 3
1 x = 1
y = 3 4= −3 = a
y b2
• y-intercept (x = 0) y
• Domain 1 • Equation
b2 = −1
4 y = −1 −3
x ∈R f (x) = + 1
(1;5) 1 1 −2 x+ 1
• Range b = ± b ≠− 1
(0;3) 2 2 y = − (1;0)
(-1;2) 2 x
y> 1 y=1 1 Lines of Symmetry:
b = + y = -1
2 • Domain (0;-½) Use point of intersection of asymptotes. (-1;1)
x (3;-2)
• Equation x ∈R; x ≠ 2 y = x+ c (−1; 1) y = −x + c (−1; 1)
1 1= −1+ c 1= 1+ c
y = ( ) x+ 1 − 2 • Range
2 x=2 2= c 0= c
y ∈R; y ≠ − 1 y = x+ 2 y = −x
17
Deductions from Graphs

DISTANCE NOTATION EXAMPLE 1
A f (x) = a x 2 + bx + c and g (x) = k x are sketched. D is the turning point of f(x) with the axis of symmetry at x=2.
Steps for determining VERTICAL DISTANCE • f (x) > 0
(above the line y = 0) AB is 6 units.
1. Determine the vertical distance B
y
y y
Vertical distance = top graph − (bottom graph)
2. Substitute the given x-value to derive your answer (-2;9)
x x
D
F
Steps for determining HORIZONTAL DISTANCE (i.e. where y is positive)
A E B x
1. Find the applicable x-values • f (x) < 0
A B
A B = xB − xA (largest − smallest) (below the line y = 0)
y y
Steps for determining MAXIMUM DISTANCE

x x
1. Determine the vertical distance
Vertical distance = top graph − bottom graph Questions: Solutions:
(i.e. where y is negative)
2. Complete the square a. Determine the value of k. a. (−2; 9) 1 2 4
d. y = − (2) + (2) + 1
y = a (x − p)2 + q A 9 = k −2 5 5
• f (x) ⋅ g (x) ≤0 b. Determine the x-values of A and B. 1 9 9
3. State the maximum distance 9= y = ∴ D = (2; )
B −1 4 k2 5 5
y = a (x − p)2 + (q) → q is the max distance c. Show that a = and b = . 1
(one graph lies above y = 0 and 5 5 k = ±
NOTE: one graph lies below y = 0) 3
d. Determine the coordinates of D. 1
k = 9
• Distance is always positive 3 e. units (y-value of co-
• f (x) ≥g (x) e. Determine the maximum distance of DE. 5
• Distance on a graph is measured in units top bottom ordinate D is also TP)
(i.e. f(x) lies above g(x)) f. Determine the values of p for which:
INTERSECTION OF GRAPHS −1 2 4 b. E = (2; 0) and A B = 6 u ni t s
• f (x) = g (x) x + x+ p< 0
Steps for determining POINTS OF INTERCEPTION 5 5 A = (−1; 0) x = − 1
(point of intersection) 1 4
g. Determine for which values of x: B = (5; 0) x = 5 f. − x 2 + x+ p< 0
1. Equate the two functions ROOTS & PARABOLAS 5 5
f (x) = g (x) i. f (x) ≥0 9
p< −
• Equal, real roots f (x) c. y = a (x − x1)(x − x 2 ) 5
2. Solve for x (look for the applicable x-value: A or B) y y ii. > 0
g (x) (−1; 0) and (5; 0) NOTE:
3. Substitute the applicable x-value into any of the
y = a (x + 1)(x − 5) • Interpret question as:
two equations to find ‘y’ x x iii. f (x) is increasing
f(x)
Use F (0; 1) How many units must the
1 = a (+ 1)(−5) graph move for the max.
g(x)
1 value to be < 0
A
• Non-real/ No real roots − = a
y y 5
B 1
y = − (x 2 − 4x + 1)
5 g.
x x
1 4
INCREASING/DECREASING y = − x2 + x+ 1 i. x ∈[−1; 5]
5 5
4 ii. x ∈(−1; 5)
• Real, unequal roots b =
5
Dec
y y
g
iii. x ∈(−∞; 2)
Dec
asin
g
asin
rea
rea
re
s
re
x x
Inc
ing
s
ing
Inc
18
Deductions from Graphs

EXAMPLE 2 Solutions:
f (x) = m x + c and g (x) = a(x − p)2 + q are sketched below. T is the turning point of g(x).
a. y = a (x + 2)2 + 8 (0; 0) g. −2x 2 − 8x = − 2x − 8
−8 = 4a 0 = 2x 2 + 6x − 8
−2 = a and p = − 2 and q = 8 0 = 2(x − 1)(x + 4)
y ∴ g (x) = − 2(x + 2)2 + 8 x = 1 or x = − 4 (NA)
D (−4; 0) y = − 2(1) − 8
8
(-2;8) T ∴ m =
−4
= − 2 and c = − 8 y = − 10
∴ FP = 10 units
B
b. OD = 4 units
G
A P h. Max length is given by TP of parabola (L (x))
J O x c. TR = 8 units
D R given by L (x) = g (x) − f (x). Find the TP by
completing the square.
M -8 F ∴ Max BM = g (x) − f (x)
d. TR: x = − 2
= − 2x 2 − 8x − (−2x − 8)
H f = − 2x 2 − 6x + 8
g e. g (x) = − 2(x + 2)2 + 8 = − 2(x 2 + 3x − 4)
3 9
= − 2(x 2 + 4x + 4) + 8 = − 2[(x + )2 − 4 − ]
2 4
= − 2x − 8x − 8 + 8 3 25
= − 2[(x + )2 − ]
2 4
= − 2x 2 − 8x 3 25
= − 2(x + )2 +
Questions: BM = g (x) − f (x) 2 2
25
Determine: BM = − 2x 2 − 8x − (−2x − 8) ∴ Max of BM = units
2
a. The value of a , p, q, m and c. = − 2x 2 − 6x + 8
BM = − 2(−1)2 − 6(−1) + 8
b. The length of OD.
BM = 12 units i. k = -8
c. The length of TR.
d. The equation of TR.
f. 28 = − 2x − 8 − (−2x 2 − 8x) j. x ∈(−∞; 0); x ≠ − 4
e. BM if OA = 1 unit. 28 = − 2x − 8 + 2x 2 + 8x
f. OJ if GH = 28 units. 0 = 2x 2 + 6x − 36
0 = 2(x 2 + 3x − 18)
g. The length of FP.
0 = 2(x + 6)(x − 3)
h. The maximum length of BM. x = −6 or x = 3 (NA)
i. The value of k for which −2x 2 − 8x + k has two equal roots. ∴ OJ = 6 units
f (x)
j. For which value(s) of x will < 0?
g (x)
19
Functions and Inverses SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©
Relation: set of ordered pairs INVERSE OF A FUNCTION SKETCHING INVERSE FUNCTIONS

Function: relation where each of the values in the domain (x-values) is associated with only ONE value in The symmetry if a graph is a mirror image of
the range (y-value) the curve around a specific line. The inverse Method 1: Table Method
1. Using the original graph, create a table
How to determine whether a graph is a function: of a function is the symmetry of a graph
2. Sketch the graph of the inverse by switching the
about the line y = x.
Use the Vertical Ruler Test. If the ruler crosses the graph: values of x and y for each point
! Once, it IS a function ! More than once, it IS NOT a function EXAMPLE

How to determine the inverse of a function:
EXAMPLE Original function:
1. Write in standard form
Determine whether each of the following graphs is a function or not x -1 0 1
2. Switch x and y
1. 2. 3 y -2 0 -2
3. Make y the subject of the formula
Inverse:
NOTE:
x -2 0 -2
For Many-to-One functions (Parabolas):
The domain needs to be restricted in y -1 0 -1
order for the inverse to be a function
EXAMPLE Method 2: Using the original function

1. Find important properties on the original function
Is not a function Is a function Is not a function Find the inverse equation of each of the (i.e. x- and y-intercepts, turning points,
ONE-TO-ONE FUNCTION MANY-TO-ONE FUNCTION NON-FUNCTION following functions. Write them in the asymptotes, domain and range)
form f −1(x) = . . . 2. Sketch the graph of the inverse by switching the
A function where every element A function where two or more elements One element of the domain
values of x and y for each important point
of the domain has a different of the domain may be associated with the associated with two or more
element in the range. If you do same element of the range. If you do a elements of the range. 1. f (x) = 4x − 5 EXAMPLE
a horizontal line test, the graph horizontal line test, the graph will be cut
x = 4y − 5 Original function:
will only be cut by your line by your line MORE THAN ONCE.
x-intercept - 0 = 2x − 4
ONCE. x + 5 = 4y
–1 –2 –3 9 –3 9 x = 2
0 0 0 2 0 2 1 5 y-intercept - y = 2(0) − 4
y = x+
2 4 3 10 3 10 4 4 y = −4
3 6 4 1 5
−1
∴ f (x) = x +
y y 4 4 Inverse:
y
x-intercept - x = − 4 (−4; 0)
(0;2) y-intercept - y = 2 (0; 2)
(0;1) (2;0) Method 3: Using the inverse equation
2. f (x) = (x − 8)2 + 1
x x x 1. Determine the equation of the inverse
x = (y − 8)2 + 1 2. Calculate the important properties (i.e. x- and y-
x − 1 = (y − 8)2 intercepts, turning points, asymptotes, intervals
that are ascending/descending, domain and range)
± x −1 = y −8 3. Sketch the graph of the inverse
y y y
8± x −1 = y
EXAMPLE
∴ f −1(x) = 8± x −1 Original function: y = − 2x 2
(2;0)
x = − 2y 2
−x
x x x = y2
2
−x
Inverse: y = ±
(0; –2) 2
20
INVERSE OF A LINEAR FUNCTION INVERSE OF A PARABOLA EXAMPLE
Straight line: f (x) = a x + q Given h (x) = − x 2 with domain x ≤0, sketch the
Parabola: f (x) = a x 2
x −q graph of h (x) and its inverse on the same set of
Inverse: f −1(x) = x axes. Indicate the line of symmetry.
a Inverse: f −1(x) = ±
a
1 2
Given f (x) = − 3x − 2, the inverse is f −1(x) = − x − Given f (x) = x 2, the inverse is f −1(x) = ± x
3 3 h (x) = − x 2
y General properties of the inverse: General properties of the inverse: For h −1(x), switch x and y
f (x) y=x Domain: x ≥0 if a > 0 x = − y2
Domain: x ∈R y x ≤0 if a < 0 y2 = − x
(–2;0) Range: y ∈R f (x) y=x Range: y ∈R y = −x
x Shape: ascending if a > 0 Shape: if a > 0
f –1(x) ∴ h −1(x) = ± −x
descending if a < 0 if a < 0
(0;–2) f –1(x)
1 Interval ascending (thus average BUT domain for h (x) given as x ≤0
Average Gradient: m =
a x gradient is positive): thus, h −1(x) = −x
if a > 0; x ∈[0; ∞)
y
if a < 0; x ∈(−∞; 0]
NOTE: y=x
Interval descending (thus average
The inverse of y = k (where k is a constant) will be perpendicular to the x -axis
gradient is negative):
The inverse of x = k (where k is a constant) will be perpendicular to the y -axis
if a > 0; x ∈[0; ∞)
EXAMPLE if a < 0; x ∈(−∞; 0] x
Given g (x) = x − 3, sketch the graph of g (x) and its inverse on the same set h –1(x)
of axes. The inverse of a parabola is not a function, because there are two elements of
the range for every element of the domain, BUT if we restrict the domain of the
y g(x) original function, we get an inverse that is a function and will look like this:
h (x)
g (x) = x + 3 y=x x
For g −1(x), switch x and y (0;3)
g –1(x) Given g (x) = 3x 2 with domain x ≥0, the inverse is g −1(x) = + . Both the Determine the following relating to the inverse:
3
x = y −3 restricted parabola and its inverse appear on the graph below. 1. Domain: x ≤0
(–3;0)
(3;0) x 2. Range: y ≤0
y = x+ 3 y g (x) y=x
∴ g −1(x) = x+ 3 3. x-intercept: x = 0 or (0; 0)
(0;–3)
4. y-intercept: y = 0 or (0; 0)
g –1(x) 5. Interval ascending: x ∈(−∞; 0]
Determine the following relating to the inverse: x
1. Domain: x ∈R
2. Range: y ∈R
3. x-intercept: x = 3 or (3; 0)
4. y-intercept: y = − 3 or (0; − 3)
Therefore, the domain of a parabolic function should be limited, either as x ≥0
0 − (−3) or x ≤0, in order to create an inverse that is a function.
5. Average gradient: m = = 1
3−0
21
WORKING WITH LOGARITHMS LOG LAWS EXPONENTIAL AND LOG FUNCTIONS
A logarithm (or ‘log’) is a mathematical notation that has been defined to allow us 1. Sum to product law: For exponential functions:
to make an exponent the subject of a formula. A logarithm function is the inverse loga x + loga y = loga x y
if a > 1 if 0 < a < 1
of an exponential function, therefore if y = a x (a > 0, a ≠ 1) then the inverse is
y y
x = a y. If written in standard function form then x = a y is y = loga x. 2. Difference to quotient law:
x NOTE:
loga x − loga y = loga
y loga a = 1
x = ay then y = loga x loga1 = 0
3. Power law:
loga x = log10 a x x
Index/(log) : y Log/(Index) : y loga x m = m loga x
Number : x Number : x
4. Change of base law:
Base : a Base : a logb x
loga x =
EXAMPLES logb a increasing function decreasing function
1. Write the following in log form:
For logarithmic functions:
1 x
(5 )
a. y = b. 31 = 3 c. x = 4 y EXAMPLES
if a > 1 if 0 < a < 1
Simplify the following:
x = log 1 y 1 = log33 y = log 4 x
5 y
81
1. log3 3. (logx16 − logx 4) ÷ logx 8
2. Write the following in exponential form: 729
16
a. y = log 1 x b. log61 = 0 c. x = logy 5 = log381 − log3729 = logx ÷ logx 8
4 x x
2 y
(2 )
1 = 4log33 − 6log33 = logx 4 ÷ logx 8
x = 1 = 60 5 = yx
= 4(1) − 6(1) 2logx 2
=
= −2 3logx 2
2 increasing function decreasing function
3. Solve the following equations: =
3
(4)
m x
a. log 4 = 3 b. log3(5x − 3) = 3 c. log = −3
3 1
m x 2. log3 + log51 + log 48
= 43 5x − 3 = 33 = 10−3 9
3 4
27 + 3 4 log28
m = 64 × 3 = 192 x = = 6 x = = − 2log33 + log51 +
5 1000 log2 4
3log2 2
= − 2(1) + 0 +
2log2 2
4. Determine the value of the following:
3
3 ( 729 )
1 = −2+
a. log2 256 b. log 1 c. log 10 2
1
= −
( )
1 2
x = log2 256 x = log 1 x = log 10
3 729
1 x
(3)
1
256 = 2 x = 10 x = 10
729
1
x = 8 x = 6 x =
2
22
INVERSE OF AN EXPONENTIAL FUNCTION MIXED EXAMPLE 1 Questions:
Exponential: f (x) = a x; a > 0 and a ≠ 1

Questions: 2. The growth of a virus cell is given by g (t ) = 1,95t, where t is
in minutes
Inverse: f −1(x) = loga x ; a > 0 and a ≠ 1 1. Given f (x) = log 1 x
2 a. Determine the number of virus cells after 8,5 minutes
Given f (x) = 3x, the inverse is f −1(x) = log3 x a. If f (x) = − 3, determine x.
b. After how many minutes will there be 2164 virus cells in the
b. Draw the graph of f (x). body?
General properties of the inverse:
c. For which value of x is f (x) < − 3?
y f (x) Domain: x > 0
y=x Range: y ∈R d. Determine f −1(x) and then draw the graph on
the same set of axes as f.
Shape: if a > 0
f –1(x) if a < 0
Asymptote: x = 0 Solutions:
x Solutions: a. g (8,5) − 1,958,5
If there are no vertical or horizon- a. log 1 x = − 3 Number of virus cells ≈292
tal shifts (i.e. no p - or q -values) 2
−3
(2 )
1
the log graph will cut the x -axis x = b. 1,95t = 2164
at 1. x = 8 log1,95t = log2164
EXAMPLE t log1,95 = log2164

1 x log2164
(3 )
b.
Given h (x) = sketch the graph of h (x) and its inverse on the same t =
log1,95
set of axes. Indicate the line of symmetry. f –1(x) y t ≈11,5 minutes
y=x
1 x
(3 )
h (x) = Alternative solution (b):
1,95t = 2164
For h −1(x), switch x and y (0;1) t = log1,952164
1 y
(3 )
x = t ≈11,5 minutes
(1;0) x
y = log 1 x
3
∴ h −1(x) = log 1 x f (x)

3 h (x) y
y=x
(–1;3)
x c. x ∈(8; ∞) OR x > 8; x ∈R
h –1(x)
(3;–1)
1 x
(2 )
d. f −1(x) =
= 2−x
23
MIXED EXAMPLE 2 MIXED EXAMPLE 3 MIXED EXAMPLE 4 MIXED EXAMPLE 5

Questions: Questions: Questions: Questions:
Given g −1(x) = − x Given f (x) = 3x a. If h (x) = 2x 2, determine the equation of the The sketch represents the graph of g (x) = a x and
inverse of h (x) h (x), the reflection of g (x) in the y-axis.
a. Write down the domain and range of a. Draw a sketch graph of f and give the domain
g −1(x) = − x and range. b. Is the inverse a function? If it isn’t a function, h (x) y g (x)
how can we restrict the original function so
b. Determine g (x). b. Determine f −1(x) = ....
that it is a function? A
c. Draw sketch graphs of g and g −1 on the same c. Sketch the graph of f −1 on the same set of
c. Sketch the graph h (x) and it’s inverse as deter-
set of axes axes and give the domain and range
mined in (b).
d. Give the equation of the line symmetrical to
f −1 about the x-axis x
Solutions: 1
Solutions: a. Calculate the value of a if A(2; 2 ) is a point on
a. Domain: x ∈[0; ∞) 4
a. x = y 2 g (x).
Range: y ∈(−∞; 0] Solutions:
y = ± x
a. b. Write down the equation of h (x).
y f (x)
b. x = − y c. Write down the equation of g −1(x) in the form
b. The inverse is not a function as one x has two y = ...
(x)2 = (− y)2 different y values. Thus, we must restrict the
domain of h (x) . There are two ways: i) x ≤0 d. Give the domain and range of g (x), h (x) and
x2 = y (0;1) f –1(x) g −1(x)
or ii) x ≥0
∴ g (x) = x 2; x ∈(−∞; 0]
(1;0) x h (x) y
c. i)
c. Solutions:
g –1(x) y
1
a. 2 = a 2
4
9
Domain: x ∈R = a2
Range: y ∈(0; ∞)
x 4
3
h –1(x) ∴a =
x 2
b. y = log3 x
g (x) 3 −x
(2 )
ii) b. h (x) =
c. Domain: x ∈(0; ∞)
y h (x)
2 x
(3 )
Range: y ∈R
h (x) =
d. y = − log3 x
h –1(x) c. g −1(x) = log 3 x
2
x
d. g : x ∈R and y ∈(0; ∞)
h : x ∈R and y ∈(0; ∞)
g −1 : x ∈(0; ∞) and y ∈R
24
Finance - Simple and Compound Interest SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©
SIMPLE INTEREST A = accumulated amount COMPOUND INTEREST EXAMPLE

REMINDERS: A = P(1 + in)
P = original amount
A = P(1 + i )n Calculate the future value of your investment after
n = number of periods three years at an interest rate of 15% per annum
1.Inflation: OR OR compounded:
r = interest rate as a %
The rate at which prices increase r r n
A = P (1 +
100 )
A = P(1 +
100 )
r
over time n i = interest rate a) Annually
100 A = P (1 + i )n
2.Consumer Price Index (CPI): = 15 000(1 + (0,15))3
the average prices of a basket of EXAMPLE = R 22 813,13
goods Determine the difference in the accumulated amounts when investing your savings of R 15 000 for 4 years
b) Semi-annually
3.Exchange Rates: at two different banks, both offer 6,5% however one offers simple interest and the other compound.
A = P (1 + i )n
The value of one currency for the 6
15 000(1 + (
2 ))
0,15
purpose of conversion to another SIMPLE INTEREST =
A = P (1 + i n) = R 23 149,52
4.Population Growth:
Change of population size over A = 15 000(1 + (0,065)(4)) c) Quarterly
MONEY
time A = R18 900
ere
st A = P (1 + i ) n
int 12
15 000(1 + (
4 ))
nd 0,15
5.Hire Purchase: ou =
COMPOUND INTEREST mp
Co t
Short term loan, deposit payable. interes = R 23 331,81
A = P (1 + i )n Simple
Calculated using simple interest.
A = 15 000(1 + (0,065))4 TIME d) Monthly
6.Reducing balance loan: A = R19 296,99 A = P (1 + i ) n
Interest is paid on the reducing 36
15 000(1 + (
12 ))
0,15
balance, the lower the balance, =
the less you have to pay. HIRE PURCHASE = R 23 495,16
You buy a washing machine of R4 000 by POPULATION GROWTH
7.Nominal interest rate: signing a 2 year hire purchase agreement, you Notice: As compounding periods increase during the
Pf u tu re = Ppresent (1 + i )n
Quoted period and compounded pay an R800 deposit. Calculate the year, so the
period is different eg 15% per a) total amount you will repay if the interest accumulated amount increases.
annum compounded monthly. rate is 12% Pfuture = future population size
8.Effective interest rate: b) your monthly installment. Ppresent = present population size
EXAMPLE
Quoted period and compound i = average population (%)
If R13 865 is received after 6 years of being invested
period is equal eg 0,75% per n= number of years
and the interest rate was 16% compounded
month compounded monthly. a) Deposit : R800
annually, what was the original amount invested?
P = 4 000 − 800 The population of lions is 2 567 in 2015. A = P (1 + i )n
COMPOUND PERIODS = 3 200
If the growth rate is 1,34%, calculate the number of 13 865 = P (1 + 0,16)6
A = P (1 + i n) lions in 2020.
Annually: 1 per year 13 865 = 2,44P
= 3 200(1 + (0,12)(2)) 13 865
= R 3 968 = P
Semi-annually: 2 per year 2,44
2020 − 2015 = 5 P = 5 690,78
Quarterly: 4 per year
b) A = R 3 968 Pfu tu re = Ppresent(1 + i)n ∴R 5 690,78 was the principal amount invested.
Monthly: 12 per year
2 years = 24 equal payments = 2567(1 + 0,0134)5 OR use the following formulae:
Daily: 365 per year* = 2743
3 968 (note that the number of lions will be an integer) A = P (1 + i )n To find A
*(excl leap years) = R165,33
24
P = A(1 + i )−n To find P
25
Finance SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©
NOMINAL VS EFFECTIVE INTEREST RATES CHANGING INTEREST RATES DEPRECIATION (DECAY)

(COMPOUND INTEREST) If the interest rate changes after a set period of time: Depreciation is the loss or decrease of value at a specified rate over time.
Annual effective rate is equivalent to the nominal rate per 1. Determine the accumulated amount after the first period Depreciation: Loss of value over time
2. Set the accumulated amount as the initial amount for the A= Book or scrap value
annum compounded monthly, because it produces the Book value: Value of equipment at a given time after
second period P= Present value
same accumulated amount. depreciation
3. Determine the accumulated amount after the second period. i = Depreciation rate
iNom n Scrap value: Book value of equipment at the end of its
1 + ieff = (1 +
n )
n= time period
EXAMPLE useful life
R100 000 is invested for 6 years at an interest rate of LINEAR DEPRECIATION COMPOUND DEPRECIATION
ieff = effective rate (annual) 16% per annum compounded quarterly. Thereafter the Also known as simple decay or Also known as
iNom = nominal rate accumulated amount is reinvested for 5 years at an straight line depreciation depreciation on a reducing balance
n = number of compoundings per year interest rate of 14% compounded semi-annually. Calculate
the value of the investment at the end of this period. A = P(1 − in) A = P(1 − i)n
EXAMPLE Straight Line Depreciation Reducing Balance Depreciation
A = P (1 + i ) n
Convert a nominal rate of 18% per annum 24 periods :
0,16 24
100 000(1 +
4 )
compounded monthly to an annual effective rate. A =
Value of Asset (R)
Value of Asset (R)

4 period (quarterly) p.a.
over 6 years
A = R 256 330,42
0,18 12
1 + ieff = (1 + 12 )
A = P (1 + i )n
0,18 12
(1 + 12 )
ieff = −1 10 periods :
0,14 10
256 330,42(1 +
2 )
A = 2 period (semi-annual)
ieff = 0,196 p.a. over 6 years
A = R 504 239,91
∴ ieff = 19,6 % Number of periods Number of periods
EXAMPLE
EXAMPLE My new car , to the value of R 200 000 depreciates at a rate of 9% per annum.
EXAMPLE
R30 000 was left to you in a savings account. The interest What would the value of my car be after 6 years? Compare a linear depreciation
You invest R25 000 at 14% per annum compounded
to a reducing balance depreciation.
monthly for a period of 12 months. Use the annual rate for the first 4 years is 12% per annum compounded
effective rate to show that the same accumulated semi-annually. Thereafter the rates change to 18% per LINEAR DEPRECIATION REDUCING BALANCE DEPRECIATION
amount will be obtained as when using the nominal annum compounded monthly and you leave the money for A = P (1 − i n) A = P (1 − i )n
another 3 years. What is the future value of the = 200 000(1 − (0,09)(6)) = 200 000(1 − 0,09)6
rate.
investment after the savings period. = R 92 000 = R113 573,85
0,14 12
1 + ieff = (1 + 12 ) The exponent A = P (1 + i )n
8 periods : EXAMPLE
(12) is calculated 0,12 8
30 000(1 +
2 )
0,14 12
(1 + 12 )
ieff = −1 by noting there A = 2 period (semi-annual) The value of a piece of equipment depreciates from R15 000 to R5 000 in four
will be 12 p.a. over 4 years years. What is the rate of depreciation calculated on the:
ieff = 0,1493 A = R47 815,44
compounding
∴ ieff = 14,93 % a) Straight line method b) Reducing balance depreciation
periods: once a
A = P (1 + i ) n A = P (1 − i n) A = P (1 − i ) n
month for 12
A = P (1 + i ) n 0,18 36
36 periods :
47 815,44(1 +
12 )
months. A = 12 period (monthly)
5 000 = 15 000((1 − (x)4) 5 000 = 15 000(1 − i )4
12
25 000(1 + ( 12 ))
0,14 5 000 = 15 000 − 60 000x 1
= p.a. over 3 years = (1 − i )4
A = R 81 723,25 −10 000 = −60 000x 3
= R 28 733,55 x = 0,1667 4 1 −1 = −x
Alternatively: A = P (1 + i ) n × (1 + i )n 3
A = P (1 + i )n 0,12 8 0,18 36 −0,2401... = −i
30 000(1 +
2 )
× (1 +
12 )
= Depreciation rate = 16,67%
= 25 000(1 + 0,1493)1 i = 0,2401... × 100
= R 28 733,55 = R 81 723,26 r = 24 %
26
CALCULATING TIME PERIOD ADDITIONAL PAYMENTS OR WITHDRAWALS

OF A LOAN OR INVESTMENT Timelines assist in visualising and keeping track of different rates and payments. Set up each
When calculating the time of your in- section with information about the number of terms, compound periods and interest rates.
vestment (n) in a compound formula EXAMPLE EXAMPLE
you need to make use of Logs: You deposit R5 000 into a savings account and 4 years later you add R4 500. The You take out a loan to buy a new iPad. You make an additional payment of R 5 000
interest for the first 3 years was 11% compounded quarterly, then it changed to four years after taking out the loan. Two years later you repay the final amount of
12,5% compounded monthly. Calculate the savings at the end of the 6th year.
y = b x (Exponential form) R 6 000. During the first four years of the loan the interest rate is 14% per annum
compounded semi annually. For the last two years the rate changed to 11% per
annum compounded quarterly. How much did you initially borrow?
x = log b y (Logarithmic form) n = 3 year × 4 n = 1 year × 12 n = 2 year × 12
= 12 = 12 = 24 n = 4 year × 2 n = 2 year × 4
EXAMPLE =8 =8
Your car, costing R 250 000, needs
0,11 0,125 0,125
to be traded in when its value has != != != 0,14 0,11
Y0 4 Y3 12 Y4 12 Y6 != !=
depreciated to R 90 000. How Y0 2 Y4 4 Y6
long will you drive the car if the
reducing balance depreciation rate
is 7,5% per annum.
+4500
+5000 +6000
A = P (1 − i )n
Working backwards, we need the value of the the loan at Y4:
90 000 = 250 000(1 − 0,075) n Y3 = P (1 + i )n
0,36 = 0,925n 0,11 12
5000(1 +
4 )
= P = A(1 + i )−n
n = log0,925 0,36 A = P (1 + i )n To find A
0,11 −8
6000(1 +
4 )
= R 6923,92 P =
n = 13,1 P = A(1 + i )−n To find P
P = R4 829,44
You can drive the car for 13 years
before it depreciates to R90 000. Y4 = P (1 + i ) n + 4500
0,125 12 That means that the loan amount at the end of Y4, before the
6923,92(1 +
12 )
= + 4500
payment of R5000 was made, was R9 829,44.
= R12 340,76
Work backing backwards, we determine the initial amount bor-
rowed / loan amount at Y0.
Y6 = P (1 + i ) n
12 340,76(1 +
0,125 24 A(1 + i )−n
12 )
= P =
If withdrawals are made
0,14 −8
9829,44(1 +
2 )
= R15 825,37 from the savings account, P =
use subtraction instead
P = R 5 720,82
OR combine the steps into a single calculation
6000[(1 + 5000][(1 +
2 ) ]
0,11 −8 0,14 −8
4 )
OR P = +
= R 5 720,82
5000[(1 +
4 ) ][(
+ 4500][(1 +
12 ) ]
0,11 12 0,125 12 0,125 24
12 )
Y6 = 1+
= R15 825,37
27
FUTURE VALUE ANNUITIES PRESENT VALUE ANNUITIES

Equal investment payments made at regular intervals, subject to a rate of interest over a period of time. Reducing balance loan, a sum of money borrowed and paid back with interest in regular payments at
Eg annuity fund, a retirement fund, a savings account. equal intervals.
F= total accumulated at the end of the time period P = present value
x= monthly installment
x[1 − (1 + i )−n] x = monthly installment
x[(1 + i )n − 1] P=
i = interest rate per annum i i = interest rate p.a.
F=
i n= number of installments/payments n = number of time periods to repay the loan
EXAMPLE EXAMPLE
R2000 is deposited into a bank account. One month later a further R2 000 is deposited, and another You borrow money for a year at an interest rate of 18% per annum compounded quarterly and
R2 000 a month after that. The interest rate is 7% per annum compounded monthly. How much will monthly repayments will be R 1 367,20. The payments will start one month after receiving the loan.
be saved after 2 months? What was the initial amount borrowed?
Compound interest formula: A = P (1 + i ) n Compound interest formula: P = A(1 + i )−n

At the end of each month, a) interest is determined on the accumulated amount, and The payment at the end of each month can be used to determine the
b) an additional deposit is made: present value of that payment at M0:
0,18 −1
M1 : P = 1367,20(1 +
4 )
M0 : 2000 The money borrowed
0,07 1 in the beginning is
M1 : 2000(1 +
12 )
+ 2000 The money saved 0,18 −2 the present value of
M2 : P = 1367,20(1 +
4 )
at the end is the the annuity.
0,07 2 0,07 1 Future value of
M2 : 2000(1 +
12 )
+ 2000(1 +
12 )
+ 2000 = R 6 035,07
the investment Present value of all payments (loan) at M0:
0,18 −1 0,18 −2 0,18 −12
P = 1367,20(1 + ) + 1367,20(1 + ) + ⋯1367,20(1 +
4 )
= R12 466,92
4 4
The values van be expressed as a series:
0,07 2 0,07 1 0,07 0 The values van be expressed as a series:
M2 : 2000(1 + ) + 2000(1 + ) + 2000(1 +
12 ) M12: 1367,20(1 +
0,18 −1 0,18 −2 0,18 −12
4 )
+ 1367,20(1 +
4 )
+ ⋯1367,20(1 +
4 )
12 12
0,07
This is a geometric series where a = 2000 , r = (1 +
12 )
, n = 3 (3 payments). 0,18 −1 0,18 −1
This is a geometric series where a = 1367,20(1 +
4 )
, r = (1 +
4 )
, n = 12 (12 payments)
a (r n − 1)
Sn = a (r n − 1)
r −1 Sn =
0,07 3 r −1
2000[(1 + ) − 1]
12 0,18 −1 0,18 −12
F3 = 1367,20(1 + ) [(1 + ) − 1]
0,07 4 4
(1 + )−1 P =
12 0,18 −1
(1 + ) −1
4
F3 = 6035,07 P = 12 466,92
Future value annuity formula: Present value annuity formula:

x [(1 + i )n − 1] x [1 − (1 + i )−n]
F = Formula only holds when P = Formula only holds when there is a
i payment commences one i period break between the loan and first
0,07 3 period from the present 0,18 −12 payment. Eg first monthly payment
2000[(1 + ) − 1] 1367,20[1 − (1 + ) ]
12 and ends after n periods. starts 1 month after the loan is granted.
= = 4
0,07 0,18
12 4
= R 6 035,07 = R12 466,92
28
CALCULATE MONTHLY INSTALLMENTS ANALYSES OF INVESTMENT AND LOAN OPTIONS

Monthly installments are calculated using the present value annuity formula, and solving for x, When analysing investment and loan options, consider both the payment amounts, as well as the total
the repayment amount. payment made at completion.
NB: If repayments commence one month after the initiation of the loan; Investments with higher future values are preferable.
a) Calculate the growth of the loan during the first month to determine the new present value Loans with smaller present values are preferable.
b) Subtract one month from the total repayment terms.
CALCULATE OUTSTANDING BALANCE EXAMPLE
Outstanding balance is calculated using the present value annuity formula. The present value You have to take a home loan of R8 000 000 and there are 2 options to consider.
after the nth installments is the outstanding balance, also known as the settlement amount. A- a 20 year loan at 17% interest per annum compounded monthly.
EXAMPLE B- a 30 year loan at 17% interest compounded monthly.
In order to buy a car John takes a loan of R 25 000. The bank charges an annual interest
rate of 11% compounded monthly. The installments start a month after he has received the Monthly repayments:
money from the bank. x [1 − (1 + i )−n]
Calculate A. P =
i
x[1 − (1 + ]
0,17 −240
12 )
a) his monthly installments if he has to pay back the loan over a period of 5 years.
b) the outstanding balance of his loan after two years immediately after the 24th installment. 8 000 000 =
0,17
12
0,17 0,17 −240
8 000 000 × = x[1 − (1 + ) ]
a) Repayment is deferred by one month, causing the capital amount to grow; 12 12
0,11 1 11 333,33 = 0,9658x
P = 25 000(1 +
12 ) x = R11 734,40
Total number of terms: (5 × 12) − 1 = 59

x [1 − (1 + i )−n]
B. P =
x [1 − (1 + i )−n] i
P = x[1 − (1 + ]
0,17 −360
i 12 )
8 000 000 =
0,11 1 x[1 − (1 + 12 ) ]
0,11 −59 0,17
25 000(1 +
12 )
12
= 0,17 0,17 −360
= x[1 − (1 + ]
0,11
12
8 000 000 × )
12 12
0,11 11 333,33 = 0,99368x
25 299,17 × = 0,4163x
12 x = R11 405,40
x = R 555,53
Total repayments:
x [1 − (1 + i )−n] A : R11 734,40 × 240 = R 2 816 256
b) P24 = B : R11 405,40x 360 = R4 105 944
i
555,53[1 − (1 + ]
0,11 −24
12 ) Option B has a lower monthly repayment, but a total amount of almost double that of
=
0,11 OPTION A, therefore A is the better option.
12
= R11 919,45
29
Differential Calculus SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©
AVERAGE GRADIENT: FINDING THE DERIVATIVE USING THE DIFFERENT NOTATIONS DIFFERENTIATION RULES
Gradient between two points on a curve: DEFINITION (FIRST PRINCIPLES) USED FOR DERIVATIVES NB: Use these rules unless you are specifically asked to use
The derivative of a curve is the gradient of the curve. The derivative of y = f (x) can be “FIRST PRINCIPLES”
y2 − y1 written as:
Ave m = f ′(x) is the derivative of f (x).
x2 − x1 1. The derivative of a constant is ZERO
f (x + h ) − f (x) • f ′(x)
f ′(x) = lim dy
a. (−4) = 0
EXAMPLE h →0 h dx
Determine the average gradient of d f (x) b. If f (x) = 3 then f ′(x) = 0
EXAMPLE • dx
f (x) = x 2 + 2 between x = 2 and x = 4.
Find the derivative of f (x) using first principles.
d 2. The derivative of x n is nx n−1 (when n is a constant)
y − y1 1. f (x) = x 2 + 4
Ave m = 2 • d x [ f (x)] dy
x 2 − x1 a. If y = x 2 then = 2x 2−1 = 2x
∴ f (x + h ) = (x + h )2 + 4 dx
f (4) − f (2)
= = x 2 + 2x h + h 2 + 4 −3
4−2 b. Dx[x −3] = − 3x −3−1 = − 3x −4 =
• y′ x4
f (x + h ) − f (x)
[(4)2 + 2] − [(2)2 + 2] f ′(x) = lim
= h →0 h
4−2
[x 2 + 2x h + h 2 + 4] − [x 2 + 4] dy 3. The derivative of a constant k multiplied by f (x) is k . f ′(x)
= 6 = lim • dx
h →0 h d
( − 2x ) = − 2(3x ) = − 6x
a. 3 3−1 2
2x h + h 2 Note: First change all
GRADIENT AT A POINT dx
= lim monomial denominators
• Dx[ f (x)]
[ x6 ]
h →0 h 3 −18
The gradient of f (x) at the point where b. Dx = Dx[3x −6 ] = − 18x −7 = to negative exponents
h (2x + h ) x7
x = a is given by: = lim
h →0 h 1 x −2 1 1
dy c. y = = then y ′ = ( − 2x −2−1) = − x −3 = −
f (a + h ) − f (a) = 2x + 0 • dt means the derivative of the 2x 2 2 2 x3
lim
h →0 h = 2x function of y with respect to the
variable t
4. The derivative of a sum, is the sum if the derivatives
EXAMPLE
dx(2 ) dx(2 )
1 d 1 3 1 d 1 3
2. f (x) = a. x + −π = x + x −1 − π
Determine the gradient of f (x) = 2x 2 − 1 x • Dk[ f (k)] means the derivative x
at the point where x = 1. 1 of f (k) with respect to the 3 2 1
∴ f (x + h ) = variable k = x +
x+ h 2 x2
f (x + h ) − f (x)
f (a + h ) − f (a) f ′(x) = lim b. If s = (t + 1)(t − 4) = t 2 − 3t − 4
lim h →0 h
h →0 h d
1 1 then = 2t − 3
f (1 + h ) − f (1) −x
= lim = lim
x+ h dx
h →0 h h →0 h x 2 − 5x − 6 (x − 6)(x + 1)
c. If f (x) = = = x+ 1
h →0 [ (x + h )x ]
[2(1 + h )2 − 1] − [2(1)2 − 1] x − (x + h ) x −6 (x − 6)
= lim = lim ÷h
h →0 h
then f ′(x) = 1
4h + 2h 2 −h 1
= lim = lim × x3 − 3 x3 3
h →0 h Note: DO NOT h →0 x (x + h ) h d. If y = = − = x − 3x −2
x 2 x2 x2
h (4 + 2h ) substitute zero −1
= lim until h is no longer = dy 6
h →0 h x (x + 0) then = 1 + 6x −3 = 1 +
in the denominator dx x3
= 4 + 2(0) −1
(0 )
A =
is undefined x2
= 4
30
TANGENTS TO A CURVE AT A POINT CUBIC CURVES SKETCHING CUBIC GRAPHS

The gradient of a tangent to y = f (x) at the point where x = c is given by m tan = f ′(c). Standard form: Steps for sketching a cubic curve:
Steps: EXAMPLE 2 y = a x3 + b x2 + c x + d y-intercept 1. Determine the stationary points (SPs) and their natures
1. Find the point of contact (POC) Find the equation of the tangent(s) to 2. Determine the x- and y-intercepts
a>0 or OR a<0 or
2. Find f ′(x) at the POC (i.e. f ′(c)) f (x) = x 3 − 1 that is perpendicular to 3. Sketch the graph
1
3. m tan = f ′(c) y = − x+ 8 THE FIRST DERIVATIVE TEST
3
4. Find y = m x + c and sub in m tan Stationary points (SP) are found when f ′(x) = 0
and the POC 1. ⊥ lines: m1 × m 2 = − 1
• f (c) is a local max if : • f (c) is a local min if : • If f (c) has f ′(x) with the
1
− × m⊥ = − 1 f ′(x) > 0 to the left of c f ′(x) < 0 to the left of c same sign on either side
EXAMPLE 1 3 f ′(x) < 0 to the right of c f ′(x) > 0 to the right of c of c. Then f (c) is neither a
Find the equation of the tangent to ∴ m⊥ = 3 f l (x) = 0 local to the right of c
the curve y = 2x 2 + 1 at the point f l (x) SP f l (x)
BUT m tan = f ′(x) l
f (x) SP f l (x)
where x = 2 f l (x)
f l (x) = 0 f l (x)
3= 3x 2
• POC: x = 2 f l (x) = 0
EXAMPLE 1
y = 2(2)2 + 1 x2 = 1
= 9 Sketch f (x) = (x − 2)3 + 8
(2; 9) ∴ x = ± 1 f l (x)
So there are 2 tangents to f (x) that have • Standard form: f l (x)
• f ′(x) f (x) = (x − 2)(x 2 − 4x + 4) + 8
f l (x) = 0
a gradient of 3
Let y = f (x) = x 3 − 6x 2 + 12x
∴ f ′(x) = 4x Tangent 1: Tangent 2: EXAMPLE 2
At x = 2: y = (1)3 − 1 = 0 y = (−1)3 − 1 = −2 • Stationary points (SPs at f ′(x) = 0): Sketch f (x) = 6x − 2x 3
f ′(2) = 4(2) = 8 3x 2 − 12x + 12 = 0
POC (1; 0) POC (−1; − 2) • Stationary points (SPs at f ′(x) = 0):
• ∴ m tan = 8 x 2 − 4x + 4 = 0
y = 3x + c y = 3x + c (x − 2)2 = 0 6 − 6x 2 = 0
• y = mx + c x2 = 1
0 = 3(1) + c −2 = 3(−1) + c ∴ x = 2
y = 8x + c (Sub in (2; 9)) x = ± 1
9 = 8(2) + c c = −3 c = 1 f (2) = 8
∴ (2; 8) ∴ (1; 4) or (−1; − 4)
c = −7 ∴ y = 3x − 3 ∴ y = 3x + 1
∴ y = 8x − 7 is the tangent to Nature of SPs → first derivative test Nature of SPs → first derivative test
y = 2x 2 + 1 at x = 2
x SP (-1) SP (1)
x SP 2
EXAMPLE 3 f ′(x) 0 0
f ′(x) 0
Find the normal to the tangent of the curve f (x) = 2x 2
+ 4 at the point where x = 0 f (x)
y
NOTE: THE NORMAL IS THE LINE ⊥ TO THE TANGENT AT THE POC • y-intercept (x = 0) y
• y-intercept (x = 0)
• POC: x = 0 • m tan = 0 f (0) = 0 f (0) = 0
y = 2(0)2 + 4 f (x) (1;4)
thus, tangent is a horizontal line y = 4 • x-intercept (y = 0)
= 4 • x-intercept (y = 0) (2;8)
(0; 4) • tan ⊥ normal f (x) = 0 f (x) = 0
x (0;–√3)
∴ the normal will be a vertical line
(x − 2)3 + 8 = 0 6x − 2x 3 = 0 x
• f ′(x) (0;√3)
through the POC 2x (3 − x 2 ) = 0
f ′(x) = 4x (x − 2)3 = − 8
At x = 0: ∴ x = 0 x = 0 or x 2 = 3
x − 2 = 3 −8 (–1; –4)
f ′(0) = 4(0) = 0 x = ± 3
x −2 = −2
∴ x = 0
31
CONCAVITY FACTORISING MORE COMPLEX CUBIC POLYNOMIALS

Concavity explains how the gradients of the tangents to a curve The factor theorem states that if f (c) = 0 then (x − c) is a factor
change from left to right
EXAMPLE 1 EXAMPLE 2
• A section of a curve is concave up if the gradient of the tangent
Factorise x 3 − 5x 2 − 2x + 24 by using inspection Factorise x 3 − 7x 2 + 14x − 8 by using synthetic division
increases from left to right
f (−2) = 0 ∴ (x + 2) is a factor f (1) = 0 ∴ (x − 1) is a factor
→ 0 →
m m x 3 − 5x 2 − 2x + 24 1 1 − 7 + 14 − 8 ← coefficients of the polynomial
increasing gradients
x3 24 ↓+ 1−6+ 8
∴ concave up
= (x + 2)(x 2 − 7x + 12) 1−6+ 8 ⋅
m=0 2x 2
= (x − 1)(x 2 −
4x + 5)
• A section of a curve is concave down if the gradient of the tangent −7x 2
decreases from left to right = (x + 2)(x − 4)(x − 3) = (x − 1)(x − 2)(x − 4)
m=0 → 0 →
MORE SKETCHING (USING THE SECOND DERIVATIVE) EXAMPLE 2
m m decreasing gradients EXAMPLE 1
∴ concave down Sketch f (x) = x 3 − x 2 − 5x − 3
Sketch f (x) = x 3 − 5x 2 + 8x − 4
• Stationary points (SPs at f ′(x) = 0):
TEST FOR CONCAVITY • Stationary points (SPs at f ′(x) = 0): 3x 2 − 2x − 5 = 0
Remove the highest common factor from the coefficients and 3x 2 − 10x + 8 = 0 (3x − 5)(x + 1) = 0
(3x − 4)(x − 2) = 0 5
common variables. x = or x = − 1
4 3
x = or x = 2 5 −256
f ′′(x) → second derivative 3 ( ; ) (−1; 0)
4 4 3 27
( ; ) (2; 0)
3 27 Nature of SPs → 2nd derivative test OR 1st derivative test
If: * f ′′(x) > 0 concave up
* f ′′(x) < 0 concave down Nature of SPs → second derivative test f ′′(x) = 6x − 2 x SP (-1) SP (5/3)
(3 )
f ′′(x) = 6x − 10 5
* f ′′(x) = 0 no conclusion about concavity f ′′ = 8 and 8 > 0 f ′(x)
(3 )
4 0 0
f ′′ = − 2 and −2 < 0 f ′′(2) = 2 and 2 > 0
POINT OF INFLECTION (POI) ∴ local min local
local min
∴ local max ∴ local min f ′′(−1) = − 8 and −8 < 0
Occurs where concavity changes (i.e. where f ′′(x) = 0) max
f (x) ∴ local max
concave up • y-intercept (x = 0) y
f ′′(x) > 0 f (0) = 4 • y-intercept (x = 0)
concave down y
f ′′(x) < 0 POI f (0) = 4
• x-intercept (y = 0) (⅔;
4
⅔
4
27) f (x)
concave up POI f (x) = 0 (1; 0) • x-intercept (y = 0)
concave down (–1;0)
f ′′(x) > 0 x 3 − 5x 2 + 8x − 4 = 0 x f (x) = − 3
f ′′(x) < 0 (2;0) (3;0) x
f (1) = 0 ∴ (x − 1) is a factor x 3 − 5x 2 + 8x − 4 = 0
Second derivative test: 1 1−5+ 8−4 f (−1) = 0 ∴ (x + 1) is a factor
Another way to find the nature of the stationary points: ↓+ 1−4+ 4 x 3 − x 2 − 5x − 3 = 0 (0;–3)
1−4+ 4 ⋅ (0;–4) x3 −3
If: * f ′′(x) > 0 at the stationary point, is LOCAL MIN = (x + 1)(x 2 − 2x − 3)
(x − 1)(x 2 −4x + 4) = 0
* f ′′(x) < 0 at the stationary point, is LOCAL MAX x2 (⅔; 4
⅔27)
5 -256
(x − 1)(x − 2)2 = 0 −2x 2
* f ′′(x) = 0 at the stationary point, is POINT OF INFLECTION x = 1 or x = 2 = (x + 1)(x + 1)(x − 3) = 0
((x = 2) is double x-cut, ∴ also a SP) x = − 1 or x = 3
32
EXAMPLE 2: APPLICATION QUESTIONS FINDING THE EQUATION OF A CUBIC CURVE

Questions:
1. Find the x-value of the POI and add it onto your sketch of f (x). x-intercepts given Stationary Points given Derivative graph given
2. State the values of x for which:
a. f (x) ≥0 (above/on the x-axis) y = a (x − x1)(x − x 2 )(x − x 3) Remember: f ′(x) = 0 This is a sketch of f ′(x), the derivative of
y f (x) = a x 3 + b x 2 + c x + 8
b. f ′(x) > 0 (gradient positive and increasing) [x1; x 2; x 3 : x-intercepts] (2;2)
y
c. f ′′(x) < 0 (concave down) f (x)
f (x) f ′(x) graph is a parabola with x-intercepts given
d. f (x) ⋅ f ′(x) > 0 (positive product) (0;2)
y = p (x − x1)(x − x 2 ) y
x
e. f ′′(x) ⋅ f ′(x) ≤0 (negative product) f l (x)
(–1;0) y = p (x + 2)(x − 6)
(2;0)
(0;2) x (0;–2) Sub in (0; − 4) x
(–2;0) (6;0)
Solutions:
−4 = p (0 + 2)(0 − 6)
1. y If f (x) = − x 3 + b x 2 + c x + d
f (x) 1 (0;–4)
y = a (x − x1)(x − x 2 )(x − x 3) then f ′(x) = − 3x 2 + 2b x + c p=
3
(–1;0) (⅔;0)
1
at x = 0 and x = 2
y = a (x + 1)(x − 2)(x − 2)
(3;0) x 1
(0; 2) 2 = a (0 + 1)(0 − 2)2 ∴ y = (x + 2)(x − 6)
3
2 = a (0 + 1)(0 − 2)2 −3(0)2 + 2b (0) + c = 0 1 4
(0;–3) y = x2 − x − 4
c = 0 3 3
4a = 2 1 4
1 −3(2)2 + 2b (2) = 0 ∴ f ′(x) = x 2 − x − 4
a = 3 3
2
b = 6
(⅔; 4
⅔27)
5 -256
But f ′(x) = 3a x 2 + 2b x + c
2. 1 1 4
∴ y = (x + 1)(x − 2)2 ∴ y = − x 3 + 6x 2 + d (Sub in (0; − 2) or (2; 2) ∴ 3a = 2b = − c = −4
2 3 3
a. x = − 1 or x ∈[3; ∞)
1 −2 = − (0)3 + 6(0)2 + d 1 2
(3 )
5 = (x + 1)(x 2 − 4x + 4) a = b = −
b. x ∈(−∞; − 1) ∪ ;∞ 2 ∴ d = −2 9 3
1 3 1 3 2 2
= x3 − x2 + 2 f (x) = x − x − 4x + 8
( 3)
1
2 2 ∴ y = − x 3 + 6x 2 − 2 9 3
c. x ∈ − ∞;
d. f (x) f ′(x) ANALYSING DERIVATIVE GRAPHS EXAMPLE

below x-axis
The graph of For which value of x does f (x) have the following characteristics?
above x-axis f ′(x) graph → f (x) graph f ′(x) is given
• Decreasing (i.e. f ′(x) < 0) • Concave up (grad incr L→R)
( 3) ( 2)
5 y x ∈(−∞; − 4) ∪ (1; ∞) 3
x ∈ − 1; ∪ (3; ∞) Negative (i.e. f ′(x) < 0 ) Slope is decreasing x ∈ − ∞; −
• Increasing (i.e. f ′(x) > 0)
e. f ′′(x) f ′(x) Positive (i.e. f ′(x) > 0 ) Slope if increasing • Concave down (grad decr L→R)
x ∈(−4; 1)
( 2 )
(1;0) 3
conc down Zero/x-intercepts Stationary points (–4;0) x • SPs (i.e. f ′(x) = 0) x ∈ − ;∞
(i.e. f ′(x) = 0 ) (SPs)
conc up l
f (x) x = − 4 or x = 1 • Hence, the general shape of f (x)
Turning point Point of inflection • POI (i.e. f ′(x) − TP) would be: x=1
[3 3 ]
1 5 −4 + 1 −3
x ∈(−∞; − 1] ∪ ; (i.e. f ′′(x) = 0 ) (POI) POI
x = = x = –½
3
2 2 x = –4
33
Applications of Differential Calculus SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©
MINIMA AND MAXIMA RATE OF CHANGE CALCULUS OF MOTION

dy
Minima/ maxima are found when the derivative is zero (i.e. f ′(x) = 0) If y is a function of x, then the instantaneous rate of change is .
dx
Displacement s m
EXAMPLE EXAMPLE
ds
The volume of a tank of water at a given time (t in minutes) is Velocity v m/s v=
dt
given by v = 10 + 8t − 2t 2 m3
dv d2 s
Acceleration a m/s 2 a= or a =
dt dt 2
Questions:
x 60 – 2x 1. What is the rate at which the volume is changing after EXAMPLE

1 minute?
The displacement of a projectile is given by s = 5t 2 − 20t with s
2x 2. After how long will the water’s volume be a maximum? in metres and t in seconds.
3. When will the tank be empty?
A rectangular box has the dimensions x × 2x × (60 − 2x) cm.
Questions:
Solutions: 1. What is the time when the displacement is a maximum?
Questions:
1. v = 10 + 8t − 2t 2 m3 2. What is the velocity of the projectile after 5 seconds?
1. Determine an expression for the volume of the box in terms
dv 3. What is the acceleration of the projectile?
of x. Rate of change: = 8 − 4t
dt
2. Determine the dimensions of the box that would give the
maximum volume. At t = 1: 8 − 4(1)
Solutions:
3. What is the maximum volume? = 4m3/minute
ds
dv 1. = v= 0
2. Max when = 0 dt
dt
Solutions: 10t − 20 = 0
∴ 8 − 4t = 0
1. v = ℓ bh = x (2x)(60 − 2x) ∴ t = 2 seconds
t = 2 minutes
= 120x 2 − 4x 3 cm3 2. v = 10t − 20
3. v = 0
2. v′ = 0 at maximum volume = 10(5) − 20
10 + 8t − 2t 2 = 0
240x − 12x 2 = 0 30 m/s
t 2 − 4t − 5 = 0
12x (20 − x) = 0 3. v = 10t − 20
(t − 5)(t + 1) = 0
dv
x ≠ 0 or x = 20
t = 5 or t ≠ − 1 a= = 10 m/s 2
dt
Dimensions: x × 2x × (60 − 2x) cm
∴ t = 5 minutes
= 20 × 40 × 20 cm
3. Method 1: Method 2:
v= 120x 2 − 4x 3 v = ℓ bh
= 120(20)2 − 4(20)3 = (20)(40)(20)
= 16 000 cm3 = 16 000 cm3
34
Probability SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©
Theoretical Probability of an event happening: Relative frequency or Experimental probability: Theoretical Probability of an event happening:
number of possible times event can occur number of times the event occured S = {sample set}
P(E ) = P(E ) =
number of possible outcomes number of trials done A = {event A}
n(E ) B = {event B}
=
n(S) A ∪ B = {A union B} = in sets A or B
A ∩ B = {A intersection B} = in sets A and B
E = event S = sample space
Addition Rule: Mutually Exclusive: Exhaustive Events:
n(A ∪ B) = n(A) + n(B) − n(A ∩ B) A ∩ B = {} Events are exhaustive when they cover all elements in the sample
set.
P(A ∪ B) = P(A) + P(B) − P(A ∩ B)
S
A and B are mutually exclusive events as they have no elements
in common.
A and B are inclusive events as they have elements in common.
A B
S
S A ∩ B = {2; 6} 1 2 5
NOTE: 3 4 6
A B A ∪ B = {1; 2; 3; 4; 5; 6; 7; 8}
A B n(A ∪ B ) = n(A) + n(B )
n(A) = 5
1 6 5 1 2 5 n(A ∩ B ) = 0
4
2
7 n(B ) = 5 3 4 6
3 8 P (A ∪ B ) = P (A) + P (B )
n(A ∩ B ) = 2
9
9 n(A ∪ B ) = 8
Complimentary Events: Independent Events: Dependent Events:
Events A and B are complimentary events if they are mutually Independent events are two events that do not affect each Dependent events are when the first event (A) affects the
exclusive and exhaustive. other’s outcomes. E.g. choosing two coloured marbles from a bag, outcome of the second event (B). E.g. choosing two coins from a
with replacement, thus, the first choice doesn’t affect the outcome wallet without replacing the first coin. The first choice affects the
of the second choice. second choice as the coin in hand in no longer available for the
second choice.
n(not in A) = n(A′) = 1 − n(A)
Thus, the multiplication rule holds
P(A′) = 1 − P(A) = P(B)
P(A and B) = P(A ∩ B) = P(A) × P(B)
35
TREE DIAGRAMS CONTINGENCY TABLE (OR TWO-WAY TABLE)

EXAMPLE 1 EXAMPLE 2 EXAMPLE 1
Questions:
Questions: Questions: In a group of 26 learners, 10 wear glasses, 8 are left handed and 6 of the students
The girls’ hockey team has a match on Saturday. A bag containing 4 red metal balls, 5 blue metal balls and 3 green are both left-handed and wear glasses.
There is an 85% chance Makayla will play goalie. metal balls. A ball is chosen at random and not replaced and then 1. Complete the missing information in the table below.
If she does there is a 70% chance the team will another ball is chosen at random again. Draw a tree diagram to list
win but if she doesn’t play there is a 45% all possible events Left-handed Right-handed TOTAL
chance they will win the game. Use the tree diagram to determine the probabilities of the following: a b c
Glasses
Draw a tree diagram to help answer the follow- 1. a blue metal ball in the first drawn.
ing questions: No glasses d e f
2. a red metal ball then a green metal ball is drawn.
1. What is the probability of Makayla playing 3. two metal balls of the same colour are drawn. TOTAL g h i
goalie and the team winning?
2. Calculate that if you pick any one of the 26 learners at random that they will be:
2. What is the probability of the team losing the Solutions:
match on Saturday? a. Right handed
0,27 b. Right handed and not wear glasses
Red (R;R)
Solutions: 0,33 0,45 Solutions:

Red Blue (R;B)
0,7 1. a = 6; b = 4; c = 10; d = 2; e = 14; f = 16; g = 8; h = 18; i = 26
Win
0,85 Mikayla 0,27
goalie Green (R;G) 18
2. P(RH) = = 0,69
(MG) 0,3 26
Loose
0,36 14
0,45 Red (B;R) 3. P(RH and NG) = = 0,54
Win 26
0,15 Mikayla 0,42 0,36
not goalie Blue Blue (B;B) EXAMPLE 2
(MNG) 0,55
Loose Questions:
0,27 A survey was conducted asking learners which hand they use to write with and
Green (B;G)
1. P(MG and win) = 0,85 × 0,7 what colour ink they prefer. The results are summarised below.
= 0,6 0,36 Hand used to write with
Red (G;R)
Left (L) Right (R) Total
2. P(MG and loose) + P(MNG and loose) 0,25 0,45 Ink Blue (Bu) a b 24
Green Blue (G;B)
= 0,85 × 0,3 + 0,15 × 0,55 colour Black (Ba) c d 56
= 0,34 0,18 Total 50 30 80
Green (G;G)
The survey concluded that “the hand used to write with” and “Ink colour” are
1. P(B and any) = 0,42 × 0,36 + 0,42 × 0,36 + 0,42 × 0,27 independent. Calculate the values of a, b and c.
= 0,42 Solutions:
P(L and BU) = P(L) × P(Bu)
2. P(R then G) = 0,33 × 0,27 a 50 24
80
= 80
× 80
= 0,09
a = 15
3. P(RR or BB or GG) = 0,33 × 0,27 + 0,42 × 0,36 + 0,25 × 0,18 ∴ b = 24 − 15 = 9
= 0,29 c = 50 − 15 = 35
36
Probability - Venn Diagram SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©
EXAMPLE 1 EXAMPLE 2
V ∪M (V ∪ M )′ or V′ ∩ M′
Questions: Questions:
V M V M Calculate from the Venn diagram for a grade 6 group 120 Gr 12 girls at Girls High where asked about their participation
in which the number of equally likely ways the in the school’s culture activities:
events (Reading(R); Sports(S) and Art(A)) can occur • 61 girls did drama (D)
has been filled in: • 29 girls did public speaking (P)
• 48 girls did choir (C)
• 8 girls did all three
S S Gr 6 • 11 girls did drama and public speaking
• 13 girls did public speaking and choir
R S • 13 girls did no culture activities
M V
10 97 1. Draw a Venn diagram to represent this information.
V M V M 20
2. Determine the number of Girls who participate in drama and
5 choir.
25 8 3. Determine the probability that a grade 12 pupil chose at ran-
dom will:
3
S S a. only do choir.
2
b. not do public speaking.
A c. participate in at least two of these activities.
V∩M (V ∩ M )′ or V′ ∪ M′
V M V M 1. P(A⋂R⋂S) Solutions:
2. P(R and A and not S) 1. Gr 12
3. P(A or R) D P
4. P(S or R and not A)
3
S S 61–x 13
Solutions: 8
5 1 x 5
V′ ∪ M V ∪ M′ 1. P(A ∩ R ∩ S) = =
170 34
48–x 13
V M V M 25 5
2. P(R and A and not S) = = C
170 34
70 7 2. (61 − x) + 3 + 13 + x + 8 + 5 + (48 − x) + 13 = 120
3. P(A or R) = =
170 17 −x = 120 − 151
S S ∴ x = 31
127
4. P(S or R and not A) = ∴ 61 − x = 30 and 48 − x = 17
170
M′ 3.
17
V M a. P(C only) = = 0,14
120
30 + 31 + 17 + 13 91
b. P(P′) = = = 0,76
120 120
3 + 30 + 8 + 5 46
S c. P(at least 2) = = = 0,38
120 120
37
Probability - Fundamental Counting Principles SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©
Given different choices c, d and e Order of arrangement is important (Permutation): Arrangements and Set Positions:
n! n(s) = number of positions × number of arrangements in each position
n(s) = c × d × e n(s) = or n(s) = nPr
(n− r)!
EXAMPLE: EXAMPLE:
How many different outfits could you put How many ways can 5 Maths books, 2 Afrikaans books and 3 English books be arranged if they are
together with 4 shirts, 6 skits and 2 pairs of where;
grouped in their subjects?
shoes? r = number of specific choices
Number of positions = 3
n(s) = 4 × 6 × 2 EXAMPLE: Number of arrangements for Maths books = 5!
There are 7 players in a netball team who hope to Number of arrangements for Afrikaans books = 2!
= 48 outfits Number of arrangements for English books = 3!
be shooter or goal attack. How many different
Arrangements with repetition: options are there?
7! n(s) = 3 × (5! × 2! × 3!)
n(s) = k x n(s) =
(7 − 2)!
Where; = 4 320
k = number of choices = 42
x = number of times you can choose
EXAMPLE: EXAMPLE:
EXAMPLE: or Questions: Questions:
A four-digit code can be made from four A password consists of 8 characters. The first
How many ways van the letters in ‘ERIN’ be
numbers 1 to 9 or 4 vowels. two characters must be any consonant and may
arranged with repetition?
n(s) = 7P 2 1. How many possible codes can be made not be repeated. The third letter is a vowel.
n(s) = 44 with repetition? The next four characters form a four-digit
= 42 2. How many codes can be formed if the number which must not start with 0 but digits
= 256 vowels cannot be repeated? can repeat. The last character is a vowel which
Use [nPr] key on calculator: 3. What is the probability of a code been must be different from the first vowel.
EXAMPLE: [7][ nPr][2] [=] created with no numbers been repeated? For example: HG E 2558 A
How many three letter codes can be made 1. How many different passwords are
Identical items (repetition) in an arrangement: Solutions:
from the letters d, g, h, m, r, and t, if the possible?
1. n(S) = n(no . codes) + n(vowel codes)
letters can be repeated? n! = 9 4 + 54 2. What is the Probability the code will have
3
n(s) =
n(s) = 6 m! × p! = 7 186 an even number between the letters and
end with an A?
= 216 2. n(E) = n(no . codes) + n(vowel codes)
Solutions:
where; = 9 4 + 5P4
= 6 681 1. 26 letters - 5 vowels = 21 consonants
Arrangements without repetition: m and p: number of times different items are repeated
0;1;2;...9 is 10 numbers
n(s) = p! (factorial notation) 3. n(E 2 ) = n(no . codes) + n(vowel codes)
= p × ( p − 1) × ( p − 2) × ( p − 3) × . . . EXAMPLE: = 9P4 + 54 n(S) = 21 × 20 × 9 × 10 3 × 4
How many times can the letters in the name = 3 649 = 75 600 000
EXAMPLE:
‘VANESSA’ be arranged? n(E2 ) 2. n(E ) = 21 × 20 × 4 × 9 × 10 2 × 5 × 1
How many ways can the letters in Erin be ∴ P (E2 ) = = 7 560 000
arranged without repetition? n(S)
There are 2 A’s and 2 S’s: 3649
n(s) = 4! =
∴ P (E ) =
n(S)
7! 7186
n(E )
= 4×3×2×1 n(s) =
2! × 2! = 0,51 7 560 000
=
= 24 = 1260 75 600 000
= 0,1
38
EXAMPLE: EXAMPLE: EXAMPLE:

Questions: Questions: Questions:
Consider the word Matric-Vacation. 1. Events A and B are mutually exclusive. It is further given that: James has four R10, six R20, two R100 and three R200 notes in
1. How many different ways can the letters be arranged? Treat • 3P(B) = P(A), and his wallet.
all letters as different. • P(A or B) = 0,64; 1. In how many different ways can the notes be arranged?
2. What is the probability that the M and V will always be next to 2. What is the probability that all the R200 notes are next to each
each other? Treat all letters as different. Calculate P(A). other?
3. What is the probability that the ‘word’ will never start with cc?
Treat all letters as different. 2. A and B are independent events such that P (A ∩ B ) = 0,27 and Solutions:
4. If the letters are not different, how many different ways can P (B ) = 0,36. 15!
1. n(S) =
the letters be arranged? 4! × 6! × 2! × 3!
Find P(A). = 6 306 300
Solutions:
1. n(s) = 14! Solutions:
= 87 178 291 200 1. For mutually exclusive events;P(A) + P(B) = P(A or B) 13!
2. n(R200 next to each other) =
4! × 6! × 2!
3P (B ) = P (A)
2. MV or VM give 2!; MV can be treated as one letter group thus
P (A) = 180 180
13 letters ∴ P (B ) =
n(E1) = 2! × 13! 3
= 12 454 041 600 180 180
P (A) P (R200 next to each other) =
P (A) + = 0,64 6 306 300
12 454 041 600 3
∴ P (E1) = 1
87 178 291 200 3P (A) + P (A) = 1,92 = = 0,03
1 35
= = 0,143 ∴ P (A) = 0,48
7
3. P (c c) = 2!
2. For independent events;
cc has to be a group and first, therefore 12 options remain
(A) × P(B) = P(A ∩ B)
following cc
P(not starting with cc) = 1 − P(starting with cc) P (A) × P (B ) = P (A ∩ B )

P (A) × 0,36 = 0,27
2! × 12!
= 1− P (A) = 0,75
14!
90
= = 0,989
91
4. Note that there are 3 A’s, 2 T’s, I’s and C’s

14!
n(S) =
3! × 2! × 2! × 2!
= 1 816 214 400
39
Euclidean Geometry Grade 11 Recap SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©
CIRCLE GEOMETRY
Theorem 1: Converse of Theorem 1: Converse two of Theorem 1:
(line from centre ⟂ chord) (line from centre mid-pt. chord) (perp bisector of chord)
A The line segment joining the centre of a circle to the The perpendicular bisector of a chord passes through
A line drawn from the centre of a circle perpendicular
midpoint of a chord is perpendicular to the chord. the centre of the circle.
to a chord bisects the chord.
K L
J
1 2
N M P
B C If J K = K L, then
OK ⊥ J L O
B̂ = C1̂ (∠ 's opp. = sides)
Â + B̂ + C1̂ = 180∘ (sum ∠ 's of Δ) O
C2̂ = Â + B̂ (ext. ∠ 's of Δ)
EXAMPLE GIVEN: R T = R P and M R ⊥ T P

Given circle centre M with a diameter of 20 cm and
GIVEN: Circle centre O with chord N P ⊥ MO . chord DF of 12 cm.
D RTP: M R goes through the centre of the circle.
F
RTP: N M = M P
PROOF:
2
1 2
1 K Choose any point, say M, on A D.
M 3 PROOF:
Join M T and M P
Join ON and OP
E In ΔM R P and ΔM R T
G In ΔMON and ΔMOP
PR = R T (given)
N MÔ = P MO
̂ (OM⟂PN, given)
K2̂ = M̂1 (corres. ∠ 's DE//GF) M R = M R (common)
ON = OP (radii) M R̂ P = M R̂ T = 90∘ (∠‘s on a str. line)
K2̂ = M̂3 (alt. ∠ 's DE//GF)
OM = OM (common) Determine the length of of chord AC.
K2̂ + M̂2 = 180∘ (co-int. ∠ 's DE//GF) ΔM R T ≡ ΔM R P (SAS)
∴ ΔMON = ΔMOP (RHS)
∴ M T = MP
M̂1 = M̂3 (vert. opp. ∠ 's) NM = MP Join MF
∴All points on A D are equidistant from P and T and
K2̂ + K1̂ = 180∘ (∠ 's on a str. line) DE = E F = 6 cm (line from centre ⟂ chord)
the centre is equidistant from P and T.
MF = 10 cm (radius) ∴The centre lies on A D.
x2 = 10 2 − 62 (Pythag. Th.)
x2 = 64
P
x = 8 cm
∴ MB = 8 − 3 = 5 cm (given)
T Join M A
R
M A ⊥ AC (line from centre mid-pt. chord0
P T 2 = PR 2 + R T 2 (Pythag. Th.) M A = 10 cm (radius)
A B 2 = 10 2 − 52 (Pythag. Th.)
A B 2 = 75
A B = 8,66 cm
∴ AC = 17,32 cm
40
CIRCLE GEOMETRY
Theorem 2: EXAMPLE 1
Theorem 3: Converse Theorem 3:
(∠ at centre = 2 x ∠ at circum.) (∠ in semi-circle) (chord subtends 90°)
Determine the value of x:
The angle subtended by an arc at the cen- The angle subtended by the diameter at the If a chord subtends an angle of 90° at the circumference
tre of the circle is twice the angle the arc circumference of a circle is a right angle. of a circle, then that chord is a diameter of the circle.
subtends at any point on the circumference
of the circle.
If A MC is the diameter then B̂ = 90∘. If B̂ = 90∘ then A MC is the diameter.

x = 54∘ ÷ 2 (∠ at centre = 2 x ∠ at circum.)
∴ x = 27∘ ALTERNATIVE DIAGRAMS:
EXAMPLE
In circle O with diameter AC, D C = A D
EXAMPLE 2
and B2̂ = 56∘. Determine the size of D Â B
Determine the value(s) of x and y:
D
B
GIVEN: Circle centre M with arc A B
x
subtending A M̂ B at the centre and A Ĉ B at
the circumference. 2
E y O1 3
RTP: A M̂ B = 2 × A Ĉ B 88°
PROOF: CO = OB (radii)
A M = B M = C M (radii) A C C2̂ = B2̂ = 56∘ (∠ ‘s opp. = sides)
Â = C2̂ (∠ ‘s opp. = sides)
O1̂ = 68∘ (sum ∠ ‘s of Δ)
B̂ = C1̂ (∠ ‘s opp. = sides)
x = 44∘ (∠ at centre = 2 x ∠ at circum.) A2̂ = 34∘ (∠ at centre = 2 x ∠ at circum.)
OB = OC (radii) D̂ = 90∘ (∠ in semi-circle)
M̂1 = Â + C2̂ (ext. ∠ of Δ)
Ĉ = 44∘ (∠ ‘s opp. = sides) A1̂ = C1̂ (∠‘s opp. = sides, DC = AD)
∴ M̂1 = 2C2̂
O3̂ = 92∘ (sum ∠ ‘s of Δ) A1̂ = 45∘ (sum ∠ ‘s of Δ)
O2̂ = 88∘ (vert. opp. ∠ ‘s) ∴ D Â B = 34∘ + 45∘ = 79∘
M̂2 = B̂ + C1̂ (ext. ∠ of Δ)
∴ M̂2 = 2C1̂
88∘ + 92∘ + 88∘
y =
2
∴ M̂1 + M̂2 = 2(C1̂ + C2̂ ) y = 137,5∘ (∠ at centre = 2 x ∠ at circum.)
∴ A M̂ B = 2 × A Ĉ B
41
CIRCLE GEOMETRY
Theorem 4: COROLLARIES: Converse Theorem 4:
(∠ in same seg.) (line subt. = ∠’s)
a) Equal chords (or arcs) subtend equal
Angles subtended by a chord (or arc) at the If a line segment joining two points subtends equal angles at two other points on the same side of the line
angles at the circumference.
circumference of a circle on the same side of segment, then these four points are concyclic (that is, they lie on the circumference of a circle.)
the chord are equal.
K L = ST then P̂ = M̂ (= chords, = ∠’s)
GIVEN: Circle centre N with arc R T subtending If Ŵ = U,̂ then W U Z Y is a cyclic quadrilateral.
R P̂ T and R M̂ T in the same segment. b) Equal chords subtend equal angles at
EXAMPLE 1 EXAMPLE 2
centre of the circle.
RTP: R P̂ T = R M̂ T Given circle centre O with Ĉ = 36∘ Given circle A BC D with A B | | E F.
PROOF:
Join N R and N T to form N1̂ .
1
M̂ = × N1̂ (∠ at centre = 2 x ∠ at circum.)
2
1
P̂ = × N1̂ (∠ at centre = 2 x ∠ at circum.)
2
If A B = C D then O1̂ = O2̂ (= chords, = ∠’s)
∴ R M̂ T = R P̂ T
c) Equal chords in equal circles subtend Questions:

equal angles at their circumference. Calculate the values of angles: a) Prove C DE F is a cylindrical quad.
O1̂ , Â and B.̂ b) If D2̂ = 38∘, calculate E2̂
Solutions:
a) B1̂ = C1̂ (∠‘s same seg.)
O1̂ = 2 × 36∘ = 72∘ (∠ at centre = 2 x ∠ at circum.) B1̂ = F1̂ (corres. ∠ ‘s, AB||EF)
∴ C1̂ = F1̂
Â = B̂ = Ĉ = 36∘ (∠‘s same seg.) ∴ C DE F cyc . quad (line subt = ∠‘s)
b) D2̂ = E2̂ = 38∘ (∠‘s same seg quad CDEF)

If HF = PQ then Ĝ = R̂ (= chords, = ∠’s)
42
CIRCLE GEOMETRY
Theorem 5: Converse Theorem 5: Theorem 6:
(opp. ∠‘s quad supp) EXAMPLE 1
(opp. ∠‘s cyc. quad) (ext. ∠ cyc quad)
If the opposite angles of a quadrilateral are GFE is a double chord and H1̂ = 75∘
The opposite angles of a cyclic quadrilateral are The exterior angle of a cyclic quadrilateral is
supplementary. supplementary, then the quadrilateral is cyclic. equal to the interior opposite angle.
If Q̂ + Y ̂ = 180∘
or Ĉ + L̂ = 180∘
GIVEN: Circle centre C with quad QUA D. L Q̂ D = Â (ext. ∠ cyc quad)

Then QC Y L Determine the value of D.̂
RTP: Q̂ + Â = 180∘ is cyclic Converse Theorem 6:

H1̂ = F1̂ = 75∘ (ext. ∠ cyc quad)
(ext. ∠ = int. opp. ∠)
F1̂ = D̂ = 75∘ (ext. ∠ cyc quad)
PROOF: If the exterior angle of a quadrilateral is equal to
Join UC and D C the interior opposite angle, then the quadrilateral
C1̂ = 2 Â (∠ at centre = 2 x ∠ at circum.) is cyclic.
EXAMPLE 2
C2̂ = 2Q̂ (∠ at centre = 2 x ∠ at circum.) Given circle GH J K with GM ⊥ H J and EXAMPLE 2
GL ⊥ L J. G3̂ = 24∘ A BC D is a parallelogram and B Â D = F1̂ .
C1̂ + C2̂ = 360∘ (∠‘s around a pt.)
Prove that CE F G is a cyclic quad.
∴ 2 Â + 2Q̂ = 360∘
∴ Â + Q̂ = 180∘
EXAMPLE 1
Calculate the value of α.
If L Q̂ D = Â then QUA D is cyclic

a) Is quadrilateral GL J M a cyclic quad?
b) Is quadrilateral GL J H a cyclic quad?
a) M̂2 = 90∘ (Given GM ⊥ H J)

L̂ = 90∘ (Given GL ⊥ L J) B Â D = C1̂ (opp. ∠‘s parm)
∴ GL J M cyc quad (opp ∠ ’s quad suppl) B Â D = F1̂ (given)
55∘ − α + 41∘ + 3α = 180∘ (opp. ∠‘s cyc. quad)
∴ C1̂ = F1̂
2α = 180∘ − 96∘ b) Ĥ = 180∘ − 24∘ − 90∘ (sum ∠‘s of Δ)
∴ CE F G is a cyc quad (ext. ∠ = int. opp. ∠)
2α = 84∘ Ĥ = 66∘
∴ α = 42∘ GL J H not cyclic (opp ∠‘s = 156° not 180°)
43
CIRCLE GEOMETRY
Theorem 7: EXAMPLE 1 Theorem 8: Theorem 9: Converse Theorem 9:
(tan ⟂ radius) (tan from same pt.) (tan-chord th.) (∠ betw. line and chord)
Given circle centre O with tangent Z Y U
and M N = F G. If Ĥ = 18∘ determine the Two tangents drawn to a circle from the same The angle between a tangent to a circle and If a line is drawn through the end
A tangent to a circle is
size of Y2̂ . point outside the circle are equal in length. a chord drawn from the point of contact is point of a chord, making with the
perpendicular to the radius
equal to an angle in the alternate segment. chord an angle equal to an angle
at its point of contact.
in the alternate segment, then
the line is a tangent to the circle.
GIVEN: Tangents T PK and SR K to circle

centre O.
RTP: PK = R K GIVEN: Tangent TA N to circle O, and
Y1̂ = Ĥ = 18∘ (equal chords, = ∠‘s) PROOF: chord AC subtending B.̂
If TA N is a tangent to
Construct radii OR and OP and join OK. RTP: A1̂ = C2̂ If Â = Ĉ or A2̂ = B,̂
circle P, then PA ⊥ TA N Y1̂ + Y2̂ = 90∘ (tan ⟂ radius)
In ΔOPK and ΔOR K PROOF: TA N a tangent
∴ Y2̂ = 90∘ − 18∘ = 72∘ OP = OR (radii) Draw in diameter AOD an join D C.
Converse Theorem 7:
OK = OK (common) A1̂ + A2̂ = 90∘ (tan ⟂ radius)
(line seg ⟂ radius)
̂ = O R̂ K = 90∘ (tan ⟂ radius)
O PK
EXAMPLE 2 C1̂ + C2̂ = 90∘ (∠ in semi-circle)
A line drawn perpendicular
Prove that T PK is a tangent to circle centre ∴ ΔOPK ≡ ΔOR K (RHS) A2̂ = C1̂ (∠’s in same seg)
to the radius at the point
O and radius of 8 cm, if OK = 17 cm and ∴ PK = R K ∴ A1̂ = C2̂
where the radius meets the
PK = 15 cm.
circumference is a tangent to
EXAMPLE
the circle.
PK and K N are tangents to circle centre EXAMPLE 1
M. If N1̂ = 24∘, determine the size of P K̂ N. T R N is a tangent at R and SR = RQ.
If R1̂ = x, find five angles equal to x.
R1̂ = P1̂ = x (tan-chord th.)

Q2̂ = x (tan-chord or ∠’s in same seg)
Q2̂ = S2̂ = x (∠‘s opp. = sides)
OK 2 = 172 = 289 S2̂ = P2̂ = x (∠‘s same seg)
OP 2 + PK 2 = 82 + 152 P2̂ = R 4̂ = x (tan-chord th.)
= 289
If PA ⊥ TA N, then TA N is a
M N̂ K = 90∘ (tan ⟂ radius)
tangent to circle P.
∴ OK 2 = OP 2 + PK 2
∴ N2̂ = 66∘
∴ OP ⊥ T PK (conv. Pythag. Th.)
PK = N K (tan from same pt.)
∴ T PK is a tan to circle O (line seg ⟂ radius) N2̂ = N PK
̂ = 66∘ (∠ ‘s opp. = sides)
∴ PK̂ N = 48∘ (sum ∠‘s of Δ)
44
CIRCLE GEOMETRY
EXAMPLE 2
In the figure, A D and A E are tangents to the circle DE F. The straight
line drawn through A, parallel to F D meets E D produced at C and E F
produced at B . The tangent A D cuts E B at G.
Hints when answering Geometry Questions

• Read the given information and mark on to the diagram if not already
done.
• Never assume anything. If not given or marked on diagram is not true
unless proved.
• As you prove angles equal or calculate angles mark them on to the dia-
a) Prove that A BDE is a cyclic quadrilateral given E2̂ = x. gram and write down statement and reason there and then.
b) If it is further given that E F = DF, prove that A BC is a tangent to the
• Make sure that by the end of the question you have used all the given
circle passing through the points B, F and D. information.
• If asked to prove something, it is true.
a) E2̂ = D2̂ = x (tan-chord th.) For EXAMPLE if asked to prove ABCD a cyclic quad, then it is; but if you
D2̂ = A2̂ = x (alt ∠’s AB||FD) can’t then you can use it as one in the next part of the question.
∴ A BDE a cyc quad (line seg subt. = ∠’s)
b) E2̂ = D3̂ = x (∠‘s opp. = sides) Note for Matric:

F1̂ = E2̂ + D3̂ = 2x (ext. ∠ of Δ) All Grade 11 Theorems and their required
A E = A D (tan from same pt.) proofs are also examinable in Grade 12
E1̂ + E2̂ = D2̂ + D3̂ = 2x (∠‘s opp. = sides)
∴ B3̂ = 2x (ext. ∠ cyc quad)
B3̂ = F1̂
∴ A BC tan to circle (∠ betw. line and chord)
ALTERNATIVE
F1̂ = B1̂ (alt ∠’s AB||FD)
B1̂ = D2̂ + D3̂ (∠‘s same seg)
D1̂ = E1̂ (∠‘s same seg)
E1̂ = D3̂ (tan-chord th.)
∴ B1̂ = D2̂ + D1̂
∴ A BC tan to circle (∠ betw. line and chord)
45
Euclidean Geometry SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©
Theorem 1: Converse of Theorem 1: EXAMPLE 2

(Proportion Theorem) MR
In circle O, RQ ⊥ PM, OQ = Q N and x = .
A line drawn parallel to one side of a triangle cuts the other If a line divides two sides of a triangle in proportion, then MP
two sides in proportion. (Proportion Th. or side 1 ∥ side 2 or the line is parallel to the third side of the triangle. Calculate x. P
But MO = ON = r (radii)
line ∥ one side △ ) (line divides 2 sides △ in prop. or conv. Prop. Th.) N 1
D R 2 OQ = Q N = r (given)
1 2
D Q r+ 1
r
MQ 2
O ∴ =
H MN r+ r
⊥h 3
K ⊥k
r
2
M =
2r
Q 3 1
P = ×
P Q P̂ = 90∘ (∠ in semi-circle) 2 2
∴ P̂ = R̂1 = 90∘ (given RQ ⊥ PM) 3
=
∴ RQ ∥ PN (corresp. ∠ ’s equal) 4
E F 3
E F MR MQ ∴ x =
∴ = (line ∥ one side △)
MP MN 4
GIVEN: △ DE F, with P on DE and Q on DF and PQ ∥ E F
DP DQ
Given = , therefore PQ ∥ E F.
DP DQ PE QF EXAMPLE 3
RTP: =
PE QF In the diagram below A D ∥ E F ∥ BC. Prove that A F ⋅ BD = AC ⋅ DF.
A
PROOF: EXAMPLE 1 E AB BD
B In △ A BD : = (Proportion Th. A D ∥ E F)
Construct PF and EQ and draw in altitudes (perpendicular Calculate x AE DF
I AB AC
heights) In △ A BC : = (Proportion Th. ST ∥ RV)
AE AF
Q K ( ⊥ k) and PH ( ⊥ h) 5cm
BD AC AB
1 K F ∴ = (both = )
Area of triangle: = × base × ⊥ h D DF AF AE
2
1 ∴ BD ⋅ A F = AC ⋅ DF
x+1 J
Area △ DPQ = × DQ × ⊥ h
2
1 x
Area △ FPQ = × FQ × ⊥ h H 6cm L
2
1 C
Area △ DPQ × DQ × ⊥ h DQ
∴ = 2 =
Area △ FPQ 1 FQ EXAMPLE 4
× FQ × ⊥ h K L ∥ I J (given)
2
1 HK HL ST U R is a parallelogram, with SU X, T U W and RU V straight lines. Prove R T ∥ V W.
Area △ DPQ × DP × ⊥ k DP ∴ = (proportion Th., K L ∥ I J or line ∥ one side Δ)
Similarly: = 2 = KI LJ
Area △ EQ P 1 PE T
× PE × ⊥ k ST ∥ RU and SR ∥ T U (opp. sides parm)
2 S
x+ 1 6 SU RW
But Area △ FPQ = Area △ EQ P ∴ = In △ SR X : = (Proportion Th. SR ∥ T W)
5 x UX WX
(Same base PQ and between same ∥ lines) SU TV
x (x + 1) = 30 V In △ ST X : = (Proportion Th. ST ∥ RV)
x 2 + x − 30 = 0 UX VX
DQ DP U RW TV SU
∴ = (x + 6)(x − 5) = 0 ∴ = (both = )
FQ PE R X WX VX UX
∴ x ≠ − 6 or x = 5 W
∴ R T ∥ V W (line divides 2 sides △ in prop.)
46
Mid-Point Theorem: Converse: Theorem 2: Similarity Theorem Converse Theorem EXAMPLE 1

(mid-pt. Th.) (conv. mid-pt. Th.) (AAA) (sides in prop.) Given QU = 24 cm, QC = 16 cm, D A = 6 cm
The line segment joining the mid- The line passing through the mid- If the corresponding angles in two triangles If the corresponding sides of two triangles are and C D = x.
points of two sides of a triangle, is point of one side of a triangle and are equal, then the corresponding sides are in proportion, then the corresponding angles
parallel to the third side and half parallel to another side, bisects the in proportion (AAA) are in equal (sides in prop.) Questions:
the length of the third side. third side. The line is also equal to G J 1. Prove △ QUC | | | △ AC D
G J
half the length of the side it is 2. Calculate x
S parallel to.
M NK M NK
S L L U
1
2
Q P H I
H I
Q P Q 2
1
O R GIVEN: △ GH I and △ J K L, Ĝ = J;̂ GH GI HI
GIVEN: ∴ = = C
Ĥ = K̂ and I ̂ = L̂ JK JL KL 2 3
O R 1
4
Therefore if SQ = QO and
SP = PR then PQ ∥ OR and Therefore if SQ = QO and GH GI HI RTP: Ĝ = J;̂ Ĥ = K̂ and I ̂ = L̂
RTP: = = 1
2
1 PQ ∥ OR then SP = PR and JK JL KL 2
1
Q P = OR (mid-pt. Th.) D A
2 1 PROOF:
Q P = OR (conv. mid-pt. Th.)
2 PROOF: Construct M on GH such that GM = J K and
Construct M on GH such that GM = J K N on GI such that GN = J L
Solutions:
EXAMPLE and N on GI such that GN = J L Join M N
GH GI 1. In △ QUC and △ AC D
In △ ACE, A B = BC, GE = 15 cm and A F = FE = E D. Join M N = (given)
JK JL Ĉ2 = Ĉ4 (vert. opp. ∠ ’s)
Determine the length of CE. In △ GM N and △ J K L
GH GI Q̂ 2 = D̂ 2 (∠ ’s in same seg.)
Ĝ = J ̂ (given) ∴ = (construction GM = JK and
GM GN Û 1 = A1̂ (sum ∠ ’s of △ or ∠ ’s in same seg.)
GM = J K (construction)
GN = J L (construction) GN = J L) ∴ △ CQU | | | △ C D A (AAA)
CQ QU CU
In △ ACE ∴ △ GM N ≡ △ J K L (SAS) ∴ M N ∥ H I (line divides 2 sides △ in prop.) ∴ = = ( | | | △ ’s)
CD DA CA
A B = BC and A F = FE (given) ∴ G M̂ N = K̂ and G N̂ M = L̂ ( ≡ △ ’s) ∴ Ĥ = G M̂ N and I ̂ = G N̂ M
1 BUT Ĥ = K̂ and I ̂ = L̂
∴ BF ∥ CE and BF = CE (mid-pt. Th.) (corresp. ∠ ’s M N ∥ H I)
2
CQ QU
In △ DF B 2. =
∴ Ĥ = G M̂ N and I ̂ = G N̂ M CD DA
FE = E D (given) ∴ △ GH I | | | △ GM N (AAA) 16 24
∴ MN ∥ H I (corresp. ∠ ’s equal)
BF ∥ GE (proven) HI GH =
GH GI ∴ = x 6
1 ∴ = (proportion Th., M N ∥ H I) MN GM
∴ BG = GD and GE = BF GM GN GH 96 = 24x
2 = (construction)
(conv. mid-pt. Th.) GH GI JK ∴ x = 4 cm
∴ =
JK JL HI
∴ BF = 2GE = (given)
KL
∴ BF = 2(15) = 30 cm
GH HI ∴ MN = K L
CE = 2BF (proven) Similarly, ∴ = (by constructing P
JK KL ∴ △ GM N ≡ △ JK L (SSS)
∴ CE = 2(30) = 60 cm
on H I such that H P = K L) ∴ Ĝ = J;̂ M̂ = K̂ and N̂ = L̂
GH GI HI
∴ = = ∴ Ĝ = J;̂ Ĥ = K̂ and I ̂ = L̂
JK JL KL
47
EXAMPLE 2 EXAMPLE 3 Theorem 3: Similar Right Angled Triangles

DM is a diameter of circle A. R T D ⊥ RC, A, B, C and D are points on the circumference of a circle such that A B = BC. (⊥ from rt ∠ vert. to hyp.)
R T = 3 cm, RC = 4 cm, MC = 6 cm and A F is a tangent to the circle through A BC D at A. The perpendicular drawn from the vertex of the right angle of a right
DM = 2x. angled triangle to the hypotenuse divides the triangle into two similar right
Questions: angled triangles, which are similar to the original triangle. (⊥ from rt ∠ vert.
Questions: Prove: to hyp.)
T 1 R
1. Prove △ C R T | | | △ C DM 1. △ BC D | | | △ BEC 3. △ BC D | | | △ B A F
2
2. Calculate x 2. B Ĉ D = B FA
̂ 4. BD ⋅ A F = BC ⋅ C D
D 1
R T 1 D U
2
1 2 2
1 2 P
A GIVEN: △ PR T with R̂ = 90∘ and RU ⊥ T P.
1
2 3
RTP: △ PR T | | | △ PU R | | | △ T U R
A
2
12 E 14 3 PROOF:
T ̂ + R̂1 = 90∘ (sum ∠ ’s of △)
3 R̂1 = R̂2 = 90∘ (given)
C 2 F ∴ T ̂ = R̂2 NOTE:
M 1 1 3 ∴ P̂ = R̂1 (sum ∠ ’s of △) G
2
In △ PU R and △ T U R
Solutions: C B Û 1 = Û 2 = 90∘ J
H J 2 = JG ⋅ J I
1. Ĉ3 = 90∘ (∠ in semi-circle) R̂2 = T ̂ (proven)
In △ C R T and △ C DM P̂ = R̂1 (proven)
R̂2 = Ĉ3 = 90∘ (given and proven) Solutions: ∴ △ PU R | | | △ RU T (AAA)
3. In △ BC D and △ BFA I
T1̂ = M̂ (ext. ∠ of cyc. quad) 1. In △ BC D and △ BEC In △ PR T and △ PU R H
Ĉ1 = D̂ 2 (sum ∠ ’s of △) i. B̂1 = B̂1 (common) i. B Ĉ D = B FÂ (proven)
P R̂ T = Û 2 = 90∘ G
∴ △ R T C | | | △ C M D (AAA) ii. D̂ = A2̂ (∠ ’s same seg.) ii. A3̂ = Ĉ2 (tan-chord th.) P̂ = P̂ (common) H I 2 = I J ⋅ IG
J
RT TC RC but A2̂ = Ĉ2 (∠ ’s opp. = sides, A B = BC) but D̂ = Ĉ2 (proven) T ̂ = R̂2 (proven)
∴ = = ( | | | △ ’s)
CM MD CD ∴ D̂ = Ĉ2 ∴ D̂ = A3̂ ∴ △ PR T | | | △ PU R (AAA)
iii. B Ĉ D = E4̂ (sum ∠ ’s of △) iii. B̂1 = B̂3 (sum ∠ ’s of △) ∴ △ PR T | | | △ PU R | | | △ RU T
∴ △ R T C | | | △ C M D (AAA) ∴ △ C DB | | | △ FA B (AAA)
I
2. T C 2 = 32 + 42 (Pythag.) PR PT H
∴ = ∴ PR 2 = P T ⋅ PU
∴ T C = 5 cm 2. F̂ = E4̂ (ext. ∠ ’s of cyc. quad) CD DB CB PU PR G
RT TC 4. = = ( | | | △ ’s) UR PU
FA AB FB
= B Ĉ D = E4̂ (proven) ∴ = ∴ U R 2 = PU ⋅ U T HG 2 = GJ ⋅ GI
CM MD CD DB UT UR J
∴ B Ĉ D = B FA ̂ ∴ = RT PT
3 5 FA AB
= ∴ = ∴ RT2 = PT ⋅ U T
6 2x but C D ⋅ A B = BC (given) UT RT
6x = 30 ∴ C D ⋅ BC = DB ⋅ FA
∴ x = 5 cm H I
48
Theorem 4: Theorem of Pythagoras EXAMPLE 1 EXAMPLE 2

(Pythag.) O is the centre of circle with tangents K I and I T. OE I is a straight line. O is the centre of the circle with tangent B A and secant BCE.
In a right angled triangle, the area of the square on the OD = DE = D C and AOE is a straight line.
hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the areas on the other Questions:
two sides. (Pythag.) If E I is 15 cm and I T is 17 cm, calculate: Questions: E
1. E T Prove:
T 1 R 2. OE 1. OD ∥ AC
2 3. T O 2. A1̂ = A2̂
K 3. C B = 2E D O 1 1
D
4. A E = 2 2OD 2 2
1
2
U
1 1
P E A 2
O 2 C
GIVEN: △ PR T with R̂ = 90∘. I
RTP: T P 2 = PR 2 + T R 2
Solutions:
1. D1̂ = 90∘ (line from centre mid-pt. chord)
PROOF: B
T C1̂ = 90∘ (∠ in semi-circle)
Construct RU ⊥ T P
∴ D1̂ = C1̂
△ PR T | | | △ PU R (⊥ from rt ∠ vert. to hyp.) Solutions: ∴ OD ∥ AC (corresp. ∠ ’s =)
PR PT 1. K I = I T (tan from same pt.)
∴ = ∴ PR 2 = P T ⋅ PU
PU PR OK = O T (radii) 2. A1̂ = Ô 1 (corresp. ∠ ’s, OD ∥ AC)
△ PR T | | | △ T U R (⊥ from rt ∠ vert. to hyp.) ∴ K I T O is a kite (both pairs adj. sides =) O1̂ = Ê (∠ ’s opp = sides, OD = DE)
RT PT ∴ O Ê T = 90∘ (diag. kite ⊥ )
∴ = ∴ RT2 = PT ⋅ U T A2̂ = Ê (tan-chord)
UT RT ∴ E T 2 = 172 − 152 (Pythag)
∴ A1̂ = A2̂
∴ PR 2 + R T 2 = P T ⋅ PU + P T ⋅ U T ∴ E T = 8 cm
= P T (PU + U T ) 3. In △ ACE : DE = D C (given)
= P T (P T ) 2. O T ̂ I = 90∘ (tan⊥ rad)
OA = OE (radii)
∴ T P 2 = PR 2 + T R 2 ∴ △ T OE | | | △ I T E (⊥ from rt ∠ vert. to hyp.)
∴ AC = 2OD (mid-pt. Th.)
∴ E T 2 = EO ⋅ E I
△ A BE | | | △ C A E | | | △ C B A (⊥ from rt ∠ vert. to hyp.)
82 = OE ⋅ 15
∴ AC 2 = CE ⋅ C B
∴ OE = 4,27 cm
∴ (2OD 2 ) = CE ⋅ C B
4OD 2 = (2OD) ⋅ C B (OD = DE = D C )
3. △ T OE | | | △ IO T (⊥ from rt ∠ vert. to hyp.)
2OD = C B
T O 2 = OE ⋅ OI
∴ 2DE = C B
T O 2 = 4,27 ⋅ (4,27 + 15)
∴ T O = 9,07 cm
4. A E 2 = AC 2 + CE 2 (Pythag.)
∴ A E 2 = (2OD)2 + (2OD)2
∴ A E 2 = 8OD 2
∴ A E 2 = 2 2OD
49
Trigonometry Grade 11 Recap SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©
BASIC DEFINITIONS BASIC CAST DIAGRAM FUNDAMENTAL TRIG REDUCTION FORMULAE

Shows the quadrants where each trig ratio is + IDENTITIES Reducing all angles to acute angles.
Memorise: 180° – θ 360° + θ
90⁰ S A θ
sin θ = o
soh sin A
Opposite
Hy
h
S A = tan A 180° + θ
T C
360° – θ
cos A
po
a
cos θ = cah sin + all +
t
h
en
o EXAMPLES
us
tan θ = toa II I 0⁰
180⁰
e
a Reduce to an acute angle and simplify if possible (without

III IV 360⁰
sin2 B + cos2 B = 1 a calculator):
T C can be written as 1. sin 125o 2. cos 260 o
θ cos + = sin(180 o − 55o) = cos(180 o + 80 o)
Adjacent
tan + sin2 B = 1 − cos2 B
= sin 55o = − cos 80 o
cos2 B = 1 − sin2 B (QII so sin is +) (QIII so cos is -)
These are our basic trig ratios. 270⁰
EXAMPLE tan 660 o

3. = tan(360 o + 300 o)
On the Cartesian Plane Special Angles
1. In which quadrant does θ lie if tanθ < 0 and
cosθ > 0?
= tan 300 o (QI so tan is +)
Remember:
y = tan(360 o − 60 o)
r = 2 (x; y) 60 o is a
= − tan 60 o (QIV so tan is -) special angle
tanθ - cosθ +
y 3
sin θ = cosθ + = −
r
r (0; 2) 1
y x tanθ -
cos θ = r (1; 3) = − 3
y Quadrant IV
tan θ = ( 2; 2) tan(180 o − β)cos(180 o + β)cos2 (360 o− β)
θ
x
x 90o 4. + sin2(180 o + β )
x 60o sin(360 + β)
2. In which quadrant does θ lie if sinθ < 0 and ( 3; 1) (−tan β)(−cos β)(cos β) 2
cosθ < 0? 45o = sin β
+ (−sin β )2
30o cos3 β
Remember: cosθ - = tan β . sin β
+ sin2 β
sinθ - sinθ - cos3 β
• x2 + y2 = r2 (Pythagoras) cosθ - =
sin β
. + sin2 β
o
(2; 0) cos β sin β
• Angles are measured upwards from the posi- 0 Remember:
tive (+) x-axis (anti-clockwise) up to the hy- = cos2 β + sin2 β
Identities
potenuse (r). Quadrant III = 1
EXAMPLE 1
Pythagoras Problems 2 cos θ + tan θ
1
Steps: If 3sinθ – 2 = 0 and tanθ < 0, determine 2 cos θ + without using a calculator and using a diagram. − 5 1
tan θ = 2( )+ Remember:
1. Isolate the trig ratio 2 2 2 3 2 x
x + y = r ( ) cos θ = r
2. Determine the quadrant 1. 3 sin θ − 2 = 0 2. 3. 4. − 5
3. Draw a sketch and use Pythagoras 2 y tanθ - r=3 x 2 + (2)2 = (3)2 and
4. Answer the question sin θ = 3 r sinθ + sinθ + =
−2 5
−
5
y
y=2 x2 = 5 3 2 tan θ = x
tanθ -
θ x = ± 5 −4 5 − 3 5
= 6
∴ Q u a dr a nt I I ∴x = − 5 −7 5
= 6
50
Trigonometry Grade 11 Recap SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©
NEGATIVE ANGLES CO-FUNCTIONS FULL CAST DIAGRAM

Angles measured downwards (clockwise) from the B If A + B = 90∘ then sinA and cosB are Memorise the following diagram:
positive x-axis, which can be seen as Quadrant IV. known as co-functions.
90°
90° + θ 90° – θ
sinA = sin(90⁰ – B)
y A = cosB θ
180° – θ
360° + θ
EXAMPLES
S II I A 0°
1. sin 30 o 2. cos 25o 180°
T III IV C 360°
x = sin(90 o − 60 o) = cos(90 o − 65o) 180° + θ 360° – θ
–A = cos 60 o = sin 65o θ – 180° –θ
NOTE: θ – 90°
Look at the quadrant first, THEN use * Reductions Co-functions 270°
the reduction/co-function formulae
Method 1: Q IV Method 2: Get rid of negative PROVING IDENTITIES

3. sin(90 o − α) Q I, so sin +
sin(–A) = –sinA Add 360° to the angle to make
= cos α 90 o ∴ sin ↔ cos Steps:
cos(–A) = cosA it positive. 1. Separate LHS and RHS
tan(–A) = –tanA 2. Start on the more complex side
4. cos(90 o + β ) Q II, so cos − 3. Prove that the sides are equal.
EXAMPLES = − sin β 90 o ∴ sin ↔ cos
EXAMPLES
Simplify without the use of a calculator: sin(–330°) cos x 1
1. cos2 x . tan2 x = sin2 x 3. tan x + =
o 1 + sin x cos x
NB: Negative Angle 5. sin(θ − 90 ) Q I V, so sin −
= − cos θ 90 o ∴ sin ↔ cos LHS = cos2 x . tan2 x cos x
1) Q I V 2) + 360 o LHS = tan x +
sin(−330 ) o
= sin(−330 )o 2 1 + sin x
6. Simplify to a ratio of 10⁰: sin x sin x cos x
= − sin 330 o = sin(360 o − 330 o) = cos2 x . = +
a) cos 100 o Q II, so cos − cos2 x cos x 1 + sin x
= − sin(360 o − 30 o) = sin 30 o
1 = cos(90 o + 10 o) 90 o ∴ sin ↔ cos
= − (−sin 30 ) o
= = sin2 x = RHS sin x (1 + sin x) + cos x (cos x)
2 = − sin 10 o =
o cos x (1 + sin x)
= sin 30
1 b) tan 170 o Q II, so tan −
= = tan(180 o − 10 o) 180 o ∴ r edu c t i on sin x + sin2 x + cos2 x
2 2. 1 − 2 sin x . cos x = (sin x − cos x)2 =
= − tan 10 o cos x (1 + sin x)
PROBLEM SOLVING: RHS = (sin x − cos x)2 sin x + 1

=
If cos25° = p, express the following in terms of p (i.e. get all angles to 25°): cos x (1 + sin x)
= sin2 x + cos2 x − 2 sin x . cos x
1. cos(−385 ) o
negative angle, so a) + 360° o
3. sin(335 ) 1
o = 1 − 2 sin x . cos x = LHS = = RHS
= cos(−25 ) or b) Q IV o o
= sin(360 − 25 ) Q IV, sin - cos x
= cos 25o - 385 Q I = − sin 25o
= p ∴ + cos REMEMBER: Correct angle is 25° BUT wrong sin ratio. Thus draw sketch. 4. tan(155o) Method 1: Ratio Method 2: Sketch
= tan(180 o − 25o) Q II, tan -
−y −sin 25o −y
2. sin(65o) Given cos25⁰ = p x So, − sin 25o = = − tan 25o = =
= sin(90 o − 25o) Q I, sin + r cos 25o x
1 r
= cos(25o) 1 This can be solved in two ways:
r = y = √1 –p2 − 1 − p2 − 1 − p2 − 1 − p2
= p = =
(Pythag) = = − 1 − p2 p p
x=p 1
51
Trig Equations Grade 11 Recap SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©
BASICS SQUARES CO-FUNCTIONS FACTORISING

Steps: Hints: Hints: Steps:
• Isolate trig ratios • Do all four quadrants (± means the ratio • sin and cos with different angles • Solve as you would a quadratic equation
must be both + and -)
• Reference angle (don’t put negative • Introduce the co-function with 90° - z EXAMPLES
into calculator) EXAMPLE
• The angle you change is the reference angle
Solve for x:
• Choose quadrants Solve for β:
EXAMPLES
➡ sin or cos: 2 Quadrants 4 sin2 β − 3 = 0
Solve for x: 1. tan2 x − 2 tan x + 1 = 0
➡ tan: 1 Quadrant 3
2
sin β = 1. cos x = sin(x − 10 o) (tan x − 1)(tan x − 1) = 0
• General solutions 4 cos x = cos(90 o − (x − 10 o)) tan x = 1
➡ sin θ or cos θ + k 360∘; k ∈ℤ cos x = cos(100 o − x)
3 Reference∠ : 45∘
➡ tan θ + k180∘; k ∈ℤ sin β = ± Reference∠ : 100∘ − x
4
REMEMBER: Only round off at the end Reference∠ : 60∘ QI: x = 45∘ + k180∘; k ∈ℤ
QI: x = 100∘ − x + k 360∘; k ∈ℤ
Common formulae: 2x = 100∘ + k 360∘
QI: β = 60∘ + k 360∘; k ∈ℤ x = 50∘ + k180∘
θ = sin−1 a + k 360∘ or QII: β = 180∘ − 60∘ + k 360∘ QII: x = 360∘ − (100∘ − x) + k 360∘ 2. cos2 x + sin x . cos x = 0
θ = (180∘ − sin−1 a) + k 360∘ (k ∈ℤ) = 120∘ + k 360∘ x − x = 260∘ + k 360∘
QIII: β = 180∘ + 60∘ + k 360∘ 0 = 260∘ + k 360∘ cos x (cos x + sin x) = 0
θ = ± cos−1 a + k 360∘ (k ∈ℤ)
= 240∘ + k 360∘ No real solution cos x = 0 OR cos x = − sin x
θ = tan−1 a + k180∘ (k ∈ℤ)
QIV: β = 360∘ − 60∘ + k 360∘
= 300∘ + k 360∘ cos x −sin x
EXAMPLES 2. sin(x + 30 o) = cos 2x Use trig graph: =
o o
sin(x + 30 ) = sin(90 − 2x) cos x cos x
Solve for θ:
SINθ AND COSθ Reference∠ : 90∘ − 2x tan x = − 1
1. 3 sin θ − 1 = 0 90⁰ 270⁰
1 Steps:
Reference∠ : 45∘
sin θ = QI: x + 30∘ = 90∘ − 2x + k 360∘; k ∈ℤ
3 • sin and cos with the same angle 3x = 60∘ + k 360∘ x = 90∘ + k180∘; k ∈ℤ QII: x = 135∘ + k180∘
• Divide by cos to get tan x = 20∘ + k120∘
sin + in QI and QII
QII: x + 30∘ = 180∘ − (90∘ − 2x) + k 360∘
Reference∠ : 19,47∘ EXAMPLE x + 30∘ = 90∘ + 2x + k 360∘
−x = 60∘ + k 360∘ 3. 2 cos2 x + 3 sin x = 0
Solve for α:
QI: θ = 19,47∘
+ k 360∘;
k ∈ℤ x = − 60∘ − k 360∘ 2(1 − sin2 x) + 3 sin x = 0
QII: θ = 180∘ − 19,47∘ + k 360∘; k ∈ℤ 2 sin 2α − cos 2α = 0
2 sin2 x − 3 sin x − 2 = 0
= 160,53∘ + k 360∘ 2 sin 2α = cos 2α NOTE: Specific Solutions
2 sin 2α cos 2α If they ask for x ∈[−360∘; 360∘ ], choose integer (2 sin x + 1)(sin x − 2) = 0
= values for k
cos 2α cos 2α −1
2. tan(3θ + 30 o) + 1 = 0 (...-3; -2; -1; 0; 1; 2; 3...) sin x = OR sin x = 2
o
tan(3θ + 30 ) = − 1 2 tan 2α = 1 so that x falls in the given intervals. 2
1
tan 2α = Reference∠ : 30∘ No real solution
2 x = 30∘ + k120∘
tan − in QII
x = − 330∘; − 210∘; − 90∘; 30∘; 150∘; 270∘
Reference∠ : 45∘ tan + in QI
k = − 3; k = − 2; k = − 1; k = 0; k = 1; k = 2 QIII: x = 180∘ + 30∘ + k 360∘; k ∈ℤ
Reference∠ : 26,57∘ OR x = 210∘ + k 360∘
QII: 3θ + 30∘ = 180∘ − 45∘ + k180∘; k ∈ℤ x = − 60∘ + k 360∘ QIV: x = 360∘ − 30∘ + k 360∘; k ∈ℤ
3θ = 105∘ + k180∘ QI: 2α = 26,57∘ + k180∘; k ∈ℤ x = − 60∘; 300∘ x = 330∘ + k 360∘
θ = 35∘ + k 60∘ α = 13,28∘ + k 90∘ k = 0; k = 1
52
Trig Graphs Grade 11 Recap SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©
VERTICAL SHIFT
IMPORTANT!
When sketching trig graphs, you need to label the Notes for sin x and cos x : • y = sin x + q or y = cos x + q or y = tan x + q
following: ❖ Key points (intercepts/turning pts) every 90° If q > 0 : upwards (e.g: y = sin x + 1)
! both axes ! x- and y-intercepts If q < 0 : downwards (e.g: y = cos x − 2)
❖ Period (1 complete graph): 360°
! turning points ! endpoints (if not on the axes) EXAMPLE y
! asymptotes (tan graph only) ❖ Amplitude (halfway between min and max): 1
y = cos x − 1 x ∈[0∘; 360∘ ] (solid line)
BASICS y = cos x (dotted line - for comparison)

Notes for tan x :
• y = sin x for x ∈[−360∘; 360∘ ] ❖ Key points every 45° 360°
y 0° xx
❖ Period (1 complete graph): 180°
(90°;-1) (270°;-1)
❖ No amplitude can be defined
(-270°; 1) (90°; 1)
❖ Asymptotes at x = 90o + k180o, k ∈ℤ (180°; -2)
-360° -180° 180° 360°
0° x
AMPLITUDE CHANGE PERIOD CHANGE
(-90°; -1) (270°; -1) • y = a . sin x or y = a . cos x or y = a . tan x • y = sin b x or y = cos b x or y = tan b x
If a > 1 : stretch upwards The value of b indicates how many graphs are completed in the ‘regular’ period of
0 < a < 1 : compress downward that graph (i.e. sin x /cos x : 360∘ and tan x : 180∘)
a < 0 : reflection in x-axis
EXAMPLES
• y = cos x for x ∈[−360∘; 360∘ ]
EXAMPLES y 1. y = cos 3x x ∈[0∘; 360∘ ]
y (90°; 2)
1. y = 2 sin x
(solid line) * Normal period: 360°
(-360°; 1) (360°; 1) * New period: 120° (3 graphs in 360°)
y = sin x * Critical points every 90/3 = 30°
(dotted line - 180° 360°
-270° -90° 90° 270° y
for comparison) 0° x
0° x
(120°; 1) (240°; 1) (360°; 1)
(-180°; -1) (180°; -1) * Amplitude = 2
30° 150° 270°
(270°; -2)
0° 90° 210° 330° x
• y = tan x for x ∈[−360∘; 360∘ ] (180°;3)

(60°;-1) (180°;-1) (300°;-1)
2. y = − 3 cos x y
y (solid line) y
y = cos x
1
(dotted line - 2. y = tan x x ∈[0∘; 360∘ ]
(45°; 1) for comparison) 2 (90°; 1)
0° 90° 270° xx * Normal period: 180°

-360° -180° 0° 180° 360° x
* Range: y ∈[−3; 3] * New period: 360° -360° 360° x
(½ graph in 180°)
* Critical points:
every 45/0,5 = 90°
-3 (360°; -3)
x = -270° x = -90° x = 90° x = 270°
x = -180° x = 180°
53
HORIZONTAL SHIFT EXAMPLE Solutions:

• y = sin(x − p) or y = cos(x − p) or y = tan(x − p) Given f (x) = cos(x + 60∘ ) and g (x) = sin 2x 1. cos(x + 60∘ ) = sin 2x
If p > 0 : shift right (e.g: y = sin(x − 30∘ )) Questions: cos(x + 60∘ ) = cos(90∘ − 2x)
p < 0 : shift left (e.g: y = cos(x + 45))
1. Determine algebraically the points of intersection of Reference ∠ : 90∘ − 2x
How to plot a horizontal shift: f (x) and g (x) for x ∈[-90°;180°] QI: x + 60∘ = 90∘ − 2x + k 360∘; k ∈ℤ
• Plot the original curve 2. Sketch f (x) and g (x) for x ∈[-90°;180°] 3x = 30∘ + k 360∘
• Move the critical points left/right x = 10∘ + k120∘
• Label the x-cuts and turning points 3. State the amplitude of f (x) QIV: x + 60∘ = 360∘ − (90∘ − 2x) + k 360∘; k ∈ℤ
• Calculate and label the endpoints and y-cut 4. Give the period of g (x) x + 60∘ = 270∘ + 2x + k 360∘
−x = 210∘ + k 360∘
EXAMPLES 5. Use the graphs to determine the values of x for which: x = − 210∘ + k 360∘
1. y = cos(x + 45∘ )
for x ∈[−360∘; 360∘ ] (dotted line) a. g (x) is increasing and positive but x ∈[−90∘; 180∘ ]
y = cos x (solid line - for comparison) b. f (x) is increasing and positive ∴ x = 10∘; 130∘; 150∘
y
c. f (x) ≥g (x) - i.e. f (x) is above g (x) 2.
g (x) = sin 2x
(315°; 1) d. f (x) ⋅ g (x) ≥0 - i.e. product is + or 0
(-45°; 1)
y f (x) = cos(x + 60∘ )
(-360°; ½2 )
2
6. Explain the transformation that takes y = s i nx to
2 2
2 (360°; 2)
-315° -135° 225°
y = sin(2x − 60∘ ) (-60°; 1) (45°; 1)
45° x 3
(-90°; ½)2
-90° ½ 30° 90° 180°

(-225°; -1) (135°; -1) x
0° (180°; -½)
Endpoints: (-45°; -1) (120°; -1) (135°; -1)

2 2
cos(−360∘ + 45∘ ) = and c os (−360∘ + 45∘ ) =
2 2
y-cut: For f(x):
2 3 1
cos(0∘ + 45∘ ) = Endpoints: cos(−90∘ + 60∘ ) = and cos(180∘ + 60∘ ) = −
2 2 2
1
y-cut: cos(0∘ + 60∘ ) =
2
2. y = sin(x − 30∘ ) for x ∈[0∘; 360∘ ] (dotted line)
y = sin x (solid line - for comparison)
3. 1
y
(120°; 1) 4. 180∘
30° 210°
x
5. a. x ∈(0∘; 45∘ )
(360°; -½)
-½ b. x ∈[−90∘; − 60∘ )
(300°; -1)
c. x ∈[−90∘; 10∘ ] ∪ (130∘; 150∘ )
d. x ∈[0∘; 30∘ ] ∪ [90∘; 180∘ ] also at x = − 90∘
Endpoints:
1 1
sin(0∘ + 45∘ ) = − and sin(360∘ − 30∘ ) = −
2 2
y-cut: 6. Rewrite y = sin(2x − 60∘ ) in the form y = sin b (x − p) = sin(2(x − 30∘ ))
The y-cut is one of the endpoints Transformation: b = 2 ∴ period is halved
p = 30 ∴ shifted 30 to the right°
54
USING TRIG GRAPHS TO FIND RESTRICTIONS ON IDENTITIES

i.e. answering the question
“for which values of x will this identity be undefined?”
Identities are undefined if:
• the function is undefined
t a nx has asymptotes at x = 90∘ + k180∘; k ∈ℤ
• any denominator is zero
Reminder:
A
is undefined
0
EXAMPLES
1. For which values of x will cos2 x ⋅ tan2 x = sin2 x be defined?
• t a nx is undefined at x = 90∘ + k180∘; k ∈ℤ
∴ will be defined at x ∈ℝ and x ≠ 90∘ + k180∘; k ∈ℤ
• no denominators that could be zero
cos x 1
2. For which values of x will tan x + = be undefined?
1 + sin x cos x
• t a nx is undefined at x = 90∘ + k180∘; k ∈ℤ
• fractions are undefined if the denominator = 0
∴ if 1 + sin x = 0 or if cos x = 0
* 1 = sin x = 0
∴ sin x = − 1
y
y = sinx
Use trig graphs for 0; ± 1
x
-1
(270°; -1) ∴ x = 270∘ + k 360∘; k ∈ℤ
* cos x = 0
y
y = cosx
Use trig graphs for 0; ± 1
90° 270° xx
∴ x = 90∘ + k180∘; k ∈ℤ
x = 90∘ + k180∘; k ∈ℤ
x = 270∘ + k 360∘; k ∈ℤ can be summarised as: x = 90∘ + k180∘; k ∈ℤ
x = 90∘ + k180∘; k ∈ℤ
55
Trigonometry SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©
CAST DIAGRAM GENERAL SOLUTIONS

90 ∘ • sin A = sin B → ref angle
∘
1. sin(180 − θ ) = sin θ ∘
1. sin(θ + 360 ) = sin θ ‣ A = B + k.360∘ or A
180∘ − θ θ + 360∘
2. cos(180∘ − θ ) = − cos θ 2. cos(θ + 360∘ ) = cos θ ‣ A = 180∘ − B + k.360∘; k ∈ℤ
3. tan(180∘ − θ ) = − tan θ 3. tan(θ + 360∘ ) = tan θ • cos A = cos B
‣ A = ± B + k.360∘; k ∈ℤ
∘ ∘
90∘ + θ 1. sin(90 + θ ) = cos θ 90∘ − θ 1. sin(90 − θ ) = cos θ • tan A = tan B
∘
2. cos(90 + θ ) = − sin θ 2. cos(90∘ − θ ) = sin θ ‣ A = B + k.360∘; k ∈ℤ
• Other/ Co-function
Double 1. sin 2A = 2 sin A ⋅ cos A
‣ sin A = cos B ∴ sin A = sin (90∘ − B ) → ref angle
Angles
‣ cos A = sin B ∴ cos A = cos (90∘ − B ) → ref angle
1. sin(A + B ) = sin A ⋅ cos B + cos A ⋅ sin B EXAMPLE 1

Compound
Angles Solve for x if cos 2x = − sin x
2. sin(A − B ) = sin A ⋅ cos B − cos A ⋅ sin B
1 − 2 sin2 x = − sin x
0 = 2 sin2 x − sin x − 1
Sin + y + y
All 0 = (sin x − 1)(2 sin x + 1)
−x θ θ+ x
180∘ θ θ 0∘ 1
sin x = −
Tan −y −y
Cos sin x = 1 or 2
x = 0∘ + k .360∘ x = − 30∘ + k .360∘
or or
1. sin(180∘ + θ ) = − sin θ 1. cos(−θ ) = cos θ x = 180∘ + k .360∘; k ∈ℤ x = 210∘ + k .360∘; k ∈ℤ
180∘ + θ −θ
2. cos(180∘ + θ ) = − cos θ 2. sin(−θ ) = − sin θ EXAMPLE 2
∘ 3. tan(−θ ) = − tan θ
3. tan(180 + θ ) = tan θ Solve for x if cos(90∘ − x) ⋅ sin x − cos 2x = 0
1. sin(θ − 90∘ ) = − cos θ sin x ⋅ sin x − (1 − 2 sin2 x) = 0

θ − 90∘
sin2 x − 1 + 2 sin2 x = 0
2. cos(θ − 90∘ ) = sin θ
3 sin2 x = 1
1
Double 1. cos 2A = cos2 A − sin2 A sin2 x =
3
Angles 2. cos 2A = 2 cos2 A − 1 ± 3
sin x =
3. cos 2A = 1 − 2 sin2 A 3
x = 35,26∘ + k .360∘ or x = − 35,26∘ + k .360∘

Compound 1. cos(A + B ) = cos A ⋅ cos B − sin A ⋅ sin B
or or
Angles 2. cos(A − B ) = cos A ⋅ cos B + sin A ⋅ sin B x = 180∘ − 35,26∘ + k .360∘; k ∈ℤ x = 180∘ − (−35,26∘ ) + k .360∘
270∘ x = 144,74∘ + k .360∘ x = 215,26∘ + k .360∘

56
Trigonometry SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©
TRIG IDENTITIES EXAMPLE 2 MIXED EXAMPLE 1

sin x Show\Prove that: sin 3x = 3 sin x − 4 sin x 3
If sin 54∘ = p, express the following in terms of p:
• tan x = cos x
1 cos x 1. cos 36∘ 2. sin 108∘ 3. sin 84∘
• tan x = sin x LHS = sin(2x + x)
• sin 2x = 2 sin x ⋅ cos x = sin 2x ⋅ cos x + cos 2x ⋅ sin x Solutions: 36°
1
1 (h )
• sin 3x = sin(2x + x) p o p
= 2 sin x ⋅ cos x ⋅ cos x + (1 − sin2 x) ⋅ sin x sin 54∘ =
= sin 2x ⋅ cos x + cos 2x ⋅ sin x (to be expanded further) 54°
= 2 sin x ⋅ cos2 x + sin x − 2 sin3 x 1 – p2 3. sin 84∘ = sin(54∘ + 30∘ )
• sin 4x = sin 2(2x)
= 2 sin x (1 − sin2 x) + sin x − 2 sin3 x 1. cos 36∘ = p = sin 54∘ ⋅ cos 30∘ + cos 54∘ ⋅ sin 30∘
= 2 sin 2x ⋅ cos 2x
( )( 2 )
2. sin 108∘ = sin 2(54∘ ) 3 1
= 4(sin x ⋅ cos x)(cos2 x − sin2 x) = 2 sin x − 2 sin3 x + sin x − 2 sin3 x = p⋅ + 1 − p2
2
= 2 sin 54∘ ⋅ cos 54∘
= 4 sin x ⋅ cos3 x − 4 sin2 x ⋅ cos x (can be expanded further) = 3 sin x − 4 sin3 x
3p+ 1 − p2
• cos 2x = cos2 x − sin2 x = 2( p) ⋅ ( 1 − p 2 ) =
2
= 1 − 2 sin2 x
∴ LHS = RHS MIXED EXAMPLE 2
= 2 cos2 x − 1
Find the value of k if: cos 75∘ ⋅ sin 25∘ − sin 75∘ ⋅ sin k = sin 50∘
HINTS FOR PROVING IDENTITIES EXAMPLE 3
1. Start on the side with the least number of “terms” and simplify
1 + sin x ( cos x )
1 − sin x 1
2 cos 75∘ ⋅ sin 25∘ − sin 75∘ ⋅ sin k = sin 50∘
if possible. Show\Prove that: = − tan x
2. Go to the other side and simplify until you get the same cos 75∘ ⋅ sin 25∘ − sin 75∘ ⋅ cos(90∘ − k) = sin 50∘
answer.
sin(75∘ − 25∘ ) = sin 50∘
3. Look for a conjugate and multiply with the “opposite” sign
(to make a difference of squares in the denominator of your ∴ k = 65∘
fraction) 1 − sin x 1 − sin x
LHS = ×
4. Always try to factorise where possible 1 + sin x 1 − sin x MIXED EXAMPLE 3
1 − 2 sin x + sin x2 Express the following in terms of p if cos 73∘ ⋅ cos 31∘ + sin 73∘ ⋅ sin 31∘ = p
EXAMPLE 1
=
1 − sin2 x 1. cos2 21∘ − sin2 21∘ + 7 2. sin 42∘
sin 2x
Show\Prove that: = 2 tan x
cos 2x + sin2 x Solutions:
( cos x cos x )
2
1 sin x
RHS = − cos 73∘ ⋅ cos 31∘ + sin 73∘ ⋅ sin 31∘
sin x = cos(73∘ − 31∘ )
RHS = 2 ⋅ 48° 1 + p2
cos x 1 − 2 sin x + sin x 2
= cos 42∘
= 1
2 sin x ⋅ cos x
1 (h )
cos2 x p a 42°
LHS = ∴ cos 42∘ =
(2 cos2 x − 1) + (1 − cos2 x) 1 − 2 sin x + sin2 x p
=
2 sin x ⋅ cos x 1 − sin2 x
=
cos2 x 1. cos 2(21∘ ) + 7 = cos 42∘ + 7
∴ LHS = RHS
2 sin x = p+ 7
=
cos x 1
2. sin 42∘ =
∴ LHS = RHS 1 + p2
57
Analytical Geometry Grade 11 Recap SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©
What is Analytical Geometry? EXAMPLE 3. Midpoint formula

x + x1 y2 + y1
M(x ; y) = ( 2
2 )
Analytical Geometry (Co-ordinate Geometry): ;
Given: A(−2; 3) and C( p; − 5) are points on a Cartesian Plane.
Application of straight line functions in conjunction 2
with Euclidean Geometry by using points on a 1. If AC = 10 units determine the value(s) of p. −2 + 4 3 + (−5)
Cartesian Plane. = ( ; )
2 2
2. If C(4; − 5), determine the equation of the line AC.
FLASHBACK M(1; − 1)
3. Determine the co-ordinates of M, the midpoint of AC.
Straight line parallel to the x-axis: m = 0
5
Straight line parallel to the y-axis: m = undefined 4. If B( − 1; ) determine if A, B and C are collinear. 4. Prove collinearity by proving that the points
3
share a common gradient.
5. Determine the equation of the line perpendicular to AC passing
Straight line equation: Δy Δy
through B. m = m =
y = mx + c Δx Δx
5 5
3− − (−5)
3
mAB = mBC = 3
Gradient formula: −2 − (−1) −1 − 4
Δy y − y1 SOLUTION 4
m= = 2 mAB = −
4 mBC = −
Δx x 2 − x1 1. Draw a sketch diagram. C has two potential x-coordinates for p. 3 3
Parallel gradients: ∴ A, B and C are collinear

d= (x 2 − x1)2 + (y2 − y1)2
m1 = m 2
10 = ( p − (−2))2 + (−5 − 3)2
5. Line equation requires solving m 2 and c w.r.t. B.
Perpendicular gradients: 100 = ( p + 2)2 + 64
mAC × m 2 = − 1
m1 × m 2 = − 1 100 = p 2 + 4p + 4 + 64
4
− × m2 = − 1
0 = p 2 + 4p − 32 3
Distance: 0 = ( p + 4)( p + 8) 3
m2 =
2 2 p = 4 or p = − 8 4
d= (x 2 − x1) + (y2 − y1)
2. Line equation requires solving m and c. y = mx + c

Co-linear:
5 3
mAB = mBC OR dAB + dBC = dAC m =
Δy y = mx + c ( 3 ) = 4 (−1) + c
Δx 4
Collinear points A, B and C lie on the same line (3) = − (−2) + c 29
y − y1 c =
mAC = 2 3
12
x 2 − x1
1
Midpoint formula: c =
3 − (−5) 3
x 2 + x1 y2 + y1 =
M(x ; y) = (
2 )
−2 − 4
; 4 29
2 4 ∴y = x+
= − 3 12
Midpoint Theorem: If two midpoints on adjacent 3
sides of a triangle are joined by a straight line, the 4 1
line will be parallel to and half the distance of the ∴y = − x+
3 3
third side of the triangle.
58
Analytical Geometry Grade 11 Recap GradeSCIENCE
11 Examples:
CLINIC 2019 ©
Grade 11 Examples:
Converting gradient (m) into angle of inclination (θ) Converting a positive gradient into an angle EXAMPLE
Example 1:
Example 1:
Δy m> 0
mAB = y Given: straight line with the equation 3y − 4x = − 5. Determine the
tan−1(m) = θ Given: straight line with the equation
Δx Given: straight line with the equation
The reference angle is equal to the angle of inclination. angle of inclination correct to two decimal places.
Determine the angle of inclination co
B
and Determine the angle of inclination co
Given: A(−1; − 6) and B(3; 5) are two points on a straight line. 𝑦
𝑦 3𝑦 −
o Δy Determine the angle of inclination. 3y − 4x = − 5 3𝑦=−
tan θ = = - make y the subject 3𝑦
a Δx 3y = 4x − 5 3𝑦 =4
m = tan θ 4 5 𝑦=
therefore; y = x− 𝑦 =3
θ x y2 − y1 - note that m>0 𝑥
= tan θ 3 3 𝑥
x 2 − x1
∴ mAB = tan θ θ
A 5 − (−6) 𝑚=
= tan θ m = tan θ 4𝑚 =
3 − (−1) - sub. m and solve θ 4= 𝑡
4 3 =
11 = tan θ
( 4 )= θ
The angle of inclination (θ) is always in relation to a horizontal plane in tan−1 3 3
an anti-clockwise direction. tan
4 tan
∴ θ = 70∘ tan−1( ) = θ 53,13
y 3 53,1
B
∴ θ = 53,13∘ - m>0; ref. ∠ = angle of inclination
Positive gradient: Angle of Example 2:

inclination Example 2:
m> 0
Converting a negative gradient into an angle
EXAMPLE Given: straight line with the equation
tan−1(m) = θ m< 0 Given: straight line with the equation
θ tan−1(m) = ref ∠ Given: straight line with the equation 3x + Determine the angle
5y = 7. Determine theof inclination co
x Determine the angle of inclination co
The reference angle is equal angle of inclination correct to two decimal places.
to the angle of inclination. θ Angle of inclination: 𝑦 𝑦
A 𝑦 3𝑥 +
θ + ref ∠ = 180∘ (∠‘s on str. line) 𝐵(3; 5) 3𝑥 +
5𝑦 =
3x + 5y = 7 5𝑦 =
- make y the subject
Given: C (−5; 3) and D (7; − 2) are two points on a straight line. 𝑦=−
5y = − 3x + 7 𝑦=
Determine the angle of inclination.
3 7
𝑦 y = − x− - note that m<0
A y 5 5
Negative gradient: 𝑥 𝑚=
Angle of 𝐶(−5; 3)
11 𝑥
𝑥 3𝑚 =
m< 0 inclination 3= 𝑡
m = tan θ 5 =
tan−1(m) = ref ∠ - sub. m as a positive value 5
3
5 = tan θ to determine the ref. ∠ tan
Angle of inclination: 𝑥 5 tan
4
θ + ref ∠ = 180∘ (∠‘s on str. line) Ref ∠ θ 3
𝐴(−1; −6)
(5) = θ
x 12 30,96
𝐷(7; −2) tan−1 30,9
𝜃=1
Ref ∠ 𝜃=
The angle of inclination must be B m = tan θ θ + ref . ∠ = 180∘ ∴ ref . ∠ = 30,96∘ 𝜃=1
𝜃=
calculated from the reference angle. 5
= tan θ θ = 180∘ − 22,6∘
12
= 157,4∘ θ + ref ∠ = 180∘ - m<0; ref. ∠ + θ = 180°
5
tan−1( ) = θ θ = 180∘ − 30,96∘
12
∴ ref . ∠ = 22,6∘ θ = 149,04∘
59
𝑦 and resources, visit www.scienceclinic.co.za
For more information about Science or Maths seminars, classes
𝐹(4; 2)
𝑦
Analytical Geometry Grade 11 Recap 𝑦 SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©
Finding an angle that is not in Converting an angle

EXAMPLE 𝐶(−5; 3)
relation to a horizontal plane into a gradient
Given: In the diagram: Straight line with the equation 2y − x = 5, which passes through A and B. Straight line
Construct a horizontal plane, parallel to the x-axis. 5 ref. ∠ into m = tan θ.
Sub. the
with the equation y + 2x = 10, which passes through B and C. M is the midpoint of BC. A, B and C are vertices 𝑥
This will allow you to use the ‘sum of adjacent ̂ = θ. A and M lie on the x-axis. Remember to12add the – sign to answers for
of Δ A BC. M AC y 𝐷(7; −2)
angles on a straight line’ in order to calculate the negative gradients.
value of the angle.
Questions:
y B Given: E and F (4; 2) are points on a straight
1. Determine the following:
J(–4; 3) line with an angle of inclination of 36,9°.
a. The co-ordinates of A A M
θ x Determine the value of m correct to two
K(6;2)
b. The co-ordinates of M. 2y – x = 5 decimal places.
C
x c. The co-ordinates of B. 𝑦
𝐹(4; 2)
2. What type of triangle is A BC? Give a reason for your answer. y + 2x = 10
θ
L(–2; –3) 3. If A(−5; 0) and B(3; 4), show that A B = BC (leave your answer in simplest surd 36,9° 𝑥
form).
y
4. If C(7; − 4), determine the co-ordinate of N, the midpoint of AC.
J(–4; 3) 𝐸
5. Hence, or otherwise, determine the length of MN.
K(6;2)
6. If A BCD is a square, determine the co-ordinates of D. m = tan θ
x 7. Solve for θ correct to one decimal places. m = tan(36,9∘ )
m = 0,75
Solutions:
α θ β a. 2y − x = 5 1 5
x − cut : 0 = x+ 3. dAB = (−5 − 3)2 + (0 − 4)2 dBC = (3 − 7)2 + (4 − (−4))2
L(–2; –3)
2y = x + 5 2 2
= 4 5 = 4 5
1 5 0= x+ 5 HELPFUL HINTS:
y = x+ ∴ A B = BC
6 5 2 2 −5 = x
mJL = − = −3 mKL =
( )
2 8 ∴ A(−5; 0) −5 + 7 0 + (−4) 1. Make a quick rough sketch if you are
4. N (x ; y) = ;
m = t a nα m = t a nβ b. y + 2x + 10 x − cut : 0 = − 2x + 10 2 2 given co-ordinates without a drawing.
5 N (1; − 2)
3 = t a nα = t a nβ y = − 2x + 10 2x = 10
8 2. Always make y the subject if you are
t a n−1(3) = α x = 5 5. M N = 2 5 (Midpt theorem)
given straight line equations.
(8)
5
71,6∘ = α t a n−1 = β ∴ M(5; 0)
1 5 6. If A BC D is a square, then AC is the diagonal, which
y = − 2(3) + 10 3. Know your types of triangles and quad-
c. x + = − 2x + 10 makes N the midpoint for both diagonals ∴ D (−3; − 8)
32∘ = β 2 2 rilaterals. Proving them or using their
y = 4
x + 5 = − 4x + 20 properties is a common occurrence.
∴ B(3; 4) Δy
7. mAC = m = t a nθ
5x = 15 Δx
4. The angle of inclination is ALWAYS in
θ = 180∘ − (α + β ) x = 3 0 − (−4) 1
= − = t a nθ relation to the horizontal plane.
2. A BC is a right-angled triangle: −5 − 7 3
= 180∘ − (71,6∘ + 32∘ )
( 3)
1 1
= 76,4∘ mAD × mBC = − 1 = − t a n−1 − = θ
3
∴ b = 90∘ θ = 18,4∘
60
Analytical Geometry SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©
What is Analytical EQUATION OF A CIRCLE EXAMPLE 1 EXAMPLE 2

Geometry? The equation of a circle is given by the equation: Find the equation of the circle with its centre through Determine the equation of the circle in the form
Analytical Geometry (also called the origin and passing through the point (−5; 12). A x 2 + B x + C y 2 + D y + E = 0 that has its centre at
(x − a)2 + (y − b)2 = r 2,
Co-ordinate Geometry) is the study 𝑃(−3; 1) and passes through 𝑅(5; 7).
where (a; b) is the centre of the circle, and x and y
and application of straight line r 2 = (x − a)2 + (y − b)2
functions, trigonometry and Euclidean are coordinates of a point on the circle.
y r = (0 − (−5))2 + (0 − 12)2 PR = (x − a)2 + (y − b)2
Geometry by using points on a
Cartesian Plane. In Grade 12 we = 13 PR = (5 − (−3))2 + (7 − 1)2
x
combine this knowledge and find the
(a;b)
equation of circles. = 10
r
(x − a)2 + (y − b)2 = r 2
(x − a)2 + (y − b)2 = r 2
(x − 0)2 + (y − 0)2 = 132
Prior Knowledge: (x + 3)2 + (y − 1)2 = 10 2
∴ x 2 + y 2 = 169
1. All analytical formulae (distance, x 2 + 6x + 9 + y 2 − 2y + 1 = 100
midpoint, gradients, and straight With radius as the subject: x 2 + 6x + y 2 − 2y − 90 = 0
line functions)
2. Euclidean Geometry (types of r = (x − a)2 + (y − b)2
triangles and quadrilaterals, circle Given two circles with centres A and B respectively, EXAMPLE 3
geometry theorems) it can be determined if the circles are: Two circles are given:
3. Trigonometry (general applications, If the centre of the circle is at the origin (0;0): a) Touching externally (one point of intersection) x 2 − 2x + y 2 + 6y − 6 = 0 with centre A, and
sine and cosine rules, sine area y
(x + 4)2 + (y − 2)2 = 9 with centre B.
rule, double and compound angle
identities) R r
A B AB = R + r a) Express circle with Centre A in standard centre-radius form.
(0;0) b) Determine whether the circles are touching externally,
x
r internally, or neither.
Glossary of Terms:
Concentric a) x 2 − 2x + y 2 + 6y = 6
Two or more circles that share the b) Touching internally (Two points of intersection)
same centre. x 2 − 2x + 1 + y 2 + 6y + 9 = 6 + 1 + 9
(x − a)2 + (y − b)2 = r 2 (x − 1)2 + (y + 3)2 = 16

Median R r
Line from the vertex of a triangle to (x − 0)2 + (y − 0)2 = r 2 A B AB < R + r
the midpoint of the opposite side. 2 2 2 b) A(1;–3) and R=4 ; B(–4;2) and r=3
∴x + y = r
Centroid
Point of intersection for all the OR
AB = (1 − (−4))2 + (−3 − 2)2
medians. c) Not touching at all
2 2
r = x + y
= 5 2
Altitude
Perpendicular line drawn from a side
R r = 7,07
of a triangle to the opposite vertex. The standard centre-radius equation can be A B AB > R + r
expanded to give;
Orthocentre AB > R + r ∴ circles are NOT touching
Point of intersection for all the A x 2 + Bx + C y 2 + D y + E = 0
altitudes.
61
Analytical Geometry SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©
EXAMPLE 4 EXAMPLE 5
In the diagram below: Given: Circle with centre M passes through A, B and C(4; 4), PQ is a tangent to the
Circle with Centre P is drawn. The line given by the equation 3x − 2y − 44 = 0 circle at A. Q lies on the x-axis. A lies on the y-axis. AC is parallel to the x-axis.
passes through its centre. Points Q(4; −2) and R(12; −18) are points on the
A Ĉ M = x; B Ĉ M = 2x; B Â M = 30∘; C AQ
̂ = θ
circumference.
Determine the co-ordinates of P. a) Determine the co-ordinates of A.
b) Prove that 𝑥 = 20°.
c) Prove that 𝜃 = 70°.
Round off your answers to TWO decimal places:

d) Determine the equation of the tangent PQ.
e) Determine the equation for radius AM.
f) Determine the co-ordinates of M.
g) Express the equation of the circle in centre-radius form.
3x − 2y − 44 = 0 a) (0;4) e) mAM × mPQ = − 1

−2 = − 3x + 44 mAM = 0,36
3 ̂ = x (∠’s opp equal sides; AM=CM)
b) M AC
y = x − 22
2 ̂ = 180∘ − 2x (int ∠’s of Δ)
A MC y = 0,36x + 4
̂ = 90∘ − x (∠ at centre = 2 x ∠ at circumference)
A BC
3
∴ P (x ; y) is P (x ; x − 22) f) M(x ; y) is M(x ; 0,36x + 4)
2
PQ 2 = PR 2 (radii) Â + B̂ + Ĉ = 180∘ (int ∠ of Δ)
A M2 = C M2
3 2 3 2 30∘ + x + 3x + 90 − x = 180∘
(x − 4)2 + ( x − 22 − (−2)) = (x − 12)2 + ( x − 22 − (−15)) (x − 0)2 + (0,36x + 4 − 4)2 = (x − 4)2 + (0,36x + 4 − 4)2
2 2 3x + 120∘ = 180∘
x 2 + 0,1296x 2 = x 2 − 8x + 16 + 0,1296x 2
3x − 40 2 3x − 8 2
( 2 ) ( 2 )
x 2 − 8x + 16 + = x 2 − 24x + 144 + 3x = 60∘ 8x = 16
x = 20∘ x = 2
9x 2 − 240x + 1600 9x 2 − 48x + 64
x 2 − 8x + 16 + = x 2 − 24x + 144 +
4 4 ̂ = 90∘ (tan ⟂ radius)
c) M AQ
Construct perpendicular line from centre to chord.
4x 2 − 32x + 64 + 9x 2 − 240x + 1600 = 4x 2 − 96x + 576 + 9x 2 − 48x + 64 ̂ = 20∘ (proven above)
M AC ∴M’s x-value = 2 (⟂ line from centre to chord)
−272x + 1664 = − 144x + 640 ∴ θ = 70∘
1024 = 128x y = 0,36(2) + 4
= 4,72
8= x
∴ M(2; 4,72)
∘
d) tan 110 = mPQ
3 = − 2,75 g) MC = (2 − 4)2 + (4,72 − 4)2
y = x − 22
2
= 2,13
3
= (8) − 22 y = − 2,75x + 4 ∴ MC 2 = 4,52
2
= − 10 (x + 2)2 + (y − 4,72)2 = 4,52
62
Statistics SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©
REMINDER REPRESENTING DATA

Ungrouped data = discrete
Discrete data: Data that can be counted, e.g. the Grouped data = continuous
number of people.
NB: Always arrange data in ascending order.
Continuous data: quantitative data that can be
measured, e.g. temperature range.
FREQUENCY TABLE STEM AND LEAF PLOTS BAR GRAPH HISTOGRAM
Measures of central tendency: a descriptive
summary of a dataset through a single value that Mark Tally Frequency Stem Leaf 7
reflects the data distribution.
4 || 2 0 1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 4 6
Measures of dispersion: The dispersion of a data
set is the amount of variability seen in that data 5 || 2 1 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 1 5
set. 4
6 |||| 4 2 5, 5, 7, 7, 8, 8
Cumulative frequency: The total of a frequency 3
and all frequencies so far in a frequency distribution 7 |||| 5 3 0, 1, 1, 1, 2, 2
2
Variance: measures the variability from an 8 |||| 4 4 0, 4, 8, 9
average or mean. a Small change in the numbers of 1
9 || 2 5 2, 6, 7, 7, 8
a data set equals a very small variance 0
10 | 1 0~10 10~20 20~30 30~40
Standard Deviation: the amount the data value 6 3, 6
or class interval differs from the mean of the data
set.
FREQUENCY POLYGON OGIVES INDICATORS OF POSITION
Outliers: Any data value that is more than 1,5 IQR Quartiles
to the left of Q1 or the right of Q3, i.e. 8 100
The three quartiles divide the data
Outlier < Q1 – (1,5×IQR) or into four quarters.
80 Q1 = Lower quartile or first quartile
6
Cumulative frequency
Outlier > Q3 + (1,5×IQR)
Q2 = Second quartile or median
Regression: a measure of the relation between 60 Q3 = Upper quartile or third quartile
the mean value of one variable (e.g. output) and 4
corresponding values of other variables (e.g. time Percentiles
40 Indicates which percentage of data is
and cost).
2 below the specific percentile.
Correlation: interdependence of variable 20 Q1= 25th percentile
quantities
Q2= 50th percentile
Causation: the action of causing something 0 0 Q3= 75th percentile
[0–3[ [3–6[ [6–9[ [9–12[ [12–15[
Univariate: Data concerning a single variable
All other percentiles can be
Bivariate: Data concerning two variables MEASURES OF DISPERSEMENT calculated using the formula:
Interpolation: an estimation of a value within two Range Interquartile range Semi-Interquartile range p
i= (n)
known values in a sequence of values. 1 100
range = max value − min value IQR = Q 3 − Q1 semi − IQR = (Q3 − Q1)
Extrapolation: an estimation of a value based on 2 where;
Note: range is greatly influenced Note: spans 50% of the data set Note: good measure of dispersion
extending a known sequence of values or facts i = the position of the pth percentile
by outliers for skewed distribution
beyond the area that is certainly known p = the value of the ith position
63
MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY FOR MEASURES OF DISPERSION AROUND THE MEAN

UNGROUPED DATA Variance
Standard deviation
Mean Variance measures the variability from an average or mean.
Standard deviation is the amount the data value or class interval differs
sum of all values
x̄ = from the mean of the data set.
total number of values The variance for a population is calculated by:
Σx 1. Calculate the mean(the average).
x̄ = 2. Subtracting the mean from each number in the data set and then Σ f (x − x̄ )2
n σ =
where;
squaring the result. The results are squared to make the negatives n
positive. Otherwise negative numbers would cancel out the positives
x̄ = mean where;
in the next step. It’s the distance from the mean that’s important,
Σx = sum of all values n = number of data values
not positive or negative numbers.
n = number of values x = midpoint of interval
3. Averaging the squared differences.
Mode x̄ = estimated mean
The mode is the value that appears most frequently in a
EXAMPLE:
set of data points.
Continuous data is grouped into class intervals which consist of an upper class boundary (maximum value) and lower class values (minimum value).
Bimodal: a data set with 2 modes
Trimodal: a data set with 3 modes frequency Midpoint
Class interval ( f × x) (x − x̄ )2 f (x − x̄ )2
Median uper class barrier + lower class barrier
(f ) x =
The median is the middle number in a set of data points. 2
1 0 ≤ x ≤10 3 10 + 0 3 × 5 = 15 (5 × 15,71)2 = 114,7 3(114,7) = 344,11
position of median = (n+ 1) = 5
2 2
Where; 10 ≤ x ≤20 7 20 + 10 7 × 15 = 105 (15 × 15,71)2 = 0,5 7(0,5) = 3,53
= 15
n = number of values 15
If n = odd number, the median is part of the data set. 20 ≤ x ≤30 4 30 + 20 4 × 25 = 100 (25 × 15,71)2 = 88,3 4(88,3) = 354,22
= 25
If n = even number, the median will be the average 2
between the two middle numbers. total : 14 14 220 Σf(x − x)2 = 692, 86
FIVE NUMBER SUMMARY
Mean:
1. Minimum value
sum of all frequency × mean value
2. Lower quartile Q1 mean(x ) =
total frequency
3. Median
4. Upper quartile Q3 220
=
5. Maximum value 14
BOX AND WHISKER PLOT = 15,71
A box and whisker plot is a visual representation of the
Standard deviation:
five number summary.
Σ f (x − x )2
σ =
e
e
le
le
m
n
rt i
rt i
re
re
a
a
t
t
qu
qu
ex
ex
n
692,86
r
r
ia
we
we
pe
pe
=
ed
Up
Up
Lo
Lo
14
M
A small Standard deviation tells us the numbers

= 7,03 are clustered closely around the mean, a larger
standard deviation indicates more scattered data.
10 20 30 40 50 60
64
MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY EXAMPLE:

FOR GROUPED DATA Step 1: Determine cumulative frequencies form a frequency table.
We conduct a survey on the ages of people who visit the corner shop, 80 people partake in the survey.
Estimated mean
sum of all frequency × mean value Class interval Frequency Cumulative frequency Interpretation Graph points
mean(x ) =
total frequency 0 ≤ x < 15 0 0 0 participants are younger than 15. (15;0)
15 ≤ x < 30 14 0 + 14 = 14 14 people were younger than 30. (30;14)
where;
30 ≤ x < 45 22 14 + 22 = 36 36 people were younger than 45. (45;36)
x̄ = estimated mean
n = number of values 45 ≤ x < 60 30 36 + 30 = 66 66 people were younger than 60. (60;66)
Modal class interval

60 ≤ x < 75 14 66+ 14 = 80 All participants were younger than 75. (75;80)
The modal class interval is the class interval that Step 2: Represent information on a cummulative frequency/ogive curve Coordinates (x;y)
contains the greatest number of data points. 100 The x-coordinate represents the upper boundary of the class interval.
Median class interval The graph takes on the y-coordinate represents the cumulative frequency.
The median class interval is the interval that contains 80 shape of an S-curve.
Cumulative frequency
the middle number in a set of data points. Interpretations from the graph:
60
1 Median
position of median = (n+ 1) There is an even nr of data items in our set (80) so the median liesmidway between the two
2 middle values. The median is halfway between the 40th and 41st term. Find the value on the
40
Where; y-axis and draw a line from that point to determine the value on the x-axis.
n = number of values 20 Quartiles

If n = odd number, the median is part of the data Similar to the method used to find the median you can determine the upper or lower quartiles
from the graph.
0
set.
If n = even number, the median will be the average Percentiles
The median and quartiles divide the data into 50% and 25% respectively, should you need to
between the two middle numbers. calculate a different percentile this can be done by calculation or read from the graph.
Calculation of the 90th percentile: 0,9 × 80 = 72
So 90% of the data is below the 72nd value which will be int the last class interval.
SYMMETRIC AND SKEWED DATA

Symmetric Skewed
Symmetric data has a balanced shape, with mean, median and mode close together. Skewed data is data that is spread more towards one side or the other.
mode = mean = median
median
median
mode
mean
mode
mean
Skewed left: Negatively skewed if the tail extends to the left Skewed right: Positively skewed if the tail extends to the right
65
BIVARIATE DATA CORRELATION COEFFICIENT

Bivariate data can be represented EXAMPLE:
Draw a scatter plot for the following data and calculate the correlation coefficient, then write down a
by scatter plots:
Positive linear correlation nΣx y − (Σx)(Σy) conclusion about the type of correlation. Number of hours a sales person spends with his client vs the
r = value of the sales for that client.
nΣx 2 − (Σx)2 × nΣy 2 − (Σy)2
NUMBER OF HOURS 30 50 80 100 120 150 190 220 260
Where r indicates the strength of the relationship between the two VALUE OF SALES
270 275 376 100 420 602 684 800 820
variables (x and y). (IN THOUSANDS OF RANDS)
Properties: Step 1: Scatter plot

• The correlation coefficient is a number between –1 and 1 SCATTER PLOT
(–1 ≤ r ≤ 1) 900
800
Negative correlation • Strong positive linear correlation, r is close to 1.
700
• Strong negative linear correlation, r is close to –1.
600
• No linear correlation or a weak linear correlation, –0,3 < r < 0,3 500
400
300
Value of r Meaning
200
r=1 Perfectly positive correlation 100
0,9 ≤ r < 1 Very strong positive linear correlation 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300
No correlation 0,7 ≤ r < 0,9 Significant positive linear correlation Number of hours
0,3 ≤ r < 0,7 Weak positive linear correlation

Step 2: Using your calculator to find r
–0,3 ≤ r < 0,3 No significant linear correlation Once you understand the reasons for the process you can use your calculator to streamline the
process.
–0,7 ≤ r < –0,3 Weak negative linear correlation
r can be found by completing the following steps on your calculator:
–0,9 ≤ r < –0,7 Significant negative linear correlation (steps may vary slightly for different calculators)
• Press [MODE] and [2:STAT] to enter stats mode
–1 ≤ r < –0,9 Very strong negative linear correlation
• [2:a+bx]
r = –1 Perfect negative correlation • Enter the number of hours in the x-column and the value of sales in the y-column
Non linear correlation
• [AC], this will clear the screen, but the data remains stored
• [SHIFT][1] to get the stats computation screen
• [5:REG] and then [3:r]
r = 0,893 ∴ a significant positive linear correlation

linear correlation exists between the number
of hours a sales person as can be seen on the
scatterplot- with the exception of the outlier.
66
THE LEAST SQUARES REGRESSION LINE EXAMPLE:

A line can be drawn through the points to determine if there is a significant negative or Determine the equation of the least square regression line in the form ŷ = a + bx
positive correlation on a scatter plot. A line of best fit will not represent the data per-
fectly, but it will give you an idea of the trend. The line of best fit is also called a regres- Step 1: Complete the table as indicated by the column headings:
sion line. This line will always pass through (x ; y ) where x is the mean of the x-values
and y is the mean of the y-values. x y x −x y −y (x − x )2 (x − x )(y − y )
1 2 –2 –2 4 4
2 4 –1 0 1 0
3 5 0 1 0 0
4 4 1 0 1 0
5 5 2 1 4 2
2
x=3 y=4 Σ(x − x ) =10 Σ(x − x )(y − y )=6
Step 2: Calculate Slope/gradient b by substituting

the totals of your table as needed:
Once you understand the process, these values can be found
Σ(x − x )(y − y ) faster by completing the following steps on your calculator: (steps
b=
Σ(x − x )2 may vary slightly for different calculators)
error • Press [MODE] and [2:STAT] to enter stats mode
6
b= • [2:a+bx]
10 • Enter the values in the x-and y-column respectively
error • [AC], this will clear the screen, but the data remains stored
b = 0,6
error • [5:REG]
error Step 3: Calculate the y-intercept a by substituting
• To find a choose the option [1:a] OR [2:B] to find the value of b
the values of the point (x ; y ) :
a = y − bx
error a = 4 − (0,6)(3)
a = 2,2
The aim of the least squares regression line is to make the total of the square of the
errors as small as possible. The straight line minimizes the sum of squared errors.
Step 4: Assemble the equation of a line
when we square each of those errors and add them all up, the total is as small as
possible. ŷ = a + bx
ŷ = 2,2 + 0,6x
67
EXAMPLE: 2. An athlete runs the 100m in 11,7 seconds, use the formula to predict the distance of this
The table below shows the time taken by 12 athletes to run 100m sprint and their best distance for log jump. athlete’s jump.
TIME FOR 100 M SPRINT
10,1 10 11 11 11 11 11 12 12 12 12 13
(IN SECONDS) ŷ = 14,34 − 0,64x
ŷ = 14,34 − 0,64(11,7)
DISTANCE OF BEST LONG JUMP
8 7,7 7,6 7,3 7,6 7,2 6,8 7 6,6 6,3 6,8 6,4 ŷ = 6,852 m
(IN METRES)
SCATTER PLOT
3. Another athlete completes the 100m sprint in 12,3 seconds and his best jump is 7,6m. If
8,5 this is included in the data will the gradient of the least squares regression line increase or
decrease? Motivate your answer without using calculations.
Distance of best long jump (im metres)
8
The gradient will increase, the distance point will be much higher than the ones around
that time.
4. Calculate the mean time and standard deviation for the data set.
7,5
This can be found by completing the following steps on your calculator:

(steps may vary slightly for different calculators)
7 • Press [MODE] and [2:STAT] to enter stats mode
• [1:Var]
• Enter the time values in the x-column
6.5
• [4:Var]
• [2:x] and = to find the mean time, which is 11,27 seconds OR
6
10 10,5 11 11,5 12 12,5 • [3:σ x] and = to find the standard deviation for the sample. The standard deviation
Time for 100 m sprint (in seconds) from the mean time is 0,755 seconds.
1. Determine the a and b values for the least squares regression line.
5. Find the correlation coefficient
This can be found by completing the following steps on your calculator:

(steps may vary slightly for different calculators)
• [2:a+bx]
• Enter the time values in the x-column and the distances in the y-column
• [2:a+bx]
• Enter the time values in the x-column and the distances in the y-column
• [5:REG] and then [3:r]
• [5:REG]
r = –0.926
• To find a choose the option [1:a] OR [2:B] to find the value of b
∴This is a significant negative linear correlation.
a = 14,34 ; b = − 0,64
68

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Rational (Q) Irrational (Q’) y y y

QUADRATIC FORMULA THE DISCRIMINANT

EXAMPLE 1. Standard form 1. Standard form

SOLVING QUADRATIC EQUATIONS

1. Find the LCD and list restrictions

Remember: General Steps for solving Quadratic Equations

WHAT ARE: LAWS OF EXPONENTS

D N EXAMPLE 1 EXAMPLE 2 EXAMPLE 3

RATIONALISING THE DENOMINATOR

EXAMPLE 1 Why do we do this?

1. Common Factor: 2. Difference of two squares: 3. Sum or difference of two cubes:

Patterns/ Sequences: ordered set of numbers

5. Objective: First difference

ARITHMETIC SEQUENCE EXAMPLE 2 EXAMPLE 3

GEOMETRIC SEQUENCE EXAMPLE 2 EXAMPLE 3

A series is the sum of a number of terms in a sequence and is represented by Sn.

SUM TO INFINITY (S∞) SIGMA NOTATION

1. 2 + 4 + 6 + 8 + ⋯ = ∞ (Arithmetic and d = 2) end term EXAMPLE

Grade 11 Functions: Quadratic Functions

2. Find the x- and y-intercepts • x-intercept (y = 0)

Exponential Graphs Hyperbola

2. Substitute the other point in

3. Write/simplify your final equation • a>0 • asymptote • asymptote to find ‘a’

Deductions from Graphs

Steps for determining MAXIMUM DISTANCE

Deductions from Graphs

Relation: set of ordered pairs INVERSE OF A FUNCTION SKETCHING INVERSE FUNCTIONS

! Once, it IS a function ! More than once, it IS NOT a function EXAMPLE

EXAMPLE Method 2: Using the original function

INVERSE OF A LINEAR FUNCTION INVERSE OF A PARABOLA EXAMPLE

WORKING WITH LOGARITHMS LOG LAWS EXPONENTIAL AND LOG FUNCTIONS

INVERSE OF AN EXPONENTIAL FUNCTION MIXED EXAMPLE 1 Questions:

Exponential: f (x) = a x; a > 0 and a ≠ 1

EXAMPLE t log1,95 = log2164

∴ h −1(x) = log 1 x f (x)

MIXED EXAMPLE 2 MIXED EXAMPLE 3 MIXED EXAMPLE 4 MIXED EXAMPLE 5

SIMPLE INTEREST A = accumulated amount COMPOUND INTEREST EXAMPLE

NOMINAL VS EFFECTIVE INTEREST RATES CHANGING INTEREST RATES DEPRECIATION (DECAY)

Value of Asset (R)

Value of Asset (R)

CALCULATING TIME PERIOD ADDITIONAL PAYMENTS OR WITHDRAWALS

OR combine the steps into a single calculation

FUTURE VALUE ANNUITIES PRESENT VALUE ANNUITIES

Compound interest formula: A = P (1 + i ) n Compound interest formula: P = A(1 + i )−n

Future value annuity formula: Present value annuity formula:

CALCULATE MONTHLY INSTALLMENTS ANALYSES OF INVESTMENT AND LOAN OPTIONS

Total number of terms: (5 × 12) − 1 = 59

TANGENTS TO A CURVE AT A POINT CUBIC CURVES SKETCHING CUBIC GRAPHS

CONCAVITY FACTORISING MORE COMPLEX CUBIC POLYNOMIALS

EXAMPLE 2: APPLICATION QUESTIONS FINDING THE EQUATION OF A CUBIC CURVE

d. f (x) f ′(x) ANALYSING DERIVATIVE GRAPHS EXAMPLE

MINIMA AND MAXIMA RATE OF CHANGE CALCULUS OF MOTION

x 60 – 2x 1. What is the rate at which the volume is changing after EXAMPLE

Addition Rule: Mutually Exclusive: Exhaustive Events:

Complimentary Events: Independent Events: Dependent Events:

P(A and B) = P(A ∩ B) = P(A) × P(B)

TREE DIAGRAMS CONTINGENCY TABLE (OR TWO-WAY TABLE)

Solutions: 0,33 0,45 Solutions:

EXAMPLE: EXAMPLE: EXAMPLE:

P(not starting with cc) = 1 − P(starting with cc) P (A) × P (B ) = P (A ∩ B )

4. Note that there are 3 A’s, 2 T’s, I’s and C’s

= 1 816 214 400