Best Practices Manual-TRANSFORMERS

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BEST PRACTICE MANUAL

TRANSFORMERS

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CONT E NT S
1.1 B ACKGR OUND .......................................................................................................................................................................3
1.2 A GUI DE T O T HI S GUI DE .................................................................................................................................................3
2 F UNDAMENT AL S .................................................................................................................................................................4
2.1 P R I NCI P L E OF T R ANS F OR ME R ACT I ON............................................................................................................................4
2.2 L OS S E S I N T R ANS F OR ME R S ...............................................................................................................................................6
2.2.1 Di el ectr i c Los s es .....................................................................................................................................................6
2.2.2 Hys ter i s i s Los s ............................................................................................................................................................6
2.2.3 Eddy Cur r ent Los s es i n T he Cor e.........................................................................................................................7
2.2.4 Res i s ti ve l os s es i n the wi ndi ngs ...........................................................................................................................8
2.2.5 Eddy Cur r ent Los s es i n conductor s : .....................................................................................................................9
2.2.6 Extr a Eddy Los s es i n S tr uctur al Par ts ................................................................................................................10
3 T R ANS F OR ME R OPE R AT I ON......................................................................................................................................11
3.1 VAR I AT I ON OF L OS S E S DUR I NG OP E R AT I ON .......................................................................................................11
3.1.1 Var i ati on of l os s es wi th l oadi ng l evel ......................................................................................................11
3.1.2 Var i ati on i n Cons tant l os s es ..........................................................................................................................12
3.1.3 Var i ati on i n Load Los s es ..................................................................................................................................12
3.2 L OS S MI NI MI S AT I ON I N AP P L I CAT I ON & OP E R AT I ON ...................................................................................12
3.2.1 S el ecti on of Rati ng and Number of T r ans for mer s ............................................................................12
3.2.2 Ener gy S avi ng by Under - uti l i s ati on of tr ans for mer s ......................................................................13
3.2.3 Reducti on of l os s es due to i mpr ovement of power factor ...........................................................14
3.2.4 S egr egati on of nonl i near l oads ....................................................................................................................14
3.3 E F F E CT OF OP E R AT I NG T E MP E R AT UR E .....................................................................................................................14
3.4 AS S E S S I NG T HE E F F E CT S OF HAR MONI CS .............................................................................................................15
3.4.1 U.S . Pr acti ce K- Factor .................................................................................................................................15
3.4.2 Eur opean Pr acti ce- Factor K.......................................................................................................................17
4 R E DUCT I ON OF L OS S E S AT DES I GN S T AGE ......................................................................................................19
4.1 I NT R ODUCT I ON................................................................................................................................................................19
4.2 MI NI MI S I NG I R ON L OS S E S .........................................................................................................................................19
4.3 MI NI MI S I NG COP P E R L OS S E S ....................................................................................................................................19
5 E CONOMI C ANAL YS I S ...................................................................................................................................................21
5.1 I NT R ODUCT I ON................................................................................................................................................................21
5.2 T OT AL OWNE R S HI P COS T OF T R ANS F OR ME R S .....................................................................................................21
5.3 DE CI S I ONS F OR CHANGE OVE R T O NE W E QUI P ME NT ..........................................................................................22
6 CAS E S T UDI ES ...................................................................................................................................................................23
6.1 I NT R ODUCT I ON................................................................................................................................................................23
6.2 CAS E S T UDY 1 .................................................................................................................................................................23
6.2.1 I l l us tr ati ve cal cul ati ons : ..................................................................................................................................24
6.2.2 Factor for Har moni cs .........................................................................................................................................24
6.2.3 Per centage of Eddy Los s es i n Load Los s es : ........................................................................................25
6.2.4 Ful l l oad l os s es for Har moni c Loadi ng: ...................................................................................................25
6.2.5 Rel ati ve economi cs for l ow l os s tr ans for mer s (Al l Dr y type) for 1250 kVA and 1600
kVA tr ans for mer s . ...............................................................................................................................................................26
6.2.6 S ummar y: ................................................................................................................................................................27
6.3 CAS E S T UDY-2: NON F E R R OUS ME T AL S E CT OR ..................................................................................................28
6.4 CAS E S T UDY-3: P AP E R & P UL P COMP ANY .........................................................................................................29
6.5 CAS E S T UDY-4 CHE MI CAL I NDUS T R Y ..............................................................................................................30
6.6 CAS E S T UDY 5 CAS E OF A L AR GE DAT A HOT E L S T AR T UP ........................................................................30
6.7 S UMMAR Y OF E UR OP E AN CAS E S T UDI E S : .............................................................................................................31
6.8 CAS E S T UDY: T E A I NDUS T R Y ( I NDI A) ................................................................................................................31

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1 I NT R ODUCT I ON

1.1 Backgr ound
istr ibution tr ansfor mer s ar e ver y efficient, with losses of less than 0.5% in lar ge units.
S maller units have efficiencies of 97% or above. I t is estimated that tr ansfor mer losses
in power distr ibution networ ks can exceed 3% of the total electr ical power gener ated. I n
I ndia, for an annual electr icity consumption of about 500 billion kWh, this would come to
ar ound 15 billion kWh.
Reduci ng l os s es can i ncr eas e tr ans for mer effi ci ency. T her e ar e two components that
make up tr ans for mer l os s es . T he fi r s t i s " cor e" l os s (al s o cal l ed no- l oad l os s ), whi ch i s
the r es ul t of the magneti zi ng and de- magneti zi ng of the cor e dur i ng nor mal oper ati on.
Cor e l os s occur s whenever the tr ans for mer i s ener gi zed; cor e l os s does not var y wi th
l oad. T he s econd component of l os s i s cal l ed coi l or l oad l os s , becaus e the effi ci ency
l os s es occur i n the pr i mar y and s econdar y coi l s of the tr ans for mer . Coi l l os s i s a
functi on of the r es i s tance of the wi ndi ng mater i al s and var i es wi th the l oad on the
tr ans for mer .
I n selecting equipments, one often conveniently avoid the concept of life cycle costing. But
the tr uth is that even the most efficient ener gy tr ansfer equipment like a tr ansfor mer ,
concept of life cycle cost is ver y much r elevant. T he total cost of owning and oper ating a
tr ansfor mer must be evaluated, since the unit will be in ser vice for decades. T he only
pr oper method to evaluate alter natives is to r equest the manufactur er or bidder to supply
the load and no-load losses, in watts. T hen, simple calculations can r eveal anticipated
losses at planned loading levels. Fr equently, a small incr ease in pur chase pr ice will secur e a
unit with lower oper ating costs.
T he l oad pr ofi l e of el ectr oni c equi pmentfr om the computer i n the offi ce to the
var i abl e s peed dr i ve i n the factor ydr i ves both addi ti onal l os s es and unwanted
di s tor ti on. S i nce tr ans for mer manufactur er s tes t onl y under i deal (l i near ) condi ti ons , a
s ubs tanti al gap exi s ts between publ i s hed l os s data and actual l os s es i ncur r ed after
i ns tal l ati on. I n fact, tes t r es ul ts publ i s hed i n a 1996 I EEE T r ans acti on paper
documented an al mos t tr i pl i ng of tr ans for mer l os s es when feedi ng 60kW of computer
l oad r ather than l i near l oad. S l i ghtl y di ffer ent pr acti ces ar e fol l owed i n US A and UK to
account for har moni cs whi l e s el ecti ng tr ans for mer s .
1.2 A guide t o t his guide
T his Best Pr actice Manual for Electr ic T r ansfor mer s summar ise the appr oach for ener gy
conser vation measur es per taining to selection, application and oper ation of electr ic
distr ibution tr ansfor mer s.
T he details of design methodology and the var ied appr oaches for mater ials, constr uction
ar e not in the scope of this manual. However , some theor etical aspects ar e discussed wher e
ever deemed fit.
Chapter -2 discusses pr inciples of tr ansfor mer action, descr iption of losses and effect of non
linear loads on tr ansfor mer efficiency.
Chapter -3 discusses design aspects of tr ansfor mer s to impr ove efficiency
Chapter -4 discusses loss minimisation in application and oper ation
Chapter -5 discusses pr inciples of economic evaluation of tr ansfor mer s
Chapter -6 discusses case studies fr om I ndian and I nter national scenar io
D

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2 F U N D A M E N T A L S
2.1 Pr inciple of t r ansf or mer act ion
A cur r ent flowing thr ough a coil pr oduces a magnetic field ar ound the coil. T he magnetic field
str ength H, r equir ed to pr oduce a magnetic field of flux density B, is pr opor tional to the
cur r ent flowing in the coil. Figur e 2.1 shown below explains the above pr inciple

Figur e 2.1: Relationship between cur r ent, magnetic field str ength and flux
T he above pr inciple is used in all tr ansfor mer s.
A tr ansfor mer is a static piece of appar atus used for tr ansfer r ing power fr om one cir cuit to
another at a differ ent voltage, but without change in fr equency. I t can r aise or lower the
voltage with a cor r esponding decr ease or incr ease of cur r ent.
V
p
I
p
N
p
I
s
N
s
V
s
R
t
B
A N V p p
=
t
B
A N V s s
=
p
s
p
s
N
N
V
V
=
field Magnetic

Fig 2.2: T r ansfor mer schematic
When a changing voltage is applied to the pr imar y winding, the back emf gener ated by the
pr imar y is given by Far adays law,
EMF =
t
B
A N V p p
= ----(1)

5
A Cur r ent in the pr imar y winding pr oduces a magnetic field in the cor e. T he magnetic field
is almost totally confined in the ir on cor e and couples ar ound thr ough the secondar y coil.
T he induced voltage in the secondar y winding is also given by Far adays law
t
B
A N V s s
= -----(2)
T he r ate of change of fl ux i s the s ame as that i n pr i mar y wi ndi ng. Di vi di ng equati on
(2) by (1) gi ves

p
s
p
s
N
N
V
V
=

I n Fi gur e 2.1, the pr i mar y and s econdar y coi l s ar e s hown on s epar ate l egs of the
magneti c ci r cui t s o that we can eas i l y under s tand how the tr ans for mer wor ks .
Actual l y, hal f of the pr i mar y and s econdar y coi l s ar e wound on each of the two l egs ,
wi th s uffi ci ent i ns ul ati on between the two coi l s and the cor e to pr oper l y i ns ul ate
the wi ndi ngs fr om one another and the cor e. A tr ans for mer wound, s uch as i n
Fi gur e 2.2, wi l l oper ate at a gr eatl y r educed effecti venes s due to the magneti c
l eakage. Magneti c l eakage i s the par t of the magneti c fl ux that pas s es thr ough ei ther
one of the coi l s , but not thr ough both. T he l ar ger the di s tance between the
pr i mar y and s econdar y wi ndi ngs , the l onger the magneti c ci r cui t and the gr eater the
l eakage.

T he vol tage devel oped by tr ans for mer acti on i s gi ven by

E = 4. 44 x f x N x B
max
x A
cor e
,

wher e E = r ated coi l vol tage (vol ts ),
f = oper ati ng fr equency (her tz),
N = number of tur ns i n the wi ndi ng,
B
max
= maxi mum fl ux dens i ty i n the cor e (tes l a), and
A
cor e
, = cr os s - s ecti onal ar ea of the cor e mater i al i n S q. metr es .

I n addi ti on to the vol tage equati on, a power equati on expr es s i ng the vol t- amper e
r ati ng i n ter ms of the other i nput par ameter s i s al s o us ed i n tr ans for mer des i gn.
S peci fi cal l y, the for m of the equati on i s

kVA = 444 x f x N x B
max
x A
cor e
x J x A
cond
,

wher e, N, B
max
, A
cor e
and f ar e as defi ned above, J i s the cur r ent dens i ty (A/ s q. mm),
and A
cond
i s the coi l cr os s - s ecti onal ar ea (mm
2
) i n the cor e wi ndow; of the conducti ng
mater i al for pr i mar y wi ndi ng. J depends upon heat di s s i pati on and cool i ng.

S ampl e cal cul at i on

A 50 Hz tr ans for mer wi th 1000 tur ns on pr i mar y and 100 tur ns on s econdar y,
maxi mum fl ux dens i ty of 1.5 T es l a and cor e ar ea of 0.01 m
2
. J i s taken as 2
Amps ./S q. mm and Acond as 30 mm
2
for thi s i l l us tr ati on. Vol tage devel oped i s gi ven
by

I n pr i mar y wi ndi ng,

E
pr i mar y
= 4. 44 x f x Np x B
max
x A
cor e
,
= 4.44 X 50 X 1000 X 1.5 X 0.01
= 3330 Vol ts

6

E
s econdar y
= 4. 44 x f x Ns x B
max
x A
cor e
,
= 4.44 X 50 X 1000 X 1.5 X 0.01
= 333 Vol ts

Vol t- amper e capabi l i ty i s gi ven by the fol l owi ng :

Power r ati ng = 4. 44 x f x Np x B
max
x A
cor e
x J x A
cond
, X 0. 001 KVA.
= 4.44 X 50 X 1000 X 1.5 X 0.01 X 2 X 30 X 0.001
= 200 kVA appr oxi matel y.
Actual Rated KVA = Rated Vol tage X Rated Cur r ent X 10
- 3
for s i ngl e phas e
tr ans for mer s .
Rated KVA = V
-
3 X Rated Li ne Vol tage X Rated Li ne Cur r ent X 10
- 3
for thr ee phas e
tr ans for mer s .

2.2 L osses in T r ansf or mer s

T he l os s es i n a tr ans for mer ar e as under .

1. Di el ectr i c Los s
2. Hys ter es i s Los s es i n the Cor e
3. Eddy cur r ent l os s es i n the Cor e
4. Res i s ti ve Los s es i n the wi ndi ng conductor s
5. I ncr eas ed r es i s ti ve l os s es due to Eddy Cur r ent Los s es i n conductor s .
6. For oi l i mmer s ed tr ans for mer s , extr a eddy cur r ent l os s es i n the tank s tr uctur e.

Bas i c des cr i pti on of the factor s affecti ng thes e l os s es i s expl ai ned bel ow.

2.2.1 Di el ect r i c L osses

T hi s l os s occur s due to el ectr os tati c s tr es s r ever s al s i n the i ns ul ati on. I t i s r oughl y
pr opor ti onal to devel oped hi gh vol tage and the type and thi cknes s of i ns ul ati on. I t
var i es wi th fr equency. I t i s negl i gi bl y s mal l and i s r oughl y cons tant. ( Gener al l y
i gnor ed i n medi um vol tage tr ans for mer s whi l e computi ng effi ci ency ).

2.2.2 Hyst er i si s L oss

A sizeable contribution to no-load losses comes from hysteresis losses. Hysteresis
losses originate from the molecular magnetic domains in the core laminations, resisting
being magnetized and demagnetized by the alternating magnetic field.
Each ti me the magneti s i ng for ce pr oduced by the pr i mar y of a tr ans for mer changes
becaus e of the appl i ed ac vol tage, the domai ns r eal i gn thems el ves i n the di r ecti on of
the for ce. T he ener gy to accompl i s h thi s r eal i gnment of the magneti c domai ns comes
fr om the i nput power and i s not tr ans fer r ed to the s econdar y wi ndi ng. I t i s ther efor e a
l os s . Becaus e var i ous types of cor e mater i al s have di ffer ent magneti zi ng abi l i ti es , the
s el ecti on of cor e mater i al i s an i mpor tant factor i n r educi ng cor e l os s es .

Hys ter es i s i s a par t of cor e l os s . T hi s depends upon the ar ea of the magneti s i ng B- H
l oop and fr equency. Refer Fi g 2.3 for a typi cal BH Loop.

7

Fi g 2.3: B- H Loop: Ener gy i nput and r etr i eval whi l e i ncr eas i ng and decr eas i ng cur r ent.
Los s per hal f cycl e equal s hal f of the ar ea of Hys ter es i s Loop.

T he B- H l oop ar ea depends upon the type of cor e mater i al and maxi mum fl ux dens i ty.
I t i s thus dependent upon the maxi mum l i mi ts of fl ux excur s i ons i .e. Bmax, the type of
mater i al and fr equency. T ypi cal l y, thi s accounts for 50% of the cons tant cor e l os s es
for CRGO (Col d Rol l ed Gr ai n Or i ented)s heet s teel wi th nor mal des i gn pr acti ce.

Hys ter i s i s Los s es ,
1.6
m h h B f K W = Watts /Kg.

Wher e K
h
= T he hys ter i s i s cons tant
f = Fr equency i n Her tz
B
m
= Maxi mum fl ux dens i ty i n T es l a

2.2.3 Eddy Cur r ent L osses i n T he Cor e

T he al ter nati ng fl ux i nduces an EMF i n the bul k of the cor e pr opor ti onal to fl ux dens i ty
and fr equency. T he r es ul ti ng ci r cul ati ng cur r ents depends i nver s el y upon the r es i s ti vi ty
of the mater i al and di r ectl y upon the thi cknes s of the cor e. T he l os s es per uni t mas s of
cor e mater i al , thus var y wi th s quar e of the fl ux dens i ty, fr equency and thi cknes s of
the cor e l ami nati ons .

By us i ng a l ami nated cor e, (thi n s heets of s i l i con s teel i ns tead of a s ol i d cor e) the
path of the eddy cur r ent i s br oken up wi thout i ncr eas i ng the r el uctance of the
magneti c ci r cui t. Refer fi g 2.4 bel ow for a compar i s on of s ol i d i r on cor e and a
l ami nated i r on cor e.

Fi g. 2.4B s hows a s ol i d cor e, whi ch i s s pl i t up by l ami nati ons of thi cknes s d
1
and
depth d
2
as s hown i n C. T hi s i s s hown pi ctor i al l y i n 2.4 A.

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Fi g 2.4: Cor e l ami nati on to r educe eddy cur r ent l os s es

Eddy Los s es ,
2 2
m e e t f B K W
2
=
Watts /Kg.

Wher e K
e
= T he eddy cur r ent cons tant
f = Fr equency i n Her tz.
B
m
= Maxi mum fl ux dens i ty i n T es l a
t = T hi cknes s of l ami nati on s tr i ps .

For r educi ng eddy l os s es , hi gher r es i s ti vi ty cor e mater i al and thi nner (T ypi cal
thi cknes s of l ami nati ons i s 0.35 mm) l ami nati on of cor e ar e empl oyed. T hi s l os s
decr eas es ver y s l i ghtl y wi th i ncr eas e i n temper atur e. T hi s var i ati on i s ver y s mal l and i s
negl ected for al l pr acti cal pur pos es . Eddy l os s es contr i bute to about 50% of the cor e
l os s es .

2.2.4 R esi st i ve l osses i n t he wi ndi ngs

T hes e r epr es ent the mai n component of the l oad dependent or the var i abl e l os s es ,
des i gnated as I
2
R or copper l os s es . T hey var y as s quar e of the r .m.s cur r ent i n the
wi ndi ngs and di r ectl y wi th d.c. r es i s tance of wi ndi ng. T he r es i s tance i n tur n var i es wi th
the r es i s ti vi ty, the conductor di mens i ons ; and the temper atur e.

A
l
R

=

Wher e R = Wi ndi ng r es i s tance,
= Res i s ti vi ty i n Ohms - mm
2
/m.
l = Length of conductor i n metr es
A = Ar ea of cr os s s ecti on of the conductor , mm
2

I n addi ti on, thes e l os s es var y wi th wi ndi ng temper atur e and thus wi l l var y wi th the
extent of l oadi ng and method of cool i ng. T he wi ndi ng r es i s tance at a temper atur e T
L
i s
gi ven by the fol l owi ng equati on.

+
+
=
235
235
0
0
T
T
R R
L
L T he cons tant 235 i s for Copper . For Al umi ni um, us e 225 or
227 for Al l oyed Al umi ni um.

Wher e R
0
= Wi ndi ng r es i s tance at temper atur e T
0
,
R
L
= Wi ndi ng r es i s tance at temper atur e, T
L,

9
T he r .m.s val ue of cur r ent wi l l depend upon the l oad l evel and al s o the har moni c
di s tor ti on of the cur r ent.

2.2.5
Eddy Cur r ent L osses i n conduct or s:
Conductor s in tr ansfor mer windings ar e subj ected to alter nating leakage fluxes cr eated by
winding cur r ents. Leakage flux paths, which pass thr ough the cr oss section of the
conductor , induce voltages, which var y over the cr oss section. T hese var ying linkages ar e
due to self-linkage as also due to pr oximity of adj acent cur r ent car r ying conductor s. T hese
induced voltages, cr eate cir culating cur r ents within the conductor causing additional losses.
T hese losses ar e var ying as the squar e of the fr equency.
For an isolated conductor in space, the var ying self-linkage over the section, leads to
cluster ing of the cur r ent near the conductor per ipher y. T his is known as S kin Effect. T he
same effect, with the addition of flux fr om sur r ounding conductor s, (Pr oximity effect) leads
to extr a losses in thick conductor s for tr ansfor mer windings. T hese losses ar e ter med as
Eddy Cur r ent Losses in conductor s.
T he T est Cer tificate mentions the load losses, which include these eddy losses in conductor s
at supply fr equency (50 Her tz) as also the eddy losses in tank str uctur e in gener al at the
same fr equency in the case of oil cooled tr ansfor mer s. For dr y type tr ansfor mer s, tank
losses ar e absent.
T he contr ibution of eddy losses including tank losses, over the basic copper losses for an
equivalent D.C. cur r ent, can be estimated fr om the differ ence in measur ed load losses and
expected copper losses at the test cur r ent at the test temper atur e. For nor mal designs it
r anges fr om 5% to 15% . Detailed subdivision is available only fr om design data. I t can be
taken as 10% of load losses in the absence of specific design data. T hese extr a losses var y
with squar e of fr equency and squar e of per unit har monic cur r ent.
T he eddy losses in the tank str uctur e ar e equivalent to the dissipation in a loaded
secondar y with leakage r eactance. T he var iation is not as the squar e of fr equency, and it is
customar y to take a value of 0.8 for the exponent.
T he Eddy losses in a thick conductor can be r educed by decr easing the r adial thickness by
sectionalising the conductor s ( multi-str anded) and incr easing the axial dimension. T he
sectionalised conductor has to be tr ansposed to make it occupy all possible positions to
equalise the e.m.fs to the extent possible.
A simplified expression for eddy current losses in conductors is given below.

Fig 2.5 : Sectionalised transformer winding - Schematic

1

2

N-1

N
w
L L
C

W/N

10
T he total r adial thickness of conductor of W cm is subdivided into N par ts of W/N thickness
each. Ke is the r atio of the total losses including eddy loss, to the loss due to D.C. cur r ent.
Ke = ( )
2
4
9
1
N
N / W +
Wher e =
( )
L
Lc f

7
10 4
wher e 4 X 10
7
is per meability of space.
Wher e Lc = Axial length of coil.
L = Window Height
W = Radial total conductor width in metr es
W= Width per subdivision W/N in centimetr es.
= Resistivity, in Ohm-metr es
For Copper at 60C,
L
Lc
100 .
= 2 X 10
8
Ohm-metr es
I f W is in cm, W = W/100
Hence W/N
L
Lc
' w ,
4
is thus pr opor tional to f

2
.
As the number of subdivisions incr ease, W becomes smaller and Ke comes near er to 1; but
always above 1. For a given geometr y, eddy losses incr ease as squar e of fr equency.
I t is impor tant to tr anspose each layer so that each layer is connected in ser ies with a path
in each one of the possible N positions befor e being par alleled. T hus cir culating cur r ent is
for ced to flow in a r elatively ver y thin conductor .
2.2.6 Ext r a Eddy L osses i n S t r uct ur al Par t s
S ome leakage flux, invar iably goes in air paths away fr om the tr ansfor mer . S tr ength of this
str ay flux diminishes and var ies inver sely with distance. I f it links with any conducting
mater ial, it will pr oduce eddy losses in that mater ial. For oil immer sed tr ansfor mer s, some
str ay flux links with some par ts of the tank and causes extr a eddy cur r ent losses in the
str uctur e. T hese losses ar e absent in dr y type tr ansfor mer s.
S imilar ly, extr a flux due to outgoing L.T . conductor s car r ying lar ge cur r ents cause extr a
eddy cur r ent losses in the str uctur al por tion sur r ounding the leads.
Both these losses var y with fr equency
0.8
, as stated ear lier .

T he above discussion on tr ansfor mer losses is given only to gain familiar ity with the
fundamental pr inciples. T he most impor tant losses ar e cor e loss and copper loss. T he
other losses ar e descr ibed mainly to give a complete pictur e on losses.

11

3 T R A N S F O R M E R O P E R A T I O N
3.1 Var iat ion of losses dur ing oper at ion
T he losses var y dur ing the oper ation of a tr ansfor mer due to loading, voltage changes,
har monics and oper ating temper atur e.
3.1.1 Var i at i on of l osses wi t h l oadi ng l evel
% Efficiency =
Losses Output
Output
+
100

=
T P . L . L L . N . f . p rating kVA P
. f . p rating kVA P
+ +

2
1000
100 1000

Wher e,
P = Per unit loading
N.L. = No load losses in Watts
L.L. = Load losses in Watts at full load, at 75 C
T = T emper atur e cor r ection factor
p.f. = Load power factor

T he basic D.C. r esistance copper losses ar e assumed to be 90% of the load losses. Eddy
cur r ent losses ( in conductor s) ar e assumed to be 10% of the load losses. Basic I
2
R losses
incr ease with temper atur e, while eddy losses decr eases with incr ease in temper atur e. T hus,
90% of the load losses var y dir ectly with r ise in temper atur e and 10% of the load losses
var y inver sely with temper atur e. Calculations ar e usually done for an assumed temper atur e
r ise, and the r ise in temper atur e is dependant on the total losses to be dissipated.

Oper ating temper atur e = Ambient temper atur e + T emper atur e r ise

T o estimate the var iation in r esistance with temper atur e, which in tur n depends on the
loading of the tr ansfor mer , the following r elationship is used.

ref
rise amb
re T
op T
T F
T T F
f R
R
+
+ +
=

Wher e F= 234.5 for Copper ,
= 225 for Aluminium
= 227 for alloyed Aluminium
R
T -op
= Resistance at oper ating temper atur e
T
ref
= S tandar d r efer ence temper atur e, 75 C

T emper atur e cor r ection factor , T =
e temperatur reference at losses Load
e temperatur operating at losses Load

=
op T
ref T
ref T
op T
R
R
.
R
R
. 1 0 9 0
I f a mor e r ealistic subdivision of load losses is known fr om design data, the above
expr ession can be modified accor dingly.
I f oper ating temper atur e is 100 C,
75 5 234
100 5 234
+
+
=
.
.
f R
R
re T
op T
= 1.0808

12
Hence T = 0.9 x 1.0808 +0.1/1.0808 = 1.06523
3.1.2 Var i at i on i n Const ant l osses

T he i r on l os s meas ur ed by no l oad tes t i s cons tant for a gi ven appl i ed vol tage. T hes e
l os s es var y as the s quar e of the vol tage.

Var i at i on i n i r on l osses due t o syst em vol t age har moni cs: T he system input voltage
may contain voltage har monics due to aggr egate system pollution in the gr id. T he cur r ent
har monics of the local har monic load adds to this by causing additional har monic voltage
dr op depending upon magnitude of a par ticular har monic and the system shor t cir cuit
impedance at the point of supply, and the tr ansfor mer impedance for that specific har monic
fr equency. T he combined total har monics affect the flux wavefor m and give added ir on
losses. T he incr ease in constant loss is quite small, due to this voltage distor tion.
3.1.3 Var i at i on i n L oad L osses

About 90% of the l oad l os s es as meas ur ed by s hor t ci r cui t tes t ar e due to I
2
R l os s es i n
the wi ndi ngs . T hey var y wi th the s quar e of the cur r ent and al s o wi th wi ndi ng
temper atur e.
Load Los s es =
( )
+
+

ref
op
2
T F
T F
Load Full at Losses Load Loading Unit Per

F = T emper atur e coefficient = 234.5 for Copper and 227 for Aluminium.
T
ref
= 75 C usually, or as pr escr ibed in the test cer tificate
Var i at i on i n l oad l osses due t o l oad power f act or : Any r eduction in cur r ent for the
same kW load by impr ovement in p.f. r educes load losses.
Var i at i on i n l osses due t o cur r ent har moni cs: T he system cur r ent har monics incr ease
the r .m.s cur r ent and thus incr ease the basic I
2
R losses. I n addition, the maj or incr ease
comes fr om the var iation in eddy cur r ent losses in the windings (Usually 5 to 10% of the
total load losses), which var y with the squar e of the fr equency.
3.2 L oss Minimisat ion in Applicat ion & Oper at ion
T r ansfor mer s have a long life and do not gener ally suffer fr om technical obsolescence. T he
application details ar e not clear ly known dur ing selection and the load and the type of load
also changes with time. Hence tr ansfor mer r ating is likely to be over -specified. However ,
this is gener ally not a disadvantage fr om the view point of ener gy consumption. T he usual
best efficiency point is near 50% load.
3.2.1 S el ect i on of R at i ng and Number of T r ansf or mer s
I n gener al, selection of only one tr ansfor mer of lar ge r ating gives maximum efficiency and
simpler installation. For lar ge plants with long in plant distances, two or mor e tr ansfor mer s
of equal r ating may be selected. Mor eover for cr itical continuous oper ation plants, power
may be had fr om two independent feeder s at similar or differ ent voltage levels. I n all such
cases, each tr ansfor mer may be sufficient to r un the plant. T hus nor mal oper ation may be
at 50% load. S uch a situation can lead to lower than 25% load at times. For non-
continuous oper ation of plants with holidays or seasonal industr ies, switching off one
tr ansfor mer to save par t load losses is gener ally consider ed.
Planning for gr owth of loads and addition of non linear loads is becoming incr easingly
impor tant. T he factor s to be consider ed ar e:

13
Expected gr owth of load over ar ound five to ten year s
Mar gin for minimum 15 to 20% gr owth
10 to 15% mar gin for non-linear loads
Availability of standar d r ating
Gener ally, 30 to 50% excess capacity, r educes load losses, but the extr a fir st cost is r ar ely
j ustified by ener gy saving alone. On the contr ar y, a close r ealistic estimate per mits extr a
fir st cost on a smaller tr ansfor mer designed on the basis of Least T otal Owner ship Cost (
T OC) basis. Economic evaluation of tr ansfor mer s is discussed in chapter 5.
For nonlinear loads, tr ansfor mer s with minimum eddy losses in total load loss is pr efer r ed.
T r ansfor mer losses may be specified at a standar d r efer ence temper atur e of 75 C. T hey
have to be cor r ected to expected site oper ating temper atur e. Basic I
2
R losses incr ease with
temper atur e, while eddy losses decr ease with incr ease in temper atur e.
For nonlinear loads, the der ating factor may be wor ked out taking a K-factor of 20. Details
of K factor evaluation is given in section 3.4 of this chapter . T his will need der ating of 12%
for 10% nonlinear load to about 27% for 40% nonlinear load.
T he load factor affects the load losses mater ially and an estimate of annual r .m.s. load
cur r ent value is useful.
T r ansfor mer s with r elatively low no load losses( Amor phous Cor e T ype) will maintain good
efficiency at ver y low loads and will help in cases wher e high gr owth is expected, but r isk of
slow gr owth is to be minimised.
3.2.2 Ener gy S avi ng by Under -ut i l i sat i on of t r ansf or mer s
T able 3.1 summar ises the var iation in losses and efficiency for a 100 kVA tr ansfor mer and
also shows the differ ence in losses by using a 1600 kVA tr ansfor mer for the same. T he
1000 kVA tr ansfor mer has a no load loss of 1700 watts and load loss of 10500 Watts at
100% load. T he cor r esponding figur es for 1600 kVA tr ansfor mer ar e 2600 Watts and 17000
Watts r espectively. Loading is by linear loads. T emper atur es assumed equal.
T able 3.1: Compar ison of tr ansfor mer losses
1000 kVA,
No l oad l osses = 1700 W
1600 kVA.
No l oad l osses =
2600 W
Di f f er ence
i n l osses,
W
Per
uni t
l oad
L oad
l osses,
W
T ot al
l osses,
W
Out put ,
kW
Ef f i ci ency,
%
L oad
l osses,
W
T ot al
l osses,
W

0.1 105 1805 100 98.23 60 2660 861
0.2 420 2120 200 98.95 265 2865 745
0.3 945 2645 300 99.13 597 3197 552
0.4 1680 3380 400 99.16 1062 3662 282
0.5 2625 4325 500 99.14 1660 4267 -58
0.6 3780 5480 600 99.09 2390 4990 -490
0.7 5145 6845 700 99.03 3258 5853 -992
0.8 6720 8420 800 98.96 4250 6850 -1570
0.9 8505 10205 900 98.88 5379 7979 -2226
1.0 10500 12200 1000 98.78 6640 9240 -2960

T he efficiency of 1000 kVA tr ansfor mer is maximum at about 40% load.Using a 1600 kVA
tr ansfor mer causes under loading for 1000 kW load. T he last column shows the extr a power
loss due to over sized tr ansfor mer . As expected, at light loads, ther e is extr a loss due to

14
dominance of no load losses. Beyond 50% load, ther e is saving which is 2.96 kW at 1000
kW load.
T he saving by using a 1600 kVA tr ansfor mer in place of a 1000 kVA tr ansfor mer at 1000
kW load for 8760 hour s/annum is 25960 kWh/year . @Rs 5.0 /kWh ,this is wor th Rs 1.29
lakhs. T he extr a fir st cost would be ar ound Rs 15.0 lakhs. Hence deliber ate over sizing is not
economically viable.
3.2.3 R educt i on of l osses due t o i mpr ovement of power f act or

T r ansfor mer load losses var y as squar e of cur r ent. I ndustr ial power factor var y fr om 0.6 to
0.8. T hus the loads tend to dr aw 60% to 25% excess cur r ent due to poor power factor . For
the same kW load, cur r ent dr awn is pr opor tional to KW/pf. I f p.f. is impr oved to unity at
load end or tr ansfor mer secondar y, the saving in load losses is as under .
S aving in load losses
= (Per unit loading as per kW)
2
X Load losses at full load X
,
_
1
]
1
1
1
2
pf

T hus , if p.f is 0.8 and it is impr oved to unity, the saving will be 56.25% over existing level
of load losses. T his is a r elatively simple oppor tunity to make the most of the existing
tr ansfor mer and it should not be missed. I t should also be kept in mind that cor r ection of
p.f downstr eam saves on cable losses, which may be almost twice in value compar ed to
tr ansfor mer losses.
3.2.4 S egr egat i on of nonl i near l oads

I n new installations, non-linear loads should be segr egated fr om linear loads. Apar t fr om
ease of separ ation and monitor ing of har monics, it can be supplied fr om a tr ansfor mer
which is specially designed for handling har monics. T he pr opagation of har monics can be
contr olled much mor e easily and pr oblems can be confined to known networ k. Per haps a
smaller than usual tr ansfor mer will help in coor dinating shor t cir cuit pr otection for networ k
as well as active devices. T he only disadvantage apar t fr om additional cost is the incr eased
inter dependence of sensitive loads.
3.3 Ef f ect of oper at ing t emper at ur e
T he losses have to be dissipated thr ough the sur face ar ea. When the tr ansfor mer volume
incr eases, the r atio of sur face ar ea to volume r educes. T hus, lar ger tr ansfor mer s ar e
difficult to cool. Oil cooling uses a liquid insulating medium for heat tr ansfer . I n cold
countr ies the ambient temper atur e is lower , giving a lower oper ating temper atur e. I n
tr opical countr ies, ambient temper atur e is higher giving a higher oper ating temper atur e.
Oil cooled tr ansfor mer s oper ate at lower temper atur es compar ed to dr y type tr ansfor mer s.
Ever y 1C r ise in oper ating temper atur e gives about 0.4% r ise in load losses. A r efer ence
temper atur e of 75 C is selected for expr essing the losses r efer r ed to a standar d
temper atur e. T he oper ating temper atur e limit is decided by the type of insulation used and
the difficulties of cooling. T his gives an additional factor for compar ing losses dur ing design.
Higher temper atur e per mits r eduction in mater ial content and fir st cost. Oper ating
temper atur e beyond the limits pr escr ibed for the insulation, r educes life expectancy
mater ially.
Oil cooled tr ansfor mer s oper ate at lower temper atur es compar ed to dr y type tr ansfor mer s.

15
3.4 Assessing t he ef f ect s of Har monics
Load loss per for mance of a design or an installed tr ansfor mer with known data can be done
if the levels of har monic cur r ent ar e known or estimated.
I EC 61378-1 T r ansfor mer s for I ndustr ial Applications gives a gener al expr ession for
estimating load losses for loads with har monics. T his standar d is specifically meant for
tr ansfor mer s and r eactor s which ar e an integr al par t of conver ter s. I t is not meant for
power distr ibution tr ansfor mer s. T he method is applicable for estimation in power
distr ibution tr ansfor mer s. I t can be used for oil cooled tr ansfor mer s or dr y type
tr ansfor mer s.
T he alter native appr oaches for power distr ibution tr ansfor mer s using K-Factor and Factor -K
ar e given later .
As per I EC 61378-1 the total load losses with cur r ent har monics ar e given as under
( )
1
1
]
1

,
_
+ +
1
1
]
1

,
_
+
,
_

n
1
0.8
2
1
h
SE1 CE1
n
1
2
2
1
h
WE1
2
1
L
DC1 T h
I
I
P P h
I
I
P
I
I
P P
Wher e T P = T otal load losses and his the or der of the har monic.
2
1
2 2
n
n L I I
P
DC1
= Basic copper losses for fundamental fr equency
P
WE1
= Winding eddy losses for fundamental
P
CE1
= Eddy losses in str uctur al par ts due to cur r ent leads for fundamental
P
SE1
= Eddy losses in str uctur al par ts for fundamental
I
n
= Cur r ent for har monic or der n
I
1
= Fundamental cur r ent
P
CE1
and P
SE1
ar e not applicable to dr y type tr ansfor mer s
3.4.1 U.S . Pr act i ce K- F act or
T he K-Factor r ating assigned to a tr ansfor mer and mar ked on the tr ansfor mer case in
accor dance with the listing of Under wr iter s Labor ator ies, is an index of the tr ansfor mer ' s
ability to supply har monic content in its load cur r ent while r emaining within its oper ating
temper atur e limits.
T he K-Factor is the r atio of eddy cur r ent losses when supplying non-linear loads as
compar ed to losses while supplying linear loads. I n U.S ., dr y type of tr ansfor mer s ar e used
in maj or ity of applications.
2
2
1
2
n . I k
n
n

I
n
= Per unit har monic cur r ent , and n = Or der of har monic.
For specification in gener al, the U.S . pr actice is to estimate the K Factor which gives
r eady r efer ence r atio K for eddy losses while supplying non-linear loads as compar ed to
linear loads.
K = 1 for Res i s tance heati ng motor s , di s tr i buti on tr ans for mer s etc.

16
K = 4 for wel der s I nducti on heater s , Fl uor es cent l i ghts
K = 13 For T el ecommuni cati on equi pment.
K = 20 For mai n fr ame computer s , var i abl e s peed dr i ves and des ktop computer s .
T he eddy l os s es i n conductor s , ar e as s umed to var y as ( )
2
2
n
I
In
wher e I i s the total
r .m.s . cur r ent and i s as s umed to be 100 % i .e. r ated val ue.

( )
2 2
2
2
1 n I .... I I I + + + = wher e I
1
i s taken as 1. Now, s i nce I i s defi ned, l os s
var i ati on i s taken as ( )
2
2
n
I
In
i ncl udi ng fundamental .

K i s r ati o of Eddy l os s es at 100 % cur r ent wi th har moni cs and Eddy l os s es at 100 %
cur r ent wi th fundamental .

K = ( )
( )
2
2
1 1
2
2
1
1
=
I / I
n
I
I
n
n
n

K = ( )
2
2
1
n
I
I
n
n
n
=

T he K- Factor i s us ed di r ectl y to s peci fy tr ans for mer s for a gi ven duty. T he total l os s es ,
i f needed can be es ti mated at any X

% l oadi ng as under i f the contr i buti on of eddy
l os s es i n l oad l os s es at fundamental fr equency tes t i s known fr om des i gn; or as s umed
typi cal l y as 10 % . Copper l os s es ar e then as s umed to be the bal ance 90 % .
T otal l oad l os s es at 100 % l oad = (0.9 + 0.1 x K )

I f K = 11, eddy l os s es at 100% l oad wi th thi s har moni c patter n ar e 11 ti mes the eddy
l os s es at fundamental .

T otal l oad l os s es at 100% l oad = 0.9 + 1.1 = 2
T otal l oad l os s es at x %
l oad =
x
2
x 2.

I f total l oad l os s es ar e as s umed to be 100% or 1 for s ame temper atur e r i s e, then
x
2
= 1/K = 1/2. x
= 1/K
0.5
or 70.7 % . T hus the tr ans for mer can wor k at 70% of
i ts r ated l oad cur r ent s peci fi ed for l i near l oads .

A s ampl e K- factor cal cul ati on i s gi ven for a gi ven s et of har moni c meas ur ements ,
bas ed on the above r el ati ons hi ps .

17
T able 3-2: Estimation for K factor
Har moni c
No.
RMS
Cur r ent
I
n
/I
1
(I
n
/I
1
)
2
(I
n
/I ) (I
n
/I )
2
(I
n
/I )
2
xn
2

1 1 1 1 0.6761 0.4571 0.4571
3 0.82 0.82 0.6724 0.5544 0.3073 2.7663
5 0.58 0.58 0.3364 0.3921 0.1538 3.8444
7 0.38 0.38 0.1444 0.2569 0.0660 3.2344
9 0.18 0.18 0.0324 0.1217 0.0148 1.2000
11 0.045 0.045 0.0020 0.0304 0.0009 0.1120

T otal r .m.s 1.479
S um 2.1876 11.6138

I
r .m.s . =

2.1876 = 1.479 = I . K- Factor i s gi ven by l as t col umn.
K factor = 11.618

A K13 r ated tr ans for mer i s r ecommended for thi s l oad.

3.4.2 Eur opean Pr act i ce- F act or K

T he Eur opean pr acti ce as defi ned i n BS 7821 Par t 4 and HD 538.3.S 1 defi nes a
der ati ng factor for a gi ven tr ans for mer by a Factor - K.

K =
0.5
N
2 n
2
1
n q
2
1
I
I
n
I
I
e 1
e
1
1
1
]
1
,
_

,
_
+
+

+

e = Eddy cur r ent l os s at fundamental fr equency di vi ded by l os s due to a D.C.
cur r ent equal to the r .m.s . val ue of the s i nus oi dal cur r ent.
I
n
= magni tude of nth har moni c cur r ent.
q = Exponenti al cons tant dependent on type of wi ndi ng and fr equency
= 1.7 for r ound / r ectangul ar s ecti on
= 1.5 for foi l type l ow vol tage wi ndi ng.
I = R.M.S . val ue of the cur r ent i ncl udi ng al l har moni cs
=
5 0
1
2
.
N n
n
n
I
,
_

T he obj ective is to estimate the total load losses at 100% cur r ent, when that cur r ent
contains har monics. T he base cur r ent is thus I the r .m.s. cur r ent which is 100% . T his is
equal to the r ated cur r ent at which the load losses ar e measur ed at fundamental fr equency.
T he basic copper losses var y as the squar e of the r .m.s. cur r ent and hence ar e equal to the
measur ed losses at fundamental fr equency.
T otal load losses at fundamental ar e taken as unity i.e. 1.
1 = I
2
R + Eddy Losses, Eddy Losses = e x I
2
R losses.
1 = I
2
R ( 1 + e )
Eddy Losses as a fr action of total load losses = e x I
2
R / I
2
R( 1 + e ) = e / 1 + e
Eddy Losses at I ( 100% ) = (e / 1 + e ) x
n= 1
( I
n
/ I )
2
x n
q

S ince har monics ar e expr essed as fr actions of fundamental,
Eddy Losses =
( )
+ + +

,
_

,
_
+
n
n
q
n
q q
I
n I ... I I
I
I
e
e
1
1
3 1
2
1
2
2 2 2
3 1
1

18
=
( )
+ + +
+
+

+ =
n
n n
q
n
q q
I
n I ... I I
I
I
e
e
2
1
3 1
2
1
2
2 2 2
3 1
1
1

I = I
1
2
+ I
H
2
wher e I
H
2
equals the sum of squar es for har monics, but excluding
fundamental.

T otal losses =
( ) q
n
n n
n H
H
n
I
I
I
I
e
e
I
I
e
e
I
I I
e
e
R I
+
+
+
+

+ =
2
2
1
2
1
2
2
2
2 2
1 2
1 1 1

I f the ter m for I
H
2
is neglected, ther e is an er r or on safe side with a total deviation of only
2% to 4% depending upon I
H
, since e/ 1+ e itself is about 9% to 10% of total losses at
fundamental. T he addition to eddy losses may be 10 to 15 times due to har monics. T he
fir st two ter ms equal the total losses at fundamental and thus equals 1.T he Factor K is
taken as the squar e r oot of total losses. T he expr ession thus simplifies to the for m stated
ear lier . T he summation ter m is for n > 1 and thus cover s har monics only.
At X % load, Load Losses = X
2
K
2
and since new load losses should be equal to 1,
X= 1/K .

T ypi cal cal cul ati on (taki ng q as 1.7 and as s umi ng that eddy cur r ent l os s at
fundamental as 10% of r es i s ti ve l os s i .e. e= 0.1) i s gi ven bel ow.

T able 3-1: estimation of Factor K
Har moni c No. RMS Cur r ent I
n
/I
1
(I
n
/I
1
)
2
n
q
n
q
(I
n
/I )
2

1 1 1 1 1 1
3 0.82 0.82 0.6724 6.473 4.3525
5 0.58 0.58 0.3364 15.426 5.1893
7 0.38 0.38 0.1444 27.332 3.9467
9 0.18 0.18 0.0324 41.900 1.3576
11 0.045 0.045 0.0020 58.934 0.1193

S um 2.1876 = 15.9653

I
r .m.s .
= 2.1876 = 1.457.
K
2
= 1 + (0.1/ 1.1) x ( 1/1.457)
2
x ( 15.9653 1 ) = 1.641
K = 1.28

T r ans for mer der ati ng factor = 1/K = 1/1.28 x 100 = 78.06%

19

4 R E D U CT I O N O F L O S S E S A T D E S I G N S T A G E
4.1 I nt r oduct ion
T he design appr oaches for r eduction of losses ar e well known and pr oven. T hey consists of
1. Using mor e mater ial
2. Better mater ial
3. New Mater ial
4. I mpr oved distr ibution of mater ials
5. I mpr ovement in cooling medium and methods
Each design tr ies to achieve desir ed specifications with minimum cost of mater ials or
minimum weight or volume or minimum over all cost of owner ship. Wor ldwide, mor e and
mor e consumer s ar e now pur chasing tr ansfor mer s based on the total owner ship costs, than
j ust the fir st cost.
4.2 Minimising I r on L osses
T he evolution of mater ials used in tr ansfor mer cor e is summar ised below.
YEAR
(appr ox.)
CORE MAT ERI AL T HI CKNES S
(mm)
Los s
(W/kg at 50Hz)
1910 War m r ol l ed FeS i 0.35 2 (1.5T )
1950 Col d r ol l ed CRGO 0.35 1 (1.5T )
1960 Col d r ol l ed CRGO 0.3 0.9 (1.5T )
1975 Amor phous metal 0.03 0.2 (1.3T )

T her e ar e two impor tant cor e mater ials ar e used in tr ansfor mer manufactur ing. Amor phous
metal and CRGO. I t can be seen that losses in amor phous metal cor e is less than 25% of
that in CRGO. T his mater ial gives high per meability and is available in ver y thin for mations (
like r ibbons) r esulting in much less cor e losses than CRGO.
T he tr ade off between the both types is inter esting. T he use of higher flux densities in CRGO
(upto 1.5 T ) r esults in higher cor e losses; however , less amount of copper winding is
r equir ed, as the volume of cor e is less. T his r educes the copper losses.
I n amor phous cor e, the flux density is less and thinner laminations also helps in r educing
cor e losses. However , ther e is r elatively a lar ger volume to be dealt with, r esulting in longer
tur ns of winding, i.e higher r esistance r esulting in mor e copper losses. T hus ir on losses
depend upon the mater ial and flux density selected, but affect also the copper losses.
I t becomes clear that a figur e for total losses can be compar ed while evaluating oper ating
cost of the tr ansfor mer s. T he total oper ating cost due to losses and total investment cost
for ms the basis of T otal Owner ship Cost of a tr ansfor mer .
4.3 Minimising Copper losses
T he maj or por tion of copper losses ar e I
2
R losses. Using a thicker section of the conductor
i.e. selecting a lower cur r ent density can r educe the basic I 2R losses. However , an ar bitr ar y
incr ease in thickness can incr ease eddy cur r ent losses. I n gener al, decr easing r adial thickness
by sectionalisation leads to r eduction in eddy cur r ent losses. A pr oper ly configur ed foil

20
winding is useful in this context. T he designer has to take car e of the pr oper buildup of tur ns
with tr ansposition and also take car e of the mechanical str ength to sustain shor t cir cuit in
addition to needed insulation and sur ge voltage distr ibution.
All the same, designer s can always tr y to get minimum basic I
2
R and minimum eddy cur r ent
losses for a given design and specified har monic loading.

21

5 E CO N O M I C A N A L Y S I S


For any investment decision, the cost of capital has to be weighed against the cost/benefits
accr ued. Benefits may be in cash or kind, tangible or intangible and immediate or defer r ed. T he
benefits will have to be conver ted into their equivalent money value and defer r ed benefits have to
be conver ted into their pr esent wor th in money value for a pr oper evaluation. S imilar ly , futur e
expenses have to be accounted for .
T he cost of capital is r eckoned as the r ate of inter est, wher e as the pur chasing power of the
cur r ency measur ed against commodities deter mines the r elative value of money in a given
economic domain. T hus inter est r ates incr eases value of capital wher e as inflation degr ades the
value of capital.
T he defer r ed monetar y gains/expenses ar e expr essed in ter ms of their pr esent wor th( PW). I f Rs
90.91 is invested at an annual inter est of 10% , it will yield 90.91x (1+10/100) = Rs 100/- at the
end of one year . Hence the pr esent wor th of Rs 100 after one year is Rs 90.91/- , if the annual r ate
of inter est is 10% .
PW =
a i
i
a
n
+
+
1
1
1
wher e PW is pr esent wor th.
a = per unit inflation index, annual
i = per unit inter est r ate
n = number of year s
Pur chase of a tr ansfor mer involves fir st cost and subsequent payment of ener gy char ges dur ing a
given per iod. T he effective fir st cost or the total owner ship cost can be had by adding the pr esent
wor th of futur e ener gy char ges. T he T OC
EFC
i.e. . T otal Owner ship Cost: - Effective Fir st Cost adds
an appr opr iate amount to account for ener gy expenses and shows a better measur e of compar ing
an equipment with higher fir st cost, but having a higher efficiency and thus lower r unning char ges.
T he concept of evaluation can be applied to tr ansfor mer s with the assumptions that the annual
losses and the load level r emain steady at an equivalent annual value, the tar iff is constant and the
r ates of inflation and inter est ar e constant. T hese assumptions have obvious limitations, but the
T OC
EFC
concept is widely used method for evaluation. T he per iod of n year s may be 10 to 15
year s. T he longer the per iod, gr eater the uncer tainty. Gener ally, n will be r oughly equal to the
economic life of the equipment gover ned by the technical obsolescence, physical life and
per ceptions of r etur n of capital of the agency making the investment decision.

5.2 T ot al Owner ship cost of t r ansf or mer s

T OC
EFC
= Pr i ce + Cost of Cor e l oss + Cost of L oad l oss
Cost of cor e l oss
EFC = A X Cor e loss in Watts
Cost of L oad l oss
EFC
= B X Load loss in Watts
Wher e A = Equivalent fir st cost of No load losses, Rs/Watt

22
=
1000
HPY EL PW

PW = Pr esent wor th, explained in pr evious section 5.1
EL = Cost of electr icity, Rs/ Kwh, to the owner of the tr ansfor mer
HPY = Hour s of oper ation per year
B = Equivalent fir st cost of load losses
= T p A
2

P = Per Unit load on tr ansfor mer
T = T emper atur e cor r ection factor , details of calculation given in section 3.1.1.

5.3 Decisions f or changeover t o new equipment

I n this case ther e is an added cost of the existing wor king equipment. T he value left in a wor king
equipment can be evaluated either by its technical wor th, taking its left over life into consider ation
or by the economic evaluation by its depr eciated value as per convenience. For tr ansfor mer s, the
pr ediction of life is ver y difficult due to var ying oper ating par ameter s. Mor eover , for any equipment,
ther e is a salvage value, which can be taken as equivalent immediate r etur ns.
T hus T OC
EFC = ( Pr esent depr eciated effective cost of old equipment S alvage value ) + A X Cor e
loss + B X Load loss

23

6 CA S E S T U D I E S


Five case studies ar e pr esented fr om Eur opean data as pr esented in the publication Ener gy
S aving in I ndustr ial Distr ibution T r ansfor mer s Fr om KEMA, Nether lands. One case st udy
fr om I ndian industr y is given.
T he cas e s tudi es fr om KEMA, as s ume ful l detai l s of No Load Los s and Load Los s as wel l
as por ti on of Eddy Los s es i n Load Los s as bei ng avai l abl e fr om tr ans for mer
manufactur er or fr om r el evant s tandar d. No tes ts ar e conducted at s i te.

T he har moni c content of the l oad i s gi ven for each typi cal appl i cati on. T he appl i cabi l i ty
of Low Los s des i gns i n each r ati ng i s anal ys ed and payback per i od i s found out. T he
cas e s tudi es al s o gi ve the ener gy s avi ng gai ns i n ter ms of r educti on i n car bon di oxi de
(Co2) emi s s i on. T he l i kel y penal ty/gai n per T on of Co2 i n monetar y ter ms ar e taken as
0.3 kg/kWh to 0.6 kg/kWh wi th a cos t r angi ng fr om Eur o 10 to Eur o 33/ ton. T hi s gi ves
a monetar y factor of 0.003 Eur o/ kWh to 0.02 Eur o/kWh. T he ener gy pr i ce i s taken as
0.04 Eur o/kWh. T hus Co2 cos t can be 15 % to 50 % of Ener gy cos t. T hi s factor
however i s not appl i cabl e for payback and i t i s thus not cons i der ed for payback i n the
tabl es pr es ented.

T he payback i s cons i der ed for extr a pr i ce to be pai d for the l ow l os s tr ans for mer and i t
i s ar ound 2 to 3 year s . T he Load Los s fi gur es gi ven i n the tabl es gi ve the Load Los s es
cons i der i ng the har moni cs i n the l oad. I n the fi r s t cas e s tudy, the factor for enhanced
eddy l os s es i n the fi r s t l oad l os s i s s hown for i l l us tr ati on onl y for i l l us tr ati ng r ough or der
of val ues . Al l s tudi es ar e pr es ented i n the year 2002.

6.2 Case St udy 1

T he cas e s tudy cons i der s a l ar ge company i n the I r on and S teel s ector . T he aver age
l oadi ng i s 400 MW out of whi ch about 60 MW i s thr ough H.T . uti l i zati on by H.T . Motor s .
T he r emai ni ng 340 MW i s thr ough di s tr i buti on tr ans for mer s . Load i s cons tant dur i ng 24
hour s a day, 7 days a week. T r ans for mer r ati ngs var y fr om 800 kVA to 4800 kVA.
T her e ar e about 400 T r ans for mer s . About 200 Nos . ar e of 1250 kVA, and about 100
Nos . of 1600 kVA whi l e the r emai ni ng 100 Number s ar e of di ffer ent r ati ngs . Mos t of the
tr ans for mer s ar e r epl aced between 1982 to 1990. Al mos t al l the tr ans for mer s ar e of
Dr y T ype due to pr obl ems faced i n the ear l i er oi l cool ed tr ans for mer s .

T he company follows the total owner ship cost (T OC) concept and has used A and B figur es
of EUR 2.27/W for no load losses and EUR 1.63/W for load losses.
T he compar ative figur es ar e given for 1250 kVA tr ansfor mer s.
T abl e 5.1 i nput data 1250 kV tr ans for mer
T r ans for mer l oad 65% (cons tant l oad, 24/24h) wi th 6 pul s e har moni cs
Economi c l i feti me 10 year s
I nter es t r ate 7%
Ener gy pr i ce EUR 40/MWh
Har moni c s pectr um 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25
% 100 0 29 11 0 6 5 0 3 3 0 2 2
A (no- l oad l os s eval uati on) EUR 2,46 /W
B (l oad l os s eval uati on) EUR 1,04 /W

24

6.2.1 I l l ust r at i ve cal cul at i ons:
I nfl ati on i s not cons i der ed and hence the pr es ent wor th expr es s i on i s s i mpl i fi ed us i ng a
= zer o.

Pr es ent wor th =
( ) ( )
( )
n
n n
n
i i
i
i
i
a i
i
a
+
+
=
+
+
+
1
1 1 1
1
1
1
1
1

I nter es t Rate 7 % i .e. 0.07 per uni t. Per i od i s 10 year s

( )
( )
0236 . 7
07 . 1 07 . 0
1 07 . 0 1
10
10
=
+
=
w
P

EL = 0.04 EUR/kWh
Watt / . EUR
EL Pw
A 46 2
1000
8760
=

=

B = A x P
2
x T ,

P = 65 % , i .e. 0.65,
T = 1

B = 2.46 x 0.65 x 0.65
= 1.039
= EUR 1.04/watt

6.2.2 F act or f or Har moni cs
Factor for eddy l os s es ( )
=
=
=
n h
h
h
h
I
I
1
2
2
1

I f har moni cs ar e abs ent, thi s factor i s one, T he tes ted l oad l os s es have eddy l os s es at
fundamental . I f data fr om des i gn i s avai l abl e for per centage of eddy l os s at
fundamental , i t s houl d be us ed i n the cal cul ati on. I n the abs ence of s peci fi c data,
copper l os s es due to I
2
R can be taken as 90 % and 10% of the s peci fi ed Load Los s es
can be attr i buted to eddy l os s es at fundamental fr equency.

T hus Load Los s es at fundamental fr equency = Load Los s es x [ p.u. l oadi ng]
2
x [ 0.9 +
(0.1) x 1]

T he Extr a addi ti on i s over and above eddy l os s es due to fundamental fr equency and
hence extr a har moni c factor

( )
=
=
=
n h
h
h
h
I
Ih
K
1
2
2
1
1
Or ( )
=
=
=
n h
h
h
h
I
Ih
K
3
2
2
1

For the gi ven s i x pul s e har moni cs , the fi fth has 29% val ue of the fundamental .

Hence ( ) 5 5 29 . 0
2
5
= K = 2.1025

25

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) 625 02 . 0 529 02 . 0 361 03 . 0
287 03 . 0 169 05 . 0 121 06 . 0 49 11 . 0 25 29 . 0
2 2 2
2 2 2 2 2
+ + +
+ + + + =
h
K

25 . 0 2116 . 0 3249 . 0 2601 . 0 4225 . 0 4356 . 0 5929 . 0 1025 . 2 + + + + + + + =
6001 . 4 =

T otal eddy l os s factor = 4.6001 + 1 = 5.6

6.2.3 Per cent age of Eddy L osses i n L oad L osses:

T he next s tep i s to eval uate ful l l oad l os s es wi th har moni c l oadi ng for the gi ven
tr ans for mer and al s o for the r el ati vel y l ow l os s tr ans for mer of s i mi l ar r ati ng bei ng
cons i der ed for r epl acement. T hi s r equi r es data on per centage of Eddy Los s es i n
conductor s i n the total Load Los s es for the exi s ti ng tr ans for mer and the near es t l ow
l os s s ubs ti tute. For 1250 kVA r ati ng, the exi s ti ng and new l ow l os s des i gn have
fol l owi ng data for the s ubdi vi s i on of eddy l os s es , the fi gur es ar e i nfer r ed fr om the fi nal
l oad l os s fi gur es gi ven i n the KEMA publ i cati on.

Exi s ti ng 1250 kVA Low Los s 1250 kVA

No Load 2400 W 2200 W
Rated Load Los s 9500 W 8200 W
As s umed % Copper Los s es 90.69% 90.69%
As s umed % Eddy Los s es 9.31 % 9.31%

6.2.4 F ul l l oad l osses f or Har moni c L oadi ng:

Exi s ti ng T r ans for mer :

Ful l l oad l oad l os s es on Har moni c Load = Rated l oad l oad l os s es on l i near l oads x [p.u.
Copper + K (p.u. Eddy l os s )]

= ( ) 093 . 0 6 . 5 9069 . 0 9500 +
= 42826 . 1 9500
= 47 . 13568 Or 13568 Watts

For S ugges ted Low Los s es tr ans for mer

Ful l l oad l oad l os s es = 8200 x 1.42826
= 11711.73 or 11712 watts .

I t can be noted that i nfer r ed di s tr i buti on i s ver y cl os e to as s umed di s tr i buti on of 90% and
10% . T hi s i s not al ways tr ue as can be s een fr om tabl es gi ven i n the annexur e.

For 1600 kVA tr ans for mer , the di s tr i buti on wor ks out to 88.68% copper l os s es and 11.32% for
eddy l os s es . For s i mi l ar har moni c l oad factor of 5.6 the mul ti pl i er comes to 1.5207. T hus r ated
ful l l oad l os s (Li near ) of 10000 w yi el ds a fi gur e of 10000 x 1.5207 = 15207 w. T he l ow l os s
s ubs ti tute has ful l l oad l os s (l i near ) = 9500 x 1.5207
= 14447 w

T he actual fi gur e s tated i s 14218 w. T hus a s l i ghtl y di ffer ent di s tr i buti on i s cons i der ed for the
l ow l os s s ubs ti tute. T he method thus i l l us tr ates the s teps to cal cul ate ful l l oad l os s (har moni c

26
l oads ) i f the di s tr i buti on i s known. I f des i gn data i s not avai l abl e, 90% and 10% s ubdi vi s i on can
gi ve a r eas onabl e val ue.

I nci dental l y i t s hows that due to har moni c l oads the ful l l oad l os s es have gone up by 42% i n
1250 kVA, and 52% i n 1600 kVA tr ans for mer .

T he needed der ati ng woul d be ( ) 839 . 0
42 . 1
1
= and ( ) 811 . 0
52 . 1
1
=

For 1250 kVA and 1600 kVA r es pecti vel y for har moni c l oadi ng. T he actual l oadi ng i s onl y 65%
and hence al l al ter nati ves cons i der ed ar e s afe fr om the vi ew poi nt of temper atur e r i s e.

6.2.5 R el at i ve economi cs f or l ow l oss t r ansf or mer s ( Al l Dr y t ype) f or 1250 kVA and 1600
kVA t r ansf or mer s.

T he data wor ked out for 1250 kVA and 1600 kVA ar e gi ven i n T abl e 5.2and T abl e 5.3.

T abl e 5.2 1250 kVA tr ans for mer
Uni t Dr y
t r ans f or mer
Dr y
t r ans f or mer ,
l ow l os s es
Di f f er ence
T r ans for mer r ati ng kVA 1250 1250
Rated no- l oad l os s W 2400 2200 - 200
Rated l oad l os s W 13568 11712 - 1856
T ot al annual l os s es kWh/ a 71241
62618
-8623
CO
2
emi s s i on @ 0,4
kg/ kWh
t on/ a
28,5 25,0 -3,5
Pur chas e pr i ce EUR 12250 13000 750
Pr es ent val ue no- l oad l os s EUR 5907 5414 - 493
Pr es ent val ue l oad l os s EUR 14108 12178 - 1930
Capi t al i s ed cos t s E UR 32265 30592 -1673
P ay back ( year s ) 2,2
I nt er nal r at e of r et ur n 45%

T abl e 5.4 1600 kVA tr ans for mer
Uni t Dr y
t r ans f or mer
Dr y t r ans f or mer ,
l ow l os s es
Di f f er ence
Rated l oad l os s W 15207 14218 - 989
T ot al annual l os s es kWh/
a
80809
76012
-4797
CO
2
emi s s i on @ 0,4
kg/ kWh
t on/ a
32,3 30,4 -1,9
Pr es ent val ue no- l oad
l os s
EUR 6891 6571 - 320
P ay B ack ( year s ) 2,8

27
Comment s :
T he fi gur es for 1250 kVA, exi s ti ng tr ans for mer ar e i l l us tr ated fi r s t.
Rated No Load Los s = 2400 w = 2.4 kW
Rated l oad l os s = 13568 W = 13.568 kW (ful l l oad)
Annual l os s es for 65% l oadi ng for 8760 hour s

= 2.4 x 8760 + 13.568 x 0.65 x 0.65 x 8760 kWh
= 21024 + 50216.5
= 71240.5 = 71241 kWh/annum.

Car bon Di oxi de emi s s i on at 0.4 kg/kWh = 71241 x 0.4
= 28496 kg
= 28.5 T ons /annum

Pur chas e Pr i ce i s gi ven as EUR 12250 (About Rs .673750)
Pr es ent val ue of nol oad l os s es 2.46 x 2400 = 5904
T aken as EUR 5907
Pr es ent val ue of Load Los s = 13568 x 1.04 = EUR 14110
T aken as EUR 14108
T otal Capi tal i s ed Cos t = EUR 32265

A s i mi l ar fi gur e for l ow l os s tr ans for mer i s EUR 30592

T hi s fi gur e favour s the l ow l os s type wi th an i ni ti al pur chas e pr i ce of EUR 13000 whi ch i s EUR
750 of added i nves tment.

Payback for extr a i nves tment of EUR 750:
T he l ow l os s tr ans for mer cons umes 62618 kWh/anni m, s avi ng ther eby 8623 kWh/annum.

T hus the annual s avi ng = EUR 0.04 x 8623
= EUR 345

S i mpl e payback = 17 . 2
345
750
= or 2.2 year s . (For about 6.12 % Extr a I nves tment)

I nter nal Rate of Retur n = 45
2 . 2
100
= % about.

A similar calculation for 1600 kVA shows a saving of 4797 kWh and a payback of 2.8 years for an
added investment of EUR 539 (about 3.73 % extra cost). IRR 34 %.

6.2.6 S ummar y:

1. Due to s omewhat hi gher l oad l os s fi gur es us ed for T OC dur i ng i ni ti al pur chas e, hi gher
i nves tments have been pr efer r ed. Hence i t i s not ver y attr acti ve to r epl ace exi s ti ng
tr ans for mer s by s cr appi ng.
2. I f a tr ans for mer i s to be r epl aced for any r eas on, the l ow l os s s ubs ti tutes s how an
attr acti ve payback of 2.2 to 2.8 year s .

T he total s avi ng potenti al for r epl aci ng ALL 400 tr ans for mer s i s gi ven bel ow i n T abl e _______.

T abl e 5.5 (Page34)

T he total s avi ng potenti al of 2939 Mwh/year i s equi val ent to EUR 117564/year and i s 0.084%
of the total cons umpti on of 3.5 x 10
6
Mwh/year .

28
6.3 Cas e S t udy-2: Non f er r ous met al sect or

I n a lar ge company in the non fer r ous metal sector , the total loading is about 190 MW. But
almost 180 MW ar e consumed thr ough dedicated high voltage tr ansfor mer s for electr olysis.
T he scope for distr ibution tr ansfor mer s is limited is only to 10 MW. Out of it, the load
var iation is about 45% dur ing 10 hour s, 35% dur ing 14 hour s.
T otal number of tr ansfor mer s is 25, wher ein a good number is at 1000 kVA. Excepting 3
new dr y type installed in 1999, most of the tr ansfor mer s ar e old(1965 to 1970). T he loss
patter n is
No load = 1900 Watts
Load loss = 10250 Watts
Calculations for 1000 kVA old tr ansfor mer with the loading patter n and 5 year s of life wit 7%
inter est r ate gives the A factor = EUR 1.44/watt
And B factor = EUR 0.24/Watt. Har monics ar e not consider ed.
S ince the loading is low, giving a ver y low B factor , dir ect r eplacement is not economically
viable. T able 5.5 summar ises the data for dr y tr ansfor mer s and oil cooled tr ansfor mer s for
futur e r eplacement.

T abl e 5.5 outcome 1000 kVA tr ans for mer
Uni t Dr y HD 538
t r ans f or mer
Oi l C-C
r ans f or mer
Di f f er ence
Rated l oad l os s W 8600 9500 900
T ot al annual l os s es kWh/ a 30336
23793
-6543
CO
2
emi s s i on @ 0,4
kg/ kWh
t on/ a
12,1 9,5 -2,6
Pur chas e pr i ce EUR 10074 8007 - 2067
Pr es ent val ue no- l oad
l os s
EUR 2873 1580 - 1293
Pr es ent val ue l oad l os s EUR 2102 2322 220
P ay back ( year s ) N/ A
I nt er nal r at e of r et ur n N/ A

I n this case, the oil tr ansfor mer has a lower fir st cost and also lower losses. Hence it is the
most favour ed choice and the r ate of r etur n is not applicable; since the low loss tr ansfor mer
also happens to have a lower fir st cost.
T able 5.6 summar ise the over all potential for the saving. T his is equal to EUR 6560 and
0.0099% of the total electr icity char ges because only a small fr action of the total load is
qualifying for calculation of savings.
T abl e 5.6 Annual s avi ngs potenti al
T r ans f or mer
s i z e
T ot al
number
E ner gy s avi ng
[ MWh]
CO
2
emi s s i on s avi ng
[ t onnes ]
1000 kVA 12 78,5 31,2
Other 13 85,1 33,8
T ot al 25 164 65

29
6.4 Case St udy-3: Paper & Pulp Company

A paper mill star ted fuctioning since 1978 and was expanded in 1986, the peak electr ical
loading is about 110 MW, out of which 72 MW ar e used at high voltage for HT motor s. T he
r emaining is distr ibuted with 52 tr ansfor mer s with r atings of 1000 kVA and 3150 kVA. T he
dominant number ( 28) ar e 3150 kVA tr ansfor mer s with LV of 690 Volts. Aver age loading is
65% . T he highlight of the case study is that in 1986, the company took special car e to select
tr ansfor mer s with low losses for long ter m gains. T hese tr ansfor mer s ar e better compar ed to
the low loss tr ansfor mer s available today.
T he case is pr esented for 3150 kVA tr ansfor mer for which the input data is given in table
5.7.
T abl e 5.7 : I nput data of 3150 kVA tr ans for mer
Transformer size 3150 kVA oil-type
T r ans f or mer l oad 65% dur i ng 24/24 hour s wi th 6
pul s e har moni cs
E conomi c l i f et i me 20 year s
I nt er es t r at e 7%
E ner gy pr i ce EUR 40/MWh
Har moni c s pect r um
6 pul s e accor di ng to I EC 146- 1- 1
A ( no-l oad l os s
eval uat i on)
EUR 3,71 /W
B ( l oad l os s eval uat i on) EUR 1,57 /W

T he compar ison of the 1986 low loss tr ansfor mer is made with the or iginal supply of 1978
based on the likely pr ices as pr evalent in 2002.
T he r esults ar e shown in table 5.8. I t is seen that even though 1986 tr ansfor mer is about
30% mor e expensive, it still gives lar ge savings with an inter nal r ate of r etur n of 33 % and
a payback per iod for extr a investment of 3 year s.
T abl e 5.8: Outcome of 3150 kVA tr ans for mer
Uni t Oi l 1978
t r ans f or mer
Oi l 1986
T r ans f or mer
Di f f er ence
Rated l oad l os s W 24500 16800 - 7700
T ot al annual l os s es kWh/
a
181908
135092
-46816
CO
2
emi s s i on @ 0,4
kg/ kWh
t on/ a
72,8 54,0 -18,8
Pr es ent val ue no- l oad l os s EUR 10654 11693 1039
P ay back ( year s ) 3,0

I t is estimated that the company is alr eady saving 46816 kWh/year due to these
tr ansfor mer s.

30
6.5 Cas e S t udy-4 Chemi cal I ndus t r y

I n the KEMA studies, it is obser ved that; despite var iations in the pr ocesses, common tr ends
ar e obser ved r egar ding electr ical installations. High r eliability r equir ements lead to r edundancy
in tr ansfor mer installations and a low aver age loading of about 40% . Based on the gener al
obser vations, a fictitious but r epr esentative case study is pr epar ed.
Aver age loading is 110 MW, out of which 40 MW ar e for electr olysis or H.V. motor s and thus
out of the pur view. Loading is continuous r ound the clock and loads ar e non-linear . A typical
r ating is 1250 KVA ( 60 out of 71 tr ansfor mer s ). T he r emaining tr ansfor mer s ar e 630, 1000
and 1600 KVA.
T he study compar es 1250 KVA HD538 tr ansfor mer and 1250 KVA low loss tr ansfor mer . Life
time is consider ed 5 year s and har monics ar e not consider ed. I nter est r ate is taken as 7% .
Ener gy pr ice EUR 50/MWH. A= EUR 1.8/W and B= EUR 0.29/W (40% loading ).
Highlights: For the chosen par ameter s, the differ ences ar e mar ginal. T he extr a cost of Low
Loss type is EUR 750 over EUR 12250, and payback is 4.2 year s with a r ate of r etur n of 6% .
T his is a case wher e the chosen par ameter s of lifetime, har monics etc. can significantly affect
the decision. I f the Low Loss type is chosen, the potential savings can be 214.4 MWH/yr .
Which can also mean savings in CO
2
emission of 85.8 T on.
6.6 Case St udy 5 Case of A L ar ge Dat a Hot el St ar t Up

T his is a high gr owth r ate business with computer s as a maj or load. T he star tup load
connection is typically 100 MW in the gr owth expectation of 200% to 300% r ise per year for a
few year s. T he economic life time is consider ed as only one year and inter est 7% . Figur es
assumed ar e 25% initial 24 Hr s. loading which r eaches 70% at the end of one year . Ener gy
at EUR 60/MWH, high har monic loading, A= EUR 0.52/W initial and also the same value for no
load losses. B= EUR 0.03/W initial and 0.24/W at the end of the year .
Highlights: T he study shows that due to selection of one year as economic life, the pr efer ence
is clear ly in favour of lowest fir st cost. I t is r evealed that compar ed to 1600 KVA Dr y type
nor mal and 1600 KVA low loss Dr y type, the cheapest would be an oilcooled CC type
tr ansfor mer . T he capitalised costs with har monics ar e EUR 16714, and 17132 (low loss )
r espectively initially. At the end of one year the figur es ar e EUR 22311 and 22366. T hus the
low loss tr ansfor mer is still not attr active. T her e is a net saving of 8222 KWH/year after one
year which equals about EUR 411. T he extr a pr ice of EUR 539 can not be r ecover ed in the
economic life pr escr ibed. T he oilcooled tr ansfor mer is a winner in the shor t r un, with a
capitalised cost for initial per iod as EUR 12951 including har monics.
Even for this tr ansfor mer , higher oper ating temper atur e due to har monics suggests a dr astic
decr ease in oper ating life fr om 30 year s to 6 year s. Even then the selected shor t economic life
span makes this choice viable, pr ovided the hot spot temper atur e is acceptable. By the same
consider ation a smaller r ating 1000 KVA tr ansfor mer gives a capital saving of 25% even
though it has an ener gy penalty.
I t is impor tant to note that the payback per iod is not affected by the choice of economic life
span, but the r elatively longer payback loses its significance due to shor t time investment
per ception. I n such a case, enfor cing minimum loss nor ms only can help. Alter natively the
investment in the tr ansfor mer can be made by the utility with a long ter m per ception to make
ener gy saving possible. T he utility can shift the tr ansfor mer later to a suitable load as needed.

31
6.7 Summar y of Eur opean Case St udies:

T her e is an inter esting summar y of the sensitivity of the payback per iod to input par ameter s.
T able 5.9 gives a summar y of effect of Low, Medium and High values of par ameter s on the
payback per iod. Loading and electr icity pr ice ar e two most impor tant factor s. Loading should
be car efully evaluated for a pr oper choice.
T abl e 5.9 Par ameter s ens i ti vi ty on the payback per i od
P ar amet er P ar amet er var i at i on P ayback t i me
( year s )
Uni t L M H L M H
Har moni c s pectr um None 12 pul s e 6 pul s e 3,3 3,1 2,7
El ectr i ci ty pr i ce EUR/MWh 40 60 80 4,5 3,1 2,4
CO2 emi s s i ons kg/kWh 0,3 0,4 0,6 3,2 3,1 3,0
CO2 cos ts EUR/tonne 0 10 33 3,3 3,1 2,7
Loadi ng pr ofi l e % 20 40 60 5,2 3,1 1,9
Economi c l i feti me year s 1 5 10 3,1 3,1 3,1
I nter es t % 5 7 9 3,1 3,1 3,1
Pur chas e pr i ce % 80 100 120 2,5 3,1 3,7

6.8 Case St udy: T ea I ndust r y ( I ndia)

Ener gy Audi t for T ea Factor i es maki ng C.T .C. T ea, managed by H/S C.W.S (I ndi a) Ltd.,
Di s tr i ct Coi mbator e. Audi t was conducted i n may 1990 for Mayur a and Par l ai T ea
factor i es . Power i s r ecei ved at 22 kV and 11 kV by s epar ate l i nes . T hi s i s s tepped down
by two 500 kVA T r ans for mer o 22 kV/433 V an 11 kV/433 V whi ch fee s egr egated l oads .

T he typi cal l os s fi gur es for 500 kVA tr ans for mer s ar e 1660 W for no l oad and 6900 W as
l oad l os s es for 100% l oad.

R ecommendat i on : Par al l el both tr ans for mer s for a total 500 kVA l oad on s econdar y
s i de and i n l ean s eas on and hol i days when the l oad i s 5% to bel ow 25% , cut off one
tr ans for mer on H.V. and H.V. s i des .

B r i ef Anal ys i s :

For total l oad of 500 kVA, T her e ar e thr ee opti ons .

a) Onl y one tr ans for mer takes ful l 500 KVA LOAD.
Los s es = 1.66 (No Load) + (500/500)
2
x 6.9 kW (l oad l os s es )

b) One tr ans for mer takes s egr egated 300 kVA whi l e s econd akes 200 kVA s egr egated
l oad.

Los s = 1.66 + (300/500)
2
x6.9 + 1.66 + (200/500)
2
x 6.9 kW

c) Both ar e par al l el ed to take 250 kVA each.

Los s = 2 (1.66 + (250/500)
2
x 6.9)kW = 6.77 kW.

T hus on maj or l oad, the l os s es ar e mi ni mum by par al l el i ng both tr ans for mer s .

32
Oper ati on at hi gher l oads dur i ng l eave s eas on :

a) T wo par al l el ed tr ans for mer s

Los s es = 2 [ 1. 66 + (0.25/2)
2
x 6.9} kW = 3.54 kW at 25% l oad
Los s es = 2 { (1.66) + (0.05/2)
2
x 6.9} kW = 3.33 kW at 5% l oad

b) Onl y one tr ans for mer i s ener gi zed

Los s es = 1.66 x (0.25)
2
x 6.9 = 2.09 kW at 25% l oad
Los s es = 1.66 x (0.05)
2
x 6.9 = 1.68 kw at 5% l oad

T hus l os s es ar e mi ni mum at l ow l oads us i ng onl y one tr ans for mer .

T he tar i ff was kVA of M.D. x Rs . 60 + Rs . 0.89 x kWh + Rs . 150 meter r ent.

T he total annual cons umpti on for the factor y was 1856479 kWh per year and the
el ectr i ci ty bi l l was Rs . 2038694 gi vi ng Rs . 1.0094/kWh as aver age cos t.

T he s avi ng by par al l el i ng and s wi tchi ng off one tr ans for mer wer e cons er vati vel y
es ti mated at a mi ni mum of 10000 kWh/year wi th no i nves tment gi vi ng a l i ttl e over Rs .
10000/year as a s avi ng. Power factor i mpr ovement was al r eady made but s ome s cope
for fur ther i mpr ovement was s ugges ted. T hi s woul d r educe M.D. and s ave on M.D.
char ges and al s o gi ve s avi ngs on tr ans for mer and cabl e l os s es .

33
APPENDIX-I: DATA REGARDING AVAILABLE DESIGNS

A.1 Data S our ce : T hi s data i s bas ed on the data gi ven i n the r efer ence vi z Ener gy
S avi ng i n I ndus tr i al Di s tr i buti on T r ans for mer s May 2002 by W.T .J. Hul s thor s t and J.F.
Gr oeman of KEMA Nether l ands .

T he data i s i ntended gi ve a bas i c feel about the l os s l evel s and di s tr i buti on for
di s tr i buti on tr ans for mer s and thei r r el ati ve cos ts /pr i ces ; as per cur r ent Eur opean
Pr acti ce.

T he pr i ces ar e for compar i s i on onl y but a gener al conver s i on factor of 1 Eur o = Rs . 55
i s cons i der ed whenever appl i cabl e.

T he ener gy pr i ce i s s tated to be r oughl y i n the r ange of 40 Eur o/Mwh i .e. 0.04
Eur o/kWh.

T abl e A1.
Data For T r ans for mer s Us ed I n T he Uti l i ti es

Data for Oi l i mmer s ed tr ans for mer s , 100 KVA to 1600 KVA us ed i n the uti l i ti es . AMDT
r efer s to Amor phous Cor e Dr y T ype.

Rati ng KVA 100 400 1600
HV KV 20 10 20
LV V 400 400 690
Los s -
Level
HD428 A- A C- C A
AMDT
C
AMDT
A- A A- A C- C C- C A
AMDT
C
AMDT
A- A A- A C- C C- C A
AMDT
C
AMDT
No- Load
Los s es
W 320 210 60 80 930 930 810 810 150 180 2.600 2.600 1.700 1.700 380 420
Load
Los s es
W 1.75
0
1.47
5
1.750 1.475 4.600 4.600 3.85
0
3.85
0
4600 3.850 14.00
0
14.00
0
17.00
0
1700
0
17.00
0
14.00
0
T otal
Mas s
Kg 520 650 740 770 1.190 1.200 1300 1400 1590 1750 3.300 3.240 3.370 9680 4.310 4550
Cor e
Mas s
Kg 150 220 220 225 435 440 450 540 570 600 1.100 1.210 1.200 1.460 1400 1.550
Fl ux
Dens i ty
T 183 1.45 1.35 1.35 1.83 1.84 1.85 1.6 1.35 1.35 1.84 1.84 1.7 1.6 1.35 1.35
Conduct
or
Mater i al
Cu/Al Cu Cu Cu Cu Cu Al Cu Al Cu Cu Cu Al Cu Al Cu Cu
Wi ndi ng
Mas s
Kg 85 115 130 155 203 145 350 220 360 450 505 295 725 465 1.120 1.225
Cur r ent
Dens i ty
A/mm
2
2.9 2.3 2.35 2 2.9 1.55 2.1 1.1 2.3 1.85 3.65 2 2.75 1.4 2.45 2.1
Hei ght Mm 1300 1300 1300 1300 1330 1.420 1350 1550 1400 1400 1.890 1.820 1860 2000 1870 1900
Length Mm 890 830 1050 1100 1320 1.100 1010 1130 1340 1240 1.820 2000 1710 1850 17770 1770
Wi dth Mm 600 560 620 620 800 840 800 780 770 800 1.180 1280 1100 1020 1320 1200
Effi ci enc
y (* )
% 97.9
4
98.3
2
98.19 98.46 98.62 98.82 98.8
9
98.8
9
98.81 99.00 98.78 98.78 99.02 99.02 98.91 99.10
S ound
Power
Db (A) 57 36 59 59 61 68 56 58 68 68 68 72 63 63 76 76
Uni t
Cos t
Eur o 2539 2800 3458 3667 4385 4236 4881 4705 6373 6797 9692 9261 10307 1011
9
15050 15531
Uni t
Cos t
% 90.7 100 121.6 127.5 93.2 91.1 103.
7
100 135.5 144.5 95.8 91.4 101.9 100 143.7 153.5

34
T abl e A- 2: Data for cal cul ated l os s es for I ndus tr y T r ans for mer s of 1000 to 4000 KVA.

T abl e A- 3: Data for cal cul ated es ti mati on fr om des i gn data for per centage of extr a eddy
l os s es i n wi ndi ngs and s tr uctur al par ts . For Oi l i mmes s ed and Dr y T ype T r ans for mer s
(KEMA T abl e 4.6 Page 29- 30).
1000 kVA 1600 kVA 2500 kVA 4000 kVA
I n
wi ndi ng
PWE
Other
PS E +
PCE
I n
wi ndi ng
PWE
Other
PS E +
PCE
I n
wi ndi ng
PWE
Other
PS E +
PCE
I n
wi ndi ng
PWE
Other
PS E +
PCE
Oi l CC HD
428
6% 5% 9% 13 % 11% 14 % 13% 28 %
Oi l DD HD
428
6% 5% 9% 13 % 11% 14 % 13% 28 %
Dr y t ype
HD538
6% 9% 11% 13%
Dr y t ype
l ow l os s es
6% 9% 11% 13%

T abl e A- 4: Di s tr i buti on T r ans for mer s Los s S tandar ds

Load Losses No-Load Losses
Rated
Power
Oil-Filled (HD428)
Up to 24 kV
2

Dry Type
(HD538)
Oil-Filled (HD428)
Up to 24 kV
2

Dry Type
(HD538)
List A List B List C 12 kV Primary List A List B List C 12 kV Primary
KVA W W W W W W W W
50 1100 1350 875 N/A 190 145 125 N/A
100 1750 2150 1475 2000 320 260 210 440
160 2350 3100 2000 2700 460 375 300 610
250 3250 4200 2750 3500 650 530 425 820
400 4600 6000 3850 4900 930 750 610 1150
630 /4% 6500 8400 5400 7300 1300 1030 860 1500
630 /5% 6750 8700 5600 7600 1200 940 800 1370
1000 10500 13000 9500 10000 1700 1400 1100 2000
1600 17000 20000 14000 14000 2600 2200 1700 2800
2500 26500 32000 22000 21000 3800 3200 2500 4300
4000 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

1 The short-circuit impedance of the transformers is 4% or 6%, in most cases. This technical
parameter is of importance to a utility for designing and dimensioning the low-voltage network fed
by the transformer. Transformers with the same rated power but with different short-circuit
impedance have a different construction and therefore slightly different losses. For HD428 /
HD538 compliant distribution transformers, the preferred values for the short-circuit impedance are
4% for transformers up to and including 630kVA, and 6% for transformers of 630kVA and above.
rating kVA
HV kV
LV V
Uk %
LOSS-LEVEL Oil CC' Oil DD' Dry base Dry Low Oil CC' Oil DD' Dry base Dry Low Oil CC' Oil DD' Dry base Dry Low Oil CC' Oil DD' Dry base Dry Low
NO-LOAD LOSSES W 1100 935 2000 1735 1700 1445 2800 2670 2500 2125 4300 4130 3800 3230 7000 5540
LOAD LOSSES 75 C W 9500 8075 8600 7270 14000 11900 10000 9350 22000 18700 18000 14930 34000 28900 27000 26630
TOTAL MASS kg 2715 3157 2530 2800 3900 4210 3840 3900 4925 6065 5350 5410 8885 10108 7660 7710
HEIGHT mm 1890 1800 1560 1620 2090 2090 1830 1820 1925 1915 2040 2130 2485 2415 2470 2410
LENGTE mm 1500 1540 1710 1690 1875 1795 1920 1840 2360 2370 2160 1980 2545 2545 2310 2360
WIDTH mm 950 1800 940 940 1155 2090 940 940 1235 2370 1230 1230 1375 2545 1230 1230
T HS (F) K 65 65 100 100 65 65 100 100 65 65 100 100 65 65 100 100
T LS (H) K 65 65 100 100 65 65 100 100 65 65 100 100 65 65 100 100
SOUND POWER dB(A) 56 51 68 61 68 57 70 67 69 59 74 73 72 60 80 77
EFFICIENCY (*) % 98,94 99,10 98,94 99,10 99,02 99,17 99,20 99,25 99,02 99,17 99,11 99,24 99,06 99,20 99,15 99,20
UNIT COST Euro 8007 10353 10074 11108 10865 12832 14451 14990 13670 17887 17951 19073 24987 29402 25527 27494
UNIT COST % 100 129 126 139 100 118 133 138 100 131 131 140 100 118 102 110
(*) at full load and cos phi = 1
8
4000
10
420
8 6
1600
10
420
6
Typical Industry Transformer Parameters
1000
10
420
2500
10
420

35
REFERENCES

1. Energy Saving in Industrial Distribution transformers- W.T.J. Hulsthorst & J.F. Groeman,
KEMA, Netherlands
2. Transformers- BHEL, Tata Mc GrawHill (I) Ltd
3. Harmonics related documents from Underwriters Laboratory, USA
4. The Scope of Energy Saving in European Union Through Use of Energy Efficient
Distribution Transformers European Copper Institute, Belgium

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