GIS BOOK SUMMARISED NOTES

CHAPTER ONE (1)

INTRODUCTION

For at least the past 3,000 years, people have used geography for planning, dispute
resolution, exploration, and collaboration. Electronics developments have significantly
changed how we acquire and analyze spatial data. The development of geospatial
information systems (GIS) aims to help us with our geographic knowledge.

WHAT IS A GIS?
A tool for producing and using spatial data is a GIS. An electronic instrument called a
geographic information system (GIS) makes it easier to collect, maintain, store, analyze,
produce, and disseminate geographical data and information. GIS, when used correctly, can
result in healthier, wealthier, and safer lifestyles.

GIS: A UBIQUITOUS TOOL

GIS have been used to cure, prevent, and fight crime, as well as to conserve endangered
species, lessen pollution, and respond to natural disasters. When it comes to monitoring,
managing, and mitigating environmental damage, GIS can be useful in determining the
cause, location, and scope of negative environmental consequences.

WHY DO WE NEED GIS?

 With the help of GIS, we may examine the relative geographical placement of
significant geographic elements.
 And other advantages from this and other globally significant places may be made
possible with the help of spatial studies in a GIS. Humans had little of an impact on
the earth's resources for the first 100,000 years of their existence, but in the last 300
years, most of the planet's surface has been irrevocably changed.
 GIS may be used to track changes, lessen harm, and manage our natural resources
well. Telephone numbers are automatically used to identify E911 callers and
addresses.
 Numerous more business applications also use GIS.
 Disaster assessment and recovery may benefit from GIS.

GIS IN ACTION
The arrangement, analysis, and dissemination of spatial data are frequently used to
enhance life. GIS have been used to treat, prevent, control pollution, fight crime, save
endangered animals, and more.

GIS can be helpful in pinpointing the origin, location, and extent of harmful environmental
repercussions when it comes to monitoring, managing, and mitigating environmental
damage. Human impacts on the environment have spurred a huge societal push for the
usage of GIS.

The social push for GIS adoption has been accompanied by a technological pull in its
development and use. The cost of GIS computing is rising.

GIS SOFTWARE
The ability to properly manage, analyze, display, and distribute spatial information is made
possible by GIS software. There are several GIS software programs that are both free and
sold. Sharing among different GIS programs has become easier thanks to the Open
Geospatial Consortium (OGC).

GIS COMPONENTS

Hardware, software, data, people, and a set of administrative procedures make up a GIS.
Choosing and buying gear and software is frequently the simplest and quickest phase in the
creation of a GIS. The more challenging and time-consuming tasks involve personnel
development, data organization and gathering, and GIS use procedures.

HARDWARE FOR GIS

A GIS is made up of technology, software, data, people, and a set of administrative

procedures. The decision-making process and actual procurement of gear and software are
frequently the simplest and quickest steps in the creation of a GIS. The more challenging
and time-consuming tasks involve the organization and collecting of data, training of staff,
and protocols for GIS use.

GIS SOFTWARE

The ability to properly manage, analyze, display, and distribute spatial information is made
possible by GIS software. There are several GIS software programs that are both free and
sold. The 1960s and 1970s saw the creation of a large portion of the ESRI software's initial
basis at Harvard University.

OPEN GEOSPATIAL CONSORTIUM

Standards for data sharing between different GIS programs and computer operating
systems have been developed by the Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC). Standards have
been created and made public for data formats, documentation, program interfaces, and
transmission. For particular activities or subject matter, there are numerous other GIS tools
and packages available.

ArcGIS

ArcGIS is the most widely used GIS software package. The company that created ArcGIS,
ESRI, is present all over the world. It supports a wide range of data formats, kinds, and
structures. The number of procedures that can be performed on spatial data is in the
thousands.

QGIS

The Open Source Geospatial Foundation is the organization behind the open-source
software project QGIS. Numerous fundamental GIS display and analysis features are offered
by QGIS. It is compatible with the Unix, MacOSX, and Windows operating systems.

GeoMedia

The popular GeoMedia GIS package was created and is still supported by Intergraph, Inc. A
full range of data entry, analysis, and output tools are provided by the suite. It excels at
combining data from several platforms, formats, and sources.

MapInfo

MapInfo products are used in a broad array of applications, although use seems to be
concentrated in many business and municipal applications. Products have been developed
for embedding maps and spatial data into wireless handheld devices such as telephones,
loggers, or other portable devices.

IDRISI

The Graduate School of Geography at Clark University in Massachusetts created the GIS
system called Idrisi. Both image processing and GIS capabilities are offered by Idrisi. It's the
perfect toolkit for showing students how to utilize GIS and make their own spatial analysis
programs.

MANIFOLD

A GIS software program with a surprising number of features is called Manifold GIS. It is
possible to copy and paste sections of photos and maps onto other maps while keeping
accurate geographic alignment.

MAPTITUDE
A GIS tool called Maptitude is largely focused on conducting spatial analyses in commercial
settings. For particular industries, such as banking, insurance, healthcare, and real estate,
analytical models are offered.

AUTOCAD MAP 3D

The previously comprehensive collection of data input, coordinate manipulation, and data
output facilities offered by AUTOCAD is further expanded by AUTOCAD MAP 3D. It is a
good illustration of how GIS software from several fields has converged.

GRASS

The Geographic Resource Analysis Support System, or GRASS, is a multi-platform,

opensource GIS that is free to use. Worldwide, GRASS is utilized for both academic and
business purposes.

MICROIMAGES

TNTmips is an integrated remote sensing, GIS, and CAD software suite made by
MicroImages. All platforms support image processing, spatial data analysis, and image,
map, and output output. A vast amount of documentation is available, and a global dealer
network supports the program.

ERDAS

It was once an image processing system that is now owned and developed by Hexagon
Geospatial. A wave of commercial tools for evaluating geographic data gathered across vast
areas was pioneered by ERDAS. Other spatial data can be stored and managed using the
software.

BENTLEY MAP

The development of flexible, interconnected infrastructure is a key area of focus for Bentley
Systems. Field data collecting, photogrammetry, database management, analysis, and
reporting are all examples of tools. Bentley's products are mostly focused on the built
environment, including massive construction projects like roads, buildings, and utilities.

SMALLWORLD

A product suite called Smallworld has other network systems, as well as administration of
power and other utilities as its main areas of focus. The suite enables topological models,
component and network design, standard geographic data formats, field data entry,
graphics, and output. There are countless add-ons, specialized tools, or particular modules.

GIS IN ORGANISATION
GIS must be integrated into an organization's data collecting, analysis, decision-making,
and action loops in order to be used effectively used, and ensures that the results of GIS
analyses are properly interpreted and applied. An organization must support a variety of
GIS activities in order to use GIS effectively. Effective use of GIS requires an organization to
support various GIS activities. GIS can measure areas and distances, recognize infinity,
study networks, and combine various types of information to add substantial analytical
capability.

CHAPRWE THREE (3)

INTRODUCTION

This chapter provides an introduction to both map-projections, which translate coordinate points from
the Earth's curving surface onto flat maps, and geodesy, the science of measuring the Earth's shape. The
x and y coordinates for the point in Figure 3-1 come in many forms as well. The three main factors that
affect coordinates for a given position are projection distortion, an unevenly shaped Earth, and
measurement error. For the same point, we frequently find various latitude/longitude values (surveyor
data, top) or x and y values (bottom).

EARLY MEASUREMENTS

We must first specify the dimensions and geodetic shape of the Earth. Pythagoras held a different view
from the ancient Greeks who viewed the Earth to be a spherical. Eratosthenes made one of the first
accurate calculations of its circumference. The first person to measure the Earth's circumference was
Ptolemy. A slightly flattened sphere called an ellipsoid might provide a better representation of the
Earth.

SPECIFYING THE ELLIPSOID

Numerous techniques have been used to calculate the Earth's radii. The most popular
techniques involved observing stars and planets through astronomy. The size of the Earth's
ellipsoid was the focus of research in the 19th, 20th, and early 21st centuries. Plotting the
relative positions of celestial bodies over continents and oceans is the practice of geodesy.
Large bodies of water have historically cut off geodetic surveys; for instance, Australia
could not cross the Pacific Ocean to reach Asia. We now have the ability to estimate globally
applicable ellipsoids using global observations and computers.
 THE GEOID

There are several ways to calculate the Earth's radii. Astronomical observations of the
planets and stars were the most widely used techniques. Measuring the ellipsoid shape of
the Earth was the focus of research in the 19th, 20th, and early 21st centuries. Plotting the
positions of celestial bodies in relation to one another over continents and oceans is known
as geodesy. Large bodies of water have historically prevented geodetic surveys from being
conducted; Australia, for instance, was unable to cross the Pacific Ocean to reach Asia. We
can now estimate globally applicable ellipsoids thanks to global observations and
computers.

HORIZONTAL DATUMS

Different approaches have been used to calculate the Earth's radii. Astronomical
observations of the stars and planets were the most popular techniques. The Earth's
ellipsoid's size was the subject of research in the 19th, 20th, and early 21st centuries.
Plotting celestial bodies' positions in relation to one another over continents and oceans is
known as geodesy. Large bodies of water have traditionally cut off geodetic surveys;
Australia, for instance, could not cross the Pacific Ocean to reach Asia. We can now estimate
universally applicable ellipsoids thanks to computer simulations and extensive global data.

DATUM ADJUSTMENT

A consistent set of rcoordinates must be created from the survey data once a sizable
enough group of points has been surveyed. In a network-wide datum adjustment, the
locations of each point in a reference datum are calculated (Figure 3-6). A datum
adjustment is a change to all of the existing datum points' coordinates. The datum shift is a
movement that appears, but is not actually there.

COMMONLY USED DATUMS

NAD27 was replaced by the North American Datum of 1983 (NAD83). By doing so, physical and optical
surveying gives way to GPS/GNSS surveying. The NGS worked on High Accuracy Reference Networks
between 1989 and 2004. (HARNs). The GPS satellite schedule's week 873 of satellite data collection
underwent a reanalysis. The difference in datum between NAD27 and NAD83(86) is substantial,
measuring about 40 meters (140 feet), as is customary.

From early, localized to modern, worldwide datums, there can be shifts of up to hundreds of meters.
Prior to use in a GIS, the majority of data are transformed to a regional or national datum.

DATUM TRANSFORMATIONS

When we know a point's latitude and longitude in one datum but not the other, a datum
translation gives us that information. Older datums were frequently developed to maximize
fit for a region or continent. For more recent datum conversions, three-dimensional
Cartesian coordinate systems are transformed mathematically using more generalized
methods. These transformation factors can be adjusted using more sophisticated
techniques to account for tectonic and other alterations over time. These techniques are
used in software that determines transformations between datums.

HEIGHTS AND DATUMS VERTICALLY

A vertical datum is a reference that we use to measure heights, to put it simply. By

measuring gravity, spotting variations in "constant gravity" (equipotential) surfaces, and
fusing these with meticulously measuring control heights above a particular equipotential
surface, a vertical datum is discovered. Although not every organization uses the same
geoid, it is noted in the geoid section on page 91 that the majority of government or other
organizations do. Governments use "hybrid" geoid systems, which combine gravity
measurements and models with their own exact vertical surveys.

We refer to these elevations as orthometric heights in order to make it clear that we are
talking about our standard heights above because the word elevation is used for many
other things.

VERTICAL HEIGHTS AND DATUMS

A vertical datum is a reference that we use to measure heights, to put it simply. By

measuring gravity, spotting variations in "constant gravity" (equipotential) surfaces, and
fusing these with meticulously measuring control heights above a particular equipotential
surface, a vertical datum is discovered. Although not every organization uses the same
geoid, it is noted in the geoid section on page 91 that the majority of government or other
organizations do. Governments use "hybrid" geoid systems, which combine gravity
measurements and models with their own exact vertical surveys.

We refer to these elevations as orthometric heights in order to make it clear that we are
talking about our standard heights above because the word elevation is used for many
other things.

VDATUM

Vertical datums and their corresponding geoids evolve throughout time. To estimate
conversions between vertical datums, NGS developed the tool VDatum. Particularly when
converting between NAVD and WGS84/ITRF or within the NAVD88 datum, shifts can be
rather substantial.

DYNAMIC HEIGHTS
The distance from a geoid to a point in the direction of gravitational pull is known as an
orthometric height. When water travels through a "equipotential" surface, it may flow
upward or downward. When we wish to know about water levels and flows, dynamic
heights are crucial. A fixed height above a lake's geoidal surface is known as an orthometric
height. Over an equipotential surface, dynamic heights and water levels are equal. The
hydrologic drop, head, pressure, and other factors that affect water levels over a range of
distances are represented by various orthometric heights.

MAP PROJECTIONS AND COORDINATE SYSTEMS

An accurate representation of places from the curving Earth onto a flat map surface is
called a map projection. The "reverse" direction of projection equations, from projected
coordinates to geographic coordinates, must also be given. The third iteration of a map
projection's northern direction is called grid north. To fit on a map, parts of the simulated
Earth surface must be shrunk or expanded. Because of the shift from a complexly curved
Earth surface to a flat or curved map surface, distortions are inevitable when creating flat
maps.

COMMON MAP PROJECTIONS IN GIS

The majority of spatial data in GIS are specified using a relatively small number of
projection types, despite the fact that there are hundreds of different map projections in
use worldwide.

In North America and much of the rest of the world, two of the most popular projection
types for spatial data are the transverse Mercator and the Lambert conformal conic (Figure
3-38).

These two fundamental kinds have been used to create standard sets of projections. One
way to think about the Lambert Conformal Conic (LCC) projection is as a cone crossing the
surface of the Earth, with points on the surface of the Earth projected onto the cone.

SPECIFYING THE ELLIPSOID

Specifying the Ellipsoid Efforts then focused on precisely measuring the size of the Earth's
ellipsoid. The equatorial radius is always greater than the polar radius for the Earth
ellipsoid. Measurements during the 18th, 19th and early 20thcenturies used optical
instruments for celestial observations (Figure 3-5).Celestial observations of the stars are
combined with long-distance surface

THE GEOID

The true shape of the Earth varies slightly from that of an ellipsoid. This undulating shape
is called a geoid. The geoid is the surface along which the pull of gravity is constant. A geoid
may be higher or lower than a geoidal surface because ocean currents, temperature,
salinity, and wind variations can cause persistent high or low areas in the ocean. The
difference between the ellipsoidal height and geoidal height at any location has various
names, including geoidal separation.

The geoid is a measured and interpolated surface, and not a mathematically defined
surface. The geoid's surface is measured using a number of methods, initially by a
combination of plumb bob, a weight suspended by a string, and various types of
gravimeters. Satellite-based measurements in the late20th century substantially improved
the global coverage, quality, and density of geoidal height measurements.

HORIZONTAL DATUMS

The geographic coordinate system is based on an established zero meridian passing near
the Greenwich Observatory. Through these methods we establish a set of points on Earth
for which the horizontal and vertical positions have been accurately determined. Some
authors define the datum as a specified reference surface, and a realization of a datum as
that surface plus a physical network of precisely measured points.

COMMONLY USED DATUMS

Three main series of horizontal datum have been used widely in North America.

Between 1989 and 2004, the NGS collaborated with other federal agencies, state and local
governments, and private surveyors in creating High Accuracy Reference Networks
(HARNs), also known as High Precision Geodetic Networks (HPGN) in each state and most
U.S. territories. The update based on data collected up to January 1994 is designated as
WGS84 (G730). The NAD83 and WGS84 datum have always been different by up to two
meters. The third set of datum, commonly used worldwide and increasingly in North
America, is known as the International Terrestrial Reference Frames, (ITRF), with datum
realizations of the International Terrestrial Reference System (ITRS) between various
versions of the NAD, and a WGS84/ITRF, based on estimates provided by the National
Geodetic Survey.

Notice that the datum shift between NAD27 and NAD83(86) is quite large, approximately
40 meters (140 feet), typical of the up to hundreds of meters of shifts from early, regional
datum to modern, global datum.
DAUM TRANSFORMATION

A datum transformation provides the latitude and longitude of a point in one datum when
we know them in another. Many older data were created to optimize fit for a country or
continent. Modern datum transformations use more general mathematical transformations
between three-dimensional, Cartesian coordinate systems. These methods are
incorporated into software that calculates transformations among datum such as the
Horizontal\rTime Dependent Positioning (HTDP) tool.

THE STATE PLANE COORDINATE SYSTEM

The State Plane Coordinate System is a standard set of projections for the United States.
Multiple State Plane zones are used to limit distortion due to map projections. The TM
projection distorts distances in an east–west direction, but has relatively little distortion in
a north–south direction. The transverse Mercator specifies a central meridian, which
defines grid north in the projection. The Lambert conformal conic is used for State Plane
zones for 31 states.

Some parallels are placed at one-sixth of the zone width from the north and south limits.
The metric system was first developed during the French

Revolution in the 1700s. The U.S. definition of a foot is slightly longer than the European
definition, by about one part in five million. This slightly longer conversion factor should be
used for all conversions within and outside the United States.

UNIVERSAL TRANSVERSE MERCATOR COORDINATE SYSTEM

The Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) coordinate system divides the Earth into zones
that are 6 degrees wide in longitude. UTM zones are\rnumbered from 1 to 60 in an easterly
direction, starting at longitude 180 degrees West. Zones are further split north and south of
the equator. The origins of the UTM coordinate system are defined differently depending
on whether the zone is north or south of the equator. The equator is used as the northing
origin for all north zones. South zones have a false northing value added to ensure all
coordinates within a zone are positive.

NATIONAL COORDINATE SYSTEMS

Many European countries have standard map projections covering a national\rextent.

Larger countries may not have a specific or unified set of standard, nationwide projections.
There is simply no single projection that faithfully represents distances, areas, or angles
across the entire country.
 CONTINENTAL AND GLOBAL PROJECTIONS

There are map projections that are commonly used when depicting maps of continents,
hemispheres, or other large regions. Distortion in world maps may be reduced by using a
cut or interrupted surface. Different projection parameters or surfaces may be specified for
different parts of the globe.

CONVERSION AMONG COORDINATE

SYSTEMS

Converting from one projected coordinate system to another requires using the inverse
and forward projection equations. We may convert among most coordinate systems by
passing through a geographic system. A datum transformation is a calculation of the change
in geographic coordinates when moving from one datum to another.

THE PUBLIC LAND SURVEY SYSTEM

After the 1800s, the majority of the United States underwent initial surveys using the
Public Land Survey System (PLSS). Lands were divided by north-south lines that ran
parallel to a main meridian and were six miles apart. The position of the parcels inside this
grid system was used to identify them. Landforms were mapped by surveyors using a
variety of techniques, such as stone piles, pits, and blazes. The PLSS is crucial now because
it makes GIS data layers accessible.

There is simply no single projection that faithfully represents distances, areas, or angles
across the entire country.