ERASMUS+ PROGRAMME, KEY ACTION 2

CAPACITY BUILDING IN HIGHER EDUCATION

Furthering International Relations Capacities and Intercultural Engagement to

Nurture Campus Diversity and to Support Internationalisation at Home
(FRIENDS)

Unit 4: Cultural taxonomies. A critical approach to cultural taxonomies

Part 4

Dr. Nedka Dimitrova

TRANSCRIPT

In his book, “Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind” (1991), professor Geert
Hofstede suggested the first empirical model of dimensions of national culture, measuring
cultural elements in the international economy and cross-cultural communication and
cooperation.
“Culture is the collective programming of the human mind that distinguishes the members
of one human group from those of another. Culture in this sense is a system of collectively
held values.” - Geert Hofstede
Based on his global research Hofstede developed a cultural classification typology (1980), as
already introduced by professor Minkov, suggesting four main dimensions through which
cultures can be compared: Power distance (PDI), Individualism/Collectivism (IDV),
Masculinity/Femininity (MAS) and Uncertainty avoidance (UAI). The fifth dimension, Long
versus Short-term orientation (LTO) was further added to the taxonomy based on Michael
Harris Bond’s research followed by the sixth Indulgence versus Restraint (IVR) which
became a part of the taxonomy in 2010 by the contribution of Michael Minkov.
Power Distance
Hofstede classified most of the country cultures as large on PDI, the degree to which
individuals accept and tolerate social injustice, centralized power, obedience to superiors
and intolerance to personal opinion or initiative. Students from these cultures can get
frustrated or might struggle with individual tasks that require a personal decision.

This project has been funded with support from the European Commission. This publication reflects the views
only of the author, and the Commission cannot be held responsible for any use which may be made of the
information contained therein. 1
Smaller PDI cultures do not tolerate the concentration of power and people expect to make
their own decisions, demonstrating more personal initiative and involvement in social
activities. Modern businesses and education programmes are usually based on the values of
smaller PDI cultures and their understanding of commonly adopted practices.
Individualism vs. Collectivism
A great number of country cultures around the world were classified by Hofstede (1980) as
low on Individualism, therefore, they could be described as collectivist. In those societies,
people belong to “in-groups” and are dependant on the group's opinion and support.
Satisfaction comes from well-done group work and thinking of “we” is the most important
component of social communication and relationships. Respect for authority and collectivist
values are appreciated. On the other hand, the more individualist societies demonstrate
more personal initiative and inclination to risk-taking which requires more personal
involvement. When comparing individualist and collectivist values, we can arrive at the
conclusion that in cross-cultural communication face and harmony should be maintained. In
intercultural encounters, members of individualist cultures would expect to be treated as
separate individuals, with equal rights and opportunities. Group formation in a business
environment is according to a particular task, and confrontation is encouraged and solved
through open discussions.
Masculinity vs. Femininity
The “ego goals”, according to Hofstede (2001) are characteristic for masculine societies that
strive for competition and achievement. More modest and less assertive cultures are defined
as feminine. Playing social roles has an external emotional aspect, related to the feelings
experienced by an individual in his/her interaction with the environment. Masculine
societies maintain a system of fixed gender roles which suppose men to be more assertive,
oriented to achievement and success and women should be taking care of family and its
quality of life. In feminine cultures, both genders accept a caring role and are expected to
demonstrate a more modest social behavior.
Feminine cultures are driven by consensus and care for the members of the group, whilst
masculine ones are motivated by individual achievement and performance. Scholars agree
on the concept that concrete measurable results are preferred by masculine societies and
the feminine ones look at problems in a more flexible way, accepting many solutions.
Differences in work approach would be happening through actions and assertiveness in
masculine societies, whereas in feminine cultures it is happening through reflection and
group members’ opinion.

This project has been funded with support from the European Commission. This publication reflects the views
only of the author, and the Commission cannot be held responsible for any use which may be made of the
information contained therein. 2