Basic Mountaineering

course
MANUAL 3 2021 ver.

Summary

This manual is an introduction to the practice of orienteering and land navigation.

Although many of the hands-on processes within this manual is best done with others in
open spaces, there is much that can be learned even indoors.

These involve guides in topics such as Compasses, Maps, Land Navigation, Land
Navigation Techniques, Navigation Exercises, What to do when lost, and an
Appendix on Global Positioning Systems (GPS).
TABLE OF CONTENTS
2 COMPASS
Different types and uses, parts,
maintenance, and how to use
a compass.
7 MAP
Different types, parts,
maintenance, and how to
use a topographic map.
13 LAND NAVIGATION
Orienting, how to get
bearings, locating yourself,
route planning, and
orienteering.
16 LAND NAVIGATION
TECHNIQUES
Finding a course, fitting map
to terrain, offsetting,
detouring, contouring, and
following handrails.
20 NAVIGATION EXERCISES
Following a bearing, and
compass bearing.
22 WHAT TO DO WHEN LOST
Assessing the situation,
following the trail, and setting
up an emergency campsite.
24 APPENDIX A - GLOBAL
POSITIONING SYSTEM
Parts, GPS receivers,
acquiring satellite signals,
translating from a map to a
GPS, and following a route.
 oRIENTEERING AND
land navigation
The ability to locate oneself in a remote area is one of the most important skills
a mountaineer should have.

Planning a trip such as a climb requires careful assessment of the trail;

therefore, one is primarily expected to be familiar with the area.
After which will orienteering serve to be a tool in route planning and land
navigation.
Orienteering by use of a topographic map and compass may also be used as
a device in assisting a person to get back on track in cases wherein a person
gets lost or separated from the team.

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 COMPASS
A compass is a magnetized needle (or dial), that is free to swing in any direction,
contained in a sturdy housing. The needle settles down to point to the magnetic north.

In this section, we'll be talking about the different types and uses of compasses, parts,
maintenance, and how to use them.

Types and uses of compasses

Lensatic compass
Used by military, for accurate sighting.
Precision compass
Used by geologists: with a level bubble, a clinometer for measure the
angle and elevation of slopes, and a precision.
Ex. Brunton Compasses
Protractor or Base-plate compass
Used by mountaineers for orienteering.
Has the best compromise with compactness, accuracy, and price.
Gyrocompass
A type of compass that is based on the rotation of the Earth to find a
geographical direction.
Widely used for navigation on ships .
Astrocompass
Aligned with the position of celestial bodies while indicating the position
of true north.

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Parts of a protractor compass

1., Magnetic Needle - Magnetized needle free to swing in any direction, The red
end seeks north (may also be called magnetic north by definition).

2. Orienting Arrow - Wide arrow inside the housing. With regards to Coleman
compasses, it is marked by two parallel lines.

3. Scale - Ruler found at the end of the base plate.

4. Index Point - Base of the directional arrow where bearings are set or read.

5. Directional Arrow - Arrow on the base plate; also called travel arrow.

6. Magnifier - Used for more detailed inspection of contour lines on the map.

7. Base Plate - Rectangular base where housing is attached.

8. Compass Dial or Housing - It is where the degree markings (0 to 360) are

inscribed together with the four cardinal points (N, S, E, W).
The dial is filled with an anti-static, non-freezing liquid to reduce needle
oscillation.

9. Orienting Lines - The lines inside the housing parallel to the orienting arrow:
aids in aligning the compass to the North-South grid lines of the map.

10. Cord - Used to hang the compass around your neck. It can also be used to
measure the distance along a curved path.

11. Luminous Points - Useful for night trekking; usually found at the north end
of the needle, the directional arrow, and at the orienting arrow.

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How to take care of your compass
Waterproofing
Though the compass is waterproof, soaking it in water too long may erase
the inscriptions on the scale, dial, and luminous points.
Magnetic Objects
Keep all magnetic objects away from the compass because they may
deflect the needle if they are too close
Bubbles
Bubbles larger than 1/4 inch is probably caused by a leak in the compass
housing leading to the inaccuracy of readings.
This does not apply to cheap baseplate compasses that don’t contain
liquid inside the housing.
Heat
Excess heat may damage the base plate; it may cause the liquid to
expand and may damage the compass housing.
The needle may also lose its magnetic processes.
Fragile
Do not drop the compass.
It may cause cracks on the housing/dial that may lead to the formation
of bubbles.

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Using a compass: part 1
Note that the system below is the one that is most practical and useful to the
mountaineer.

First things first, we'll need to define what a bearing is, which is a horizontal
angle fixing a direction with respect to a certain reference.
The reference is usually the North direction.

There are different types of bearings:

True bearing or Map bearing
Fixed on the map
Application: Map to terrain
Field bearing or Compass bearing
Taken through visual inspection of the area where direction North is
pointed out by the magnetic needle
Application: Terrain to map.

How to set a bearing:

In reference to the picture, turn the dial until the desired degree number is
shown at the index pointer.

*BEARING IS SET TO 360 DEGREES

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Using a compass: part 2
Facing a bearing
Situation: Let us assume the bearing is set for 60 degrees.
Hold the compass in your hand, level, and parallel to the ground, and
also have the directional arrow pointing forward.
Set the dial to the given bearing.
Orient the compass, and yourself, as follows:
While holding compass as in the diagram above, turn yourself around
together with the compass until the red north end of the
magnetic needle points to the letter "N" on the dial
Now look up in the direction of the directional arrow - you are facing
"bearing 60 degrees."
Note that the compass will serve only as your guide.
Relying too much on the compass may result in inaccuracy because of
your tendency to shift direction while walking or running.
The best way to make sure that you are on the right track is to apply the
frog leap technique and then back bearing
The frog leap technique consists of aligning 3 or more people in a line
and having each advance one at a time

Taking a bearing of an object in the field

Hold the compass on your hand, level and parallel to the ground.
Point the directional arrow towards the object.
Turn the compass dial to align the magnetic needle to the orienting
arrow.
The bearing of the object is now the degree reading indicated at the
index pointer.

Back Bearing
Take note that your bearing is always relative to your origin or where you
are taking a bearing from. Back bearing is used when you wish to return to
your original position or confirm the direction you are going in.
With the compass in hand, turn around to align the magnetic needle to the
south as indicated in the dial.
The bearing that the directional arrow points to should be your
immediate point of origin.
If not, realign yourself to the bearing.
If you are confirming the direction you are going in:
After realigning yourself, about-face and continue to move
towards the next bearing.

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 MAP
A map is a planar representation of a land area taken from an aerial view,

In this section, we'll be discussing different types of maps, their parts, maintenance, and
usage.

Types of maps
Although there are different types of maps such as road maps, political maps,
relief maps, world maps, and among others, we'll be focusing on the
topographic map which is the one used by mountaineers.

A topographic map indicates contours of the surface, elevations, bodies of

water, as well as trails and roads.

Parts of a topographic map: part 1

Map name
Designated after the most prominent feature of the map (ex. the
biggest town or city).
Map scale
Includes name of the island or province of the area and the ratio of
map distance to the real distance.
Ex: Luzon 1:50,000 - the area is located in the island of Luzon, and one
unit measure on the map translates to 50,000 units on real
ground.
Sheet number
Found at upper-left portion of the maps.
Maps are numbered in sequence with adjacent maps
Legend
Glossary of symbols

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Parts of a topographic map: part 2
Distance scale
Linear measurement of distances on the map representing aerial
distance, as if the distance of the whole place were flat
Magnetic declination
Shows the difference in degrees, between the direction of true north and
magnetic north in the region
Contour interval note
Indicates the difference in elevation between 2 adjacent contour lines
Index to bound
Indicates political boundaries present on the map.
Longitude, latitude designation.
Found at the four corners of the map, indicates the exact angular
distance east-west of the earth's surface (longitude), and a region
with reference to its distance north or south of the equator (latitude).
Contour Lines
Brown lines, giving an indication of the contour of the land.
A single contour line connects points of the same elevation.
Colors of the map
BROWN - Land features
BLUE - Bodies of water
BLACK - Man-made structures
GREEN – Vegetation
RED - Main roads
Gridlines
NS and EW lines of the map.
Squares formed by the lines are 1 sq. km. 
Date of map survey
Date of when the map was made in accordance to an area.
Relevant because of changes in the area.

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how to take care of your map
Folding
Create a fold along the NS and EW grid line.
Keep folds to a minimum for less wear and tear.
It is better to roll the map.
Waterproofing
Cover the map with plastic or fold it and store it in a water-tight bag

using a topographic map: an intro

Determine a distance
Remember that:
If 20 mm on the map = 1 kilometer; then 1 mm. on the map = 50
meters.
One can measure the distance from one point to another with the
scale of the compass.
For contoured routes, use a string then gauge against the
scale.
Recognizing landforms
In order to properly visualize landforms from contour lines, one may
translate them into a profile.
By the name itself, we use the given elevations to create a vertical
cross-section of the landform.
Making a profile
Given a set of contour lines, make a line AB passing through the set of
contour lines.
Make a set of lines of equal distance parallel to AB equivalent to the
number of contour lines.
Label these lines according to the elevations indicated on the map.
Project the intersections on the contour lines and line AB to the set of
parallel lines, with the point of intersection on the outermost contour
line touching the lowest line.

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using a topographic map: reading lines part 1
Steepness
If the contour lines are close to each other the area is steep.
The greater the distance between contour lines the gentler the slope of
the area.

Going up
If the elevation of the contour lines increases, you are - going up.
One may opt to find a stream (blue color).
The V formed by the contour lines as they intersect the stream points
upstream, hence going up.

Peak
The topmost area of a mountain marked by an X within a small, elliptical
contour line

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using a topographic map: reading lines part 2
Ridge
The backbone of the mountain, which offers relatively gentler slopes.
Curves outward away from the peak.

Gullies
These are waterways, and since water takes the easiest path downwards,
expect sudden drops, waterfalls, and other steep features.
Curves inward to the peak.

Cliff
The area where contour lines meet, to be avoided by trekkers.

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using a topographic map: reading lines part 3
Depression
Caused by empty lakes and volcanic craters marked by the hachures pointing
toward the depression.

Saddle
The area between 2 adjacent peaks.

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 LAND NAVIGATION
Unsurprisingly, learning how to properly and safely navigate the mountain is one of
the many essential skills that a mountaineer will have to learn.

As such, this section discusses the following topics: learning how to orient yourself,
get a bearing, find your location, and route planning.

Orienting the map

This means aligning the grid north and geographic north.

For our purposes, we will consider the geographical north the same as the
magnetic north.

Step-by-step process:
1. Use a flat surface. 
2. Turn the compass dial until it reads 0 degrees at the index pointer. 
3. Align the left edge of the base plate on the left most N-S gridline of the
map with the directional arrow pointing north. 
4. Rotate the map with the compass until the north end of the magnetic
needle is boxed in.
5. The map is now oriented.
6. Secure the map once you have oriented it. Moving the map after you have
oriented it may result to incorrect plotting of control points.

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Getting a bearing from a map
Orient the map 
Lay the compass on the map with the directional arrow pointing towards
the direction of travel. 
Rotate the dial until you box in the needle. 
The bearing is indicated at the index pointer.

Locating where you are

1. Identify two prominent features on the map that you can see on the field (ex.
two mountain peaks identified as A and B.)
2. Take the field bearing of A. Plot the bearing on an oriented map. Make sure the
line goes through its peak.
3. Take the field bearing of B. Plot the bearing on an oriented map. Make sure the
line goes through its peak. 
4. The intersection of the two lines is where you are.
a. If you are at a place easily identified on a map, a river, for example,
simply choose one prominent feature and find its bearing. Plot it on the
map and your location in the intersection of the line of the bearing and the
river.

Route planning
1. Take the easiest; not necessarily the shortest route to your destination
incorporating possible water sources, scenic spots, and an ideal
campsite.
2. Take gentler slopes and minimize river crossing. 
3. If you are boxed in by steep slopes, try contouring by walking across the
slope, to walk on a less steep trail (e.g. zigzag trails during steep slopes). 
4. Note directions and distance periodically so you can check if you are going
the right way. These factors will serve to be the basis for the itinerary.

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Orienteering
Orienteering is a discipline that tests and applies your navigational skills in a
environment using a map and compass.

Two types of orienteering:

1., Course Orienteering 
Several stations called control points are passed in sequence.
Control points are marked by red and white orienteering flags. 
A compass and sometimes a map is used. 
The bearing and distance of control point 1 (CP 1) is given. 
When CP 1 is reached, the bearing and distance to CP 2 is given.
A code is given or a question should be answered to prove that the
CP was reached.

CP1 CP2
Start

CP3

CP5

CP4
2. Point Orienteering
The CP should not only be found but the route must be carefully
planned to reach as many CP’s as possible in a limited amount of
time.
Bearing and distances of all control points are given at the starting
point. 
Plot all CP’s on a given map. 
Plan your route, reaching as many CP’s as you can, and noting down
the codes at the CP’s reach.
CP's further from the starting point are worth more points.

CP1 CP2

CP3
START
CP5

CP6
CP7 CP4

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 LAND NAVIGATION
TECHNIQUES
This section will be including the following techniques: Finding a course from the
map, fitting a map to the terrain, offsetting/aiming off, following a handrail,
detouring, and contouring.

Finding a course from the map

Align
Lay a rear corner of the compass on your starting point on the map,
with one long edge pointing to your destination.
Ignore the needle. Check that the directional arrow points towards the
destination.
Orient
Hold the compass in place on the map.
Turn the dial until the North in the dial points to the North in the
map and the orienting lines are parallel with the map’s N-S
gridlines. Ignore the needle.
Direct
Holding the compass in front of you, turn your body until the needle
is boxed.
You and the directional arrow now face your destination.

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Fitting map to terrain
The biggest mistake of map readers is looking at the map, assuming that
they are in a certain place, and then looking around for landmarks that will
confirm that they are indeed in that assumed location.
This mistake is called “fitting the terrain to the map”.
This is doing things backwards. 
To avoid this pitfall, don’t open the map right away.
Begin by checking your location; are you in a place where you can see
your terrain in several directions?
Move a little way off your route if necessary; get away from trees
and other obstacles that can obstruct your vision. 
Once in a good vantage point, look at the mountains, streams, ridges, and
other geographical features to get a sense of how their position relate to
one another.
Imagine how they would look on a topographical map.
Once you have an idea of how the area will appear, you can then fit
the map to the terrain and not the other way around. 
The difference is this: If you look at the map first, you establish certain
features you intend to locate at the terrain, and with that preconceived
notion, you’ll probably find things that fit and overlook more important
features that don’t.

Offsetting or aiming off

Following a compass bearing is possible only to an accuracy of 10-20 degrees,
and even less in rough terrain.
If you attempt to walk directly to the river fork, you could end up on either
side, not knowing which way to go to reach the fork.
By offsetting or aiming well to the right of your compass bearing, you can
be sure that when you reach the river, you need to turn left to reach
the fork.

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Contouring
It is extremely difficult to follow a compass bearing when the path
repeatedly rises and falls in elevation. 
Contouring uses the compass as a general reference point for direction, while
you follow a contour line on the map, staying at a constant elevation while
you negotiate hills and ridges.
In this case, since the hilltop lies exactly in the path, you can walk
along the contour of this hill and check the back bearing with the
hilltop as your reference point to get back on track.

following a handrail
It is difficult to navigate towards your destination if it lies behind a hill and/or
is obscured and blocked by vegetation, making a direct bearing
impossible.
Instead of being gung ho about it and forging ahead on the direct bearing, you
can search for a linear feature on the map that will lead you to your
target area. 
Landforms commonly used are rivers, ridges, and roads. 
First, take a bearing to the handrail feature, and then walk towards it. 
Follow the river until the hill appears, then turn left towards your
objective. 
If the handrail does not lead directly to your objective, “jump off” on a
compass bearing for the remaining distance, using the hilltop reference.

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Detouring
Like contouring, detouring takes you off the path of your compass
bearing. Whereas in contouring you do this to avoid change in elevation.

Obstacle
(Ex. Vegetation)

In detouring this is done to avoid an obstacle such as a swamp or thick

vegetation. 
When you detour, keep the direct bearing on your compass and measure
or estimate the distance you have taken away from the bearing.
Remove and add an amount (ex. 90 degrees) to get back to your original
bearing.
Once clear of the obstacles, return to the original bearing, walking the
same distance to take you back to your original track.

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 NAVIGATION EXERCISES
Here are some activities to test your navigation skills to keep them sharp before a
hike!

Following a bearing
When orienteering, try to travel in the exact direction of your bearing.
If you take one stride to the left during the course of your travel, you will
end up one step to the left of your control point.
If you deviate far enough, you will miss the CP completely.
Since you cannot keep your eyes constantly on your compass make sure you
are following the correct heading, it is better to select landmarks (a tall tree,
bush, etc.) that lie along the bearing you are following.
Upon reaching that landmark, select another prominent landmark along
your bearing until you reach the CP.
Don’t forget to count your strides.
If an obstacle (gully, thick vegetation, structures, etc.) blocks your path, you can
go around it, but remember two things:
First, compensate for your deviation - if you took about 20 strides to the
right of your bearing, you must take another 20 spaces to the left once you
have cleared the obstacle.
Or, second, compensate for your circuitous route by subtracting the
number of strides you actually took. 
The same principle applies to mountaineering.
If you follow a trail that goes to the right of your bearing, you must move
back towards the left to compensate for the deviation.

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Compass bearing
You need a compass and a coin for this activity. 
Stand in an open area (a parking lot will do) and place the coin between
your feet.
Pick an arbitrary bearing, for example - 20- degrees. 
Walk 15 paces towards that direction, and then stop.
Add 120-degrees to your initial bearing; in this case, the result is 140-
degrees then walk another 15 paces. 
At the end of this distance, add-120 degrees again to the previous
bearing; resulting in 260-degrees. 
Walk another 15 paces and at the end of that distance, the coin should
be at your feet again.

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 WHAT TO DO WHEN LOST
Try as we might to keep our navigational skills at its best, there may be situations
wherein we find ourselves lost due to unforeseen reasons.

As such, here are some things to do in case such a situation occurs:

Assessing the situation

The first thing to do is to stop, think, observe and plan.
Are you really lost? Or has the vegetation changed? When you started the
trek you knew exactly where you were, ditto for most of the route until the
present predicament. A good navigator never really gets lost.
Assess the state of the team. Is anyone injured? Everybody in good spirits?
Is everyone together? A group has a very good chance of rectifying the
situation.
It is the lone mountaineer separated from the group that’s in big
trouble, for obvious reasons.

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Following the trail
Learn how to identify a trail using techniques and identifying landmarks.
Discuss the last known position and backtrack if time and weather will
allow it.
Work your way from there, always coming back to the known spot if
the going gets rough.
If you are alone and not sure where you are, mark your position and keep
coming back to it if you can’t seem to find the right trail. It would be
easier to find you that way.

Setting up an emergency campsite

Possible application: A highly taxed and stressed team, hours away from a
known position, would be better off setting up an emergency campsite with
either tents or makeshift tents than thrashing about and getting more
disoriented by the minute.

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 APPENDIX A: GLOBAL
POSITIONING SYSTEM
The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a U.S. space-based global navigation
satellite system.

It provides reliable positioning, navigation, and timing services to worldwide

users on a continuous basis in all weather, day and night, anywhere on or near the
Earth.

parts of a gps
The GPS is made up of three parts:
between 24 and 32 satellites orbiting the Earth,
four control and monitoring stations on Earth, and
the GPS receivers owned by users. GPS satellites broadcast signals from space
that are used by GPS receivers to provide three-dimensional location (latitude,
longitude, and altitude) plus the time.

GPS Receivers: part 1

GPS receivers come in different sizes, from small, handheld ones to bigger, more
complex systems.
In most cases, they will have a LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) on which the status
of the receiver and the current measurement are displayed.
Most of the present models will also have a computer outlet by means of
which the device can be connected to a PC with suitable software. In that
way, more comprehensive functions are available and a better display
with higher resolution is possible on the computer monitor.

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GPS Receivers: Part 2
GPS receivers are available on mobile phones.
These are sometimes more convenient but may be disabled when there
is no clear exposure to the sky.
However, while a GPS device is more expensive and accurate, a mobile
device gets direction and accuracy through surrounding cell sites
that act as satellites.
Devices with an Assisted GPS, like mobile devices, use ground bases to
help with accuracy.

C. Acquiring satellite signals

A GPS receiver will not work inside buildings that shield the high-
frequency satellite transmissions.
You must therefore first find the right place to stand, preferably in a fairly
level area with a full horizon, before switching on the GPS receiver.

Assuming it "knows" its approximate geographical position (you may have to

tell it in which country you are), your receiver will establish a list of
satellites that are currently above the local horizon.
It can do so because it knows the approximate orbits of the GPS satellites
and also the local time from the internal clock.
Some devices will display a graphic image of the positions of the
satellites above you.
Next, it begins to acquire the satellite signals and may tell you when it has a
good connection by displaying the signal strength.
When signals from three satellites are being received, it may perform a
first, rough calculation of the geographical position and inform you
about the longitude and latitude.
It may also give you a first estimate of the uncertainty (in meters).
When more satellites are acquired, it will add the altitude above
the sea level.
By prolonging the session, most GPS receivers will be able to improve the
accuracy, as the distance measurements become more precise due to
averaging of many time-delay measurements.
After some time (if the receiving conditions are good and there are 5
or more satellites in view), the accuracy in all three coordinates
(latitude, longitude, altitude) may stabilize at around 15 meters.

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C. Acquiring satellite signals
A GPS receiver will not work inside buildings that shield the high-
frequency satellite transmissions.
You must therefore first find the right place to stand, preferably in a fairly
level area with a full horizon, before switching on the GPS receiver.

Assuming it "knows" its approximate geographical position (you may have to

tell it in which country you are), your receiver will establish a list of
satellites that are currently above the local horizon.
It can do so because it knows the approximate orbits of the GPS satellites
and also the local time from the internal clock.
Some devices will display a graphic image of the positions of the
satellites above you.
Next, it begins to acquire the satellite signals and may tell you when it has a
good connection by displaying the signal strength.
When signals from three satellites are being received, it may perform a
first, rough calculation of the geographical position and inform you
about the longitude and latitude.
It may also give you a first estimate of the uncertainty (in meters).
When more satellites are acquired, it will add the altitude above
the sea level.
By prolonging the session, most GPS receivers will be able to improve the
accuracy, as the distance measurements become more precise due to
averaging of many time-delay measurements.
After some time (if the receiving conditions are good and there are 5
or more satellites in view), the accuracy in all three coordinates
(latitude, longitude, altitude) may stabilize at around 15 meters.

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translating from a map to a gps
If you can identify yourself with a bearing on the map and if the map is marked,
get the coordinates and then you can be pinpointed by the GPS

Following a route
Many GPS devices allow you to store a series of momentary positions,
resulting in a graphic display of the route you are following.
This can be very useful if you are walking in unknown territory because it
becomes possible for you to follow the same route back again to your
starting point without getting lost in the wilderness or on the sea.

It is also possible to read the distance to the goal (of course, assuming that you
have told it where it is) and, based on the current speed with which you move
in this direction, it may tell you the estimated remaining time until you
reach this goal.

If you want to move to a specific location, you may also pre-select a route
from a map, store the coordinates of intermediate points along the
chosen route and then move under GPS guidance to your destination.

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CREDITS & REFERENCES

Content by: LM Education Heads of Batch 0 to 29

Photos by: Lorenzo Enrico Corro of Batch 30; Gabriel Gatchalian of Batch 29
Graphic design and formatting by: Gabriel Gatchalian of Batch 29; Oscar Picache of
Batch 30.

References:
1. Mountaineering Freedom of the Hills
The, Mountaineers B. Mountaineering Freedom of the Hills 8th Edition: 50th Anniversary
1960-2010. Mountaineers Books, The, 2010. Print.