Chapter 11
PIPING
Section 1.0 Scope
This chapter provides general and specific requirements
not only for plant or building piping but also for general
piping installations. It includes Power Piping System
Design and pipe color coding for safety and proper fluid
identification in the system.
Section 2.0 Definitions
Pipe and Tube – the fundamental difference between
pipe and tube is the dimensional standard to which each
is manufactured. A pipe is a tube with a round cross
section conforming to the international requirements for
nominal pipe size as tabulated in the table for pipe
schedules. A tube is a hollow product of round or any
other cross section having a continuous periphery.
Round tube size maybe specified with respect to any
two, but not all three of the following: outside diameter or
bell at one end into which the plain or spigot and of
another piece is inserted when laying. The joint is then
made tight by cement, oakum, lead, or rubber caulked
into the bell around the spigot.
Black Pipe – steel pipe that has not been galvanized.
Bell and Spigot Joint – the most commonly used joint
in cast-iron pipe. Each piece is made with an enlarged
diameter or bell at one end, into which the plain or spigot
end of another piece is inserted when laying. The joint is
then made tight by cement, oakum, lead, or rubber
caulked into the bell around the spigot.
Bull Head Tee – A tee the branch of which is larger than
the run.
Butt Weld Joint – A welded pipe joint made with the
ends of the two pipes butting each other, the weld being
around the periphery.
Carbon Steel Pipe – Steel pipe which owes these
properties chiefly on the carbon which it contains.
Check Valve – A valve designed to allow a fluid to pass
through in one direction only. A common type has a
plate so suspended that the reverse flow aids gravity in
forcing the plate against a seat, shutting off reverse flow.
Compression joint – a multi-piece joint with cup shape
threaded nuts which, when tightened, compress tapered
sleeves so that they form a tight joints on the periphery
of the tubing they connect.
Cross-Over – a small fitting with a double offset, or
shaped like the letter U with the ends turned out. It is
only made in small sizes and used to pass the flow of
one pipe past another when the pipes are in the same
plane.
Expansion Loop – a large bend in pipe line to absorb
longitudinal expansion in the pipe line due to heat.
Galvanized pipe – steel pipe coated with zinc to resist
corrosion.
Gate Valve – A valve employing a gate, often wedge-
shaped, allowing fluid to flow when the gate is lifted from
the seat. Such valves have less resistance to flow than
globe valves.
Globe valve – one with a somewhat globe shaped body
with a manually raised or lower disc which when closed
rests on a seat so as to prevent passage of a fluid.
Header - a large pipe or drum into which each of a
group of pipe is connected. Also used for a large pipe
from which a number of smaller ones are connected in
line and from the side of the large pipe.
Malleable Iron – Cast iron head-treated to reduce its
brittleness. The process enables the materials to stretch
to some extent and to stand greater shock.
Manifold – a fitting with a number of branches in line
connecting to smaller pipes. Used largely as an
interchangeable term with header.
Medium pressure – when applied to valves and fittings,
implies they are suitable for the working pressure of
from 862 to 1207 kPa (125 to 175 psi).
Mill Length – also known as random lengt. Run-of-mill
pipe is 4880 mm to 6000 mm in length. Some pipes are
made in double lengths 9150 to 10675 mm.
Relief Valve – Designed to open automatically to
relieve excess pressure.
Run - a length of pipe made of more than on piece of
pipe; a portion of a fitting having its end in line or nearly
so, in contradistinction to the branch or side opening, as
of a tee.
Saddle Flange – A flange curved to fit a boiler or tank
and to be attached to a threaded pipe. The flange is
riveted or welded to the boiler or tank.
Screwed Flange – a flange screwed on the pipe which
is connected to an adjoining pipe.
Socket weld – A joint made by use of a socket weld
fitting which has a prepared female end or socket for
insertion of the pipe to which it is welded.
Standard Pressure – Formerly used to designate cast-
iron flanges, fittings, valves, etc. , suitable for a
maximum working steam pressure of 862 kPa.
Street elbow – an elbow with a male thread on one end,
and female thread on the other end.
Stress-Relieving – uniform heating of a structure or
portion thereof to a sufficient temperature to relieve the
major portion of the residual stresses, followed by
uniform cooling.
Wrought Iron – iron refined to a plastic state in a
pudding furnace. It is characterized by the presence of
about 3 percent slag irregularly mixed with pure iron and
about 0.5 percent carbon.

Wrought Pipe – this term refers to the both wrought
steel and iron. Wrought in this sense means worked, as
in the process of forming furnace-welded pipe from
skelp, or seamless pipe from the plates or billets. The
expression wrought pipe is thus used as a distinction
from cast pipe. When wrought-iron pipe is referred to, it
should be designated by its complete name.
Section 3.0 General Requirement
3.1. All piping should run parallel to building walls.
3.2. Grouped piping shall be supported on racks either
on horizontal or vertical planes.
3.3. All piping to headers shall come from below rack.
3.4. All piping from the header shall go up above the
rack.
3.5. All piping below or above racks shall be supported
on separate racks.
3.6. All piping should run with slight inclination for
drainage of main header.
3.7. All piping on racks shall have a sufficient spacing for
pipe or chain wrenches so that any single line can be
altered without disturbing the rest of the piping rack.
3.8. All piping 63.5 mm and above shall be flanged while
smaller sizes can be screwed.
3.9. On long headers, a pair of flanges shall be provided
for every three lengths of 6000 mm of pipes smaller than
63.5 mm.
3.10. On long headers, a pair of unions shall be
provided for every three length of 6000 mm of pipes
smaller than 63.5 mm.
3.11. All piping subject to varying temperatures shall be
provided with expansion joints or expansion loops to
take care of expansion.
3.12. No galvanized piping shall be used for steam.
3.13. No piping material shall be used that is easily
corroded by the material passing thru.
3.14. All piping shall be clamped by “U” bolts or clamps
to supporting racks except steam piping. All steam
piping shall be supported on rollers or sliding support for
expansion.
3.15. Piping support shall be placed on a 3000 mm
interval or less.
3.16. All steam piping shall be supported on rollers or
sliding support for expansion.
3.17. All piping carrying pressure shall be of sufficient
bursting strength for the pressure applied. A minimum
factor of safety of 4 for working pressure applied shall be
used.
3.18. A minimum factor of safety of 4 for working
pressure shall be used.
3.19. For conveying liquid subjects to water hammer,
additional safety factor of a minimum of 100% of working
pressure shall be used.
3.20. Piping support shall be placed on a 3000 mm
interval or less.
3.21. All piping carrying steam, hot water or hot liquids
shall be properly insulated to prevent accidental contact
and loss of heat.
3.22. Drains from the steam piping shall be provided
with steam straps.
3.23. On all screwed joints, the threaded portion shall
enter fittings with three threads by hand before a pipe
wrench is applied.
3.24. Pipe wrench shall be lubricated by white lead, red
lead, graphite and oil or other approved thread
lubricants before tightening.
3.25. No rubber or rubberized gasket shall be used for
steam or hot liquids.
3.26. A shut off valve shall be installed on every branch
from the header.
3.27. All piping shall be reasonably cleaned before
installation.
3.28. All piping shall be free from burrs or protruding
metals inside.
3.29. No piping carrying steam or hot liquids shall be
embedded on concrete walls or floors.
3.30. Where piping has to be located in trenches the
pipe shall be supported on steel branches on floor of
trench.
3.31. Where piping has to be located in trenches a
suitable drainage or sump for removal of liquid
accumulations shall be provided for trench.
3.32. Where piping carrying steam or hot liquids have to
pass walls of concrete suitable sleeves made of pipes
ones size bigger shall be imbedded in concrete before
piping is laid.
3.33. Piping to all equipment shall not be subjected to
any stress on equipment being connected.
3.34. Pipe carrying liquids with solid shall use long
radius elbows or tees with plugs in the direction of flow.
4.2. Color bands and pipes flow identifications shall be
as specific and installed as shown in page 192
Section 5.0 Fluid Flow Velocities
5.1. In practice, the average fluid flow velocities maybe
shown as follows:
A. Water ……. 1.5-3.0 meter/second
B. High pressure saturated steam ……. 25-50
meter/second
C. High pressure superheated steam ……. 50-77
meter/second
D. Atmospheric Exhaust steam ……. 40-60
meter/second
E. Low pressure exhausted steam ……. 100-120
meter/second
Section 6.0 Power piping system design
6.1. Scope. Power piping system include all steam,
water and oil piping and the component parts such as
the pipe, flanges, bolting, gaskets, valves and fittings for
steam generating plants, central heating plants and
industrial plants.
6.2. Materials. Material used shall conform to table
11.6.2, any material other than those specified should
meet the physical and chemical requirements and, test
of the latest revision of the respective specifications in
the table 11.6.2.
6.3. Valves. It is mandatory that valves be (a) of the
design or equal to the design which the manufacturer
thereof recommends for the service, and (b) of materials
allowed by the code for the pressure and temperature.
6.4. Wall thickness. The following formula shall be
used to determine the pipe wall thickness:

Where:
tm=minimum pipe wall thickness in mm
P= maximum internal service pressure in kPa
t = nominal pipe wall thickness in mm
D = outside diameter of the pipe in mm
S= Allowable stress in materials in kPa
C= allowance for threading, mechanical strength and/or
corrosion in mm
Y= coefficient for values
6.5. Variation in pressure and temperature. Either
pressure or temperature, or both, may exceed the
nominal design values if the computed stress in the pipe
wall calculated for the pressure doesn’t exceed the
allowable S value in table 11.6.5 and 11.6.5a for the
expected temperature by more than the following
allowances for the period of duration indicated.
A. Up to 15 percent increase above the S value during
10 percent of the operating period.
6.6. Pressure reducing and relief valves
A. Where pressure reducing valves are used, one or
more relief or safety valves shall be provided on the low
pressure side of the reducing valve in case the piping or
equipment on the low pressure side does not met the
requirement for full initial pressure. The relief of safety
valve shall be located adjoining or as close as possible
to the reducing valve. Proper protection shall be
provided to prevent injury or damage caused by
escaping fluids from relief or safety valves in vented to
the atmosphere. The vents shall be of ample size and as
short and direct as possible. The combined discharge
capacity of the relief valves shall be such that the
pressure rating of the lower pressure piping and
equipment will not be exceed if the reducing valves
sticks open.
B. It is mandatory that the pressure gauge be installed
on the low pressure side of the reducing valve.
6.7. Pipe
A. For pressure above 4137 kPa, the pipe shall be:
1. seamless steel meeting ASTM specifications A-106,
A-312, A-335 or A-378; or
2. forged or bored steel meeting A-380; or
3. Automatic welded steel meeting A-312.
4. electric-fusion welded steel pipe meeting with ASTM
specifications A-155…
B. For pressure above 1724 kPa, but not above 4137
kPa, shall be:
1. Seamless steel in accordance with ASTM
specification A-106
2. Electric-fusion welded steel pipe in accordance with
ASTM specification A-155.
3. Electric resistance welded steel pipe of ASTM
specification of A-135 or
4. Seamless or electric resistance welded steel pipe of
ASTM specification of a-53
C. For service up to 400oC and pressure of not over
1724 kPa, any of the following classes of pipe may be
used:
1. Electric fusion welded steel of ASTM specification A-
134 or A-139
2. Electric resistance welded steel pipe of ASTM
specification A-135, or
3. Wrought iron pipe of ASTM specification A-72.
D. Grade A seamless steel pipe of ASTM specification
A-106, wrought iron pipe of ASTM specification A- 72,
Grade A seamless steel pipe of ASTM A-53, A-135 or A-
139 shall be used for close coiling, cold bending or other
uses.
E. Pipe permissible for the service specified in Sec.
11.6.7.3 may be used for temperature higher than 400 C
unless otherwise prohibited, if the S value in accordance
with Sec. 11.6.4 is used when calculating the pipe wall
thickness.
F. Pipe meeting API Specification 5L may also be used.
6.8. Boltings
A. The following standards shall apply to bolting:
1. For steam service pressure in access of 1724 kPa or
for steam or water service temperature exceeding 232
C, the bolting material shall conform to ASTM
specification A-193. For temperature exceeding 400 C,
only bolt studs are recommended. When sast iron
flanges are used, bolting material shall be of carbon
steel conforming to ASTM specification A- 307, Grade B,
or A-107, Grade 1120.
B. Flange bolts or bolt-studs shall be of the dimension
and material specified for the purpose in the
corresponding American flange standards. Bolts or bolt-
studs shall extend completely through the nuts and if
desired, may have reduced shanks of a diameter not
less than the diameter at root of threads.
C. Nuts shall conform to ASTM specification A-194.
6.9. Flanges
A. Flanges shall conform to the American standard B
16.5 for respective pressures and temperature or to the
specifications set by the manufacturer.
B. 172 kPa and class 862 kPa cast iron integral or
screwed companion flanges maybe used with a full
gasket or with a ring gasket extending to the inner edge
of the bolt holes. When using a full face gasket, the
bolting maybe of heat treated carbon steel, or alloy
steel. When using a ring gasket, the bolting shall be of
carbon steel equivalent to ASTM A-307, Grade B,
without heat treatment other than stress relief.
C. When bolting together two class 1724 kPa integral or
screwed companions cast iron flanges, having 1.6 mm
raised steel equivalent to ASTM A-307, Grade B. without
heat treatment other than the stress relief.
D. 1034 kPa steel flanges maybe bolted to cast iron
valves, fitting or other parts, having either integral class
862 kPa companion flanges. When such construction is
used, the 1.6 mm raised face on the steel flange shall be
removed. When bolting such flanges together using a
ring gasket extending to the inner edge of the bolt holes,
the bolting shall be of carbon steel equivalent to ASTM
A-307 Grade B, without heat treatment other that stress
relief. When bolting such flanges together using full face
gasket, the bolting maybe heat treated carbon steel or
alloy steel.
E. 2069 kPa steel flanges maybe bolted to cast iron
valves, fittings, or other parts having either integral class
1724 kPa cast iron flanges or screwed class 1724 kPa
cast iron companion flanges without any changes in the
raised faces on either flange. Where such construction
is used, the bolting shall be of carbon steel equivalent to
ASTM A-307 Grade B, without heat treatment other than
stress relief.
6.10 Fittings
A. The minimum metal thickness of all flange or screwed
fittings and the strength of factory made welding fittings
shall not be less than that specified for the pressure and
temperatures in the respective American standard.
B. All fittings in nominal sizes above; 80 mm for
pressure above 1724 kPa but not above 2758 kPa;
50mm for pressure above 2758 kPa but not above 4137
kPa, and 40 mm for pressure above 4137 kPa but not
above 17238 kPa shall have flanged ends or welding
ends.6.11
Gaskets
A. Gaskets where required, shall be of a material that
resist attack by the fluid carried in the pipe line, shall be
strong enough to hold the pressure, and perform the
purpose intended throughout the temperature range
encountered. Gaskets shall be as thin as the finish of
surface will permit to reduce possibility of blowing out.
B. Paper, vegetable fiber, rubber or rubber inserted
gaskets shall not be used for temperatures in excess of
121 C.
C. Asbestos compositions gaskets maybe used as
permitted in the American standard for steel pipe flanges
and flange fittings. This type of gaskets shall not be
used on lines carrying oil or other liquids above their
spontaneous ignition temperatures.
D. The use of metal or metal asbestos gaskets is not
limited as to pressure provided that the gasket material
is suitable for the service temperature. These types of
gaskets are recommended for use with small male and
female or the small tongue and groove facings. They
may also be used with steel flanges having large, male-
and-female, large tongue and groove, or raised face.
6.12 Hangers, Supports, Anchors
A. Piping and equipment shall be supported in a
thoroughly substantial and workman like manner, rigid
enough to prevent excessive vibration and anchored
sufficiently to prevent undue strains on boilers and the
equipment served. Hangers, supports, and anchors shall
be made of durable materials. In tunnels and buildings
of permanent fire proof construction, piping may be
supported on or hung from wood structures if all piping
used for conveying fluids at temperatures above 121 C
is spaced or insulated from such wooden members to
prevent dangerous heating.
B. Hangers and supports shall permit free expansion
and contraction of the piping between anchors. All piping
shall be carried in adjustable hanger properly leveled
supports, and suitable springs, sway bracing, vibration
dampener, etc. shall be provided where necessary.
6.13 Pipe sleeves
A. Where steam pipe pass through wall, partitions,
floors, beams, etc. , constructed of combustible material,
protecting metal sleeves or thimbles shall be provided to
give a clearance of not less than 6.35 mm under hot and
cold conditions all around the pipe, or pipe and covering.
When steam pipes pass through metal partitions, etc. a
clearance of at least 6.35 mm under hot and cold
condition shall be left all around the pipe, or pipe
covering. In any cases, if the fluid temperature exceeds
121 C, the pipe shall be insulated inside the sleeve with
a covering of at least standard thickness.
C. Walls, floors, partitions, beams, etc., shall not be cast
solidly to or built up around and in contact with a steam,
hot water, or hot oil pipe. Where such pipe must be
installed in a concrete floor or other building member., it
shall be protected for the entire buried length with a
suitable protecting pipes sleeve of steel, cast iron
wrought iron or tile; exception maybe taken to the
proceeding rules where pipes pass through walls; floors,
partitions, etc., that must be kept water light.
6.14 Drains, Drips, and Steam Traps
A. Suitable drains or drips shall be provided whatever
necessary to drain the condensate from all sections of
the piping and equipment whenever it may collect.
Suitable drains shall also be provide to empty water
lines, water storage tanks, equipment containing water,
etc., when such piping and equipment is out of service.
At least one valve shall be place in each drip or drain
line.
B. Drip lines from the steam headers, mains, separators,
and other equipment shall be properly drained by traps
installed in accessible locations and below the level of
the apparatus drained. Drip pumps, drip maybe used in
lieu of traps, if they are safely installed, protected and
operated under a regular supervision. All drain lines
shall have drip valves for free blow to the atmosphere.
C. Drip lines from the steam headers, mains, separators,
and other equipment operating at different pressure
shall not be connected to discharge through the same
trap. Where several traps discharge into one header
which is or maybe under pressure, a stop valve and a
check valve shall be placed in the discharge line from
each trap.
D. Trap discharge piping shall have the same thickness
as the inlet piping unless it is vented to atmosphere or
operated under low pressure and has no stop valves.
The trap discharge piping shall have at least the
pressure to which it may be subjected against freezing
when necessary. Drainage from the straps, if open to
atmosphere, shall be safeguarded to prevent accidents
from hot discharge.

6.15 Hydrostatic tests
A. Before Erection. All valves, fittings, etc. shall be
capable of withstanding a hydrostatic shell test made
before erection equal to twice the primary steam service
pressure, except that steel fittings and valves shall be
capable of withstanding the test pressure as given in the
American standard for steel pipe flanges fittings for the
specific material, pressure standard and facing involved.
Pipe shall be capable of meeting the hydrostatic test
requirements contained in the respective specifications
in table 11.6.2, under which it is purchased. If a
hydrostatic mill test pressure for pipe is not stated in any
of the specifications enumerated in table
11.6.2, the pipe shall be capable of meeting a minimum
internal hydrostatic test pressure determined from the
formula;
Where:
P= test pressure in kPa
t = nominal pipe wall thickness in mm
D= pipe outside diameter in mm
S= allowable stress in material in kPa and which shall be
taken as not less than 50 percent of the specified yield
point of the material except that hydrostatic test shall not
exceed 17238 kPa for sizes 80mm and below, or 19306
kPa for sizes over 80 percent of the specified yield point.
B. After erection. All piping systems shall be capable of
withstanding a hydrostatic test pressure of one and
one-half times the design pressure, except that the test
pressure shall in no case exceed the adjusted
pressure temperature rating for 38 C as given in the
American standard for steel pipe flanges and flange
fittings for the material and pressure standard involved.
For systems joined wholly with welded joints the
adjusted pressure rating shall be that for ring joint
facing, for system joined wholly or partly ith flanged
joints the adjusted pressure rating shall be that for the
type of facing used.
6.16 Expansion and Flexibility
a. Piping systems are subject to a diversity of
loadings creating stresses of different types and
patterns, of which only the following more
significant ones need generally be considered in
piping stress analysis:
1. Pressure, internal or external
2. Weight of pipe, fittings and valves,
containing fluid and insulation, and other
external loadings such as wind.
3. Thermal expansion of the line.
b. Materials. The thermal expansion range shall be
determined as the difference between the unit
expansion shown for the maximum normal
operating metal temperature and that for the
minimum normal-operating metal temperature
for materials not included in this table, reference
shall be made to authority source data, such as
publication of the National Bureau of Standards.
The cold and hot moduli of elasticity, Ec and Eh,
and the moduli of torsional rigidity, Gc and Gh,
respectively, may be taken as the values shown
for the minimum and maximum normal operating
metal temperatures for ferrous and for non-
ferrous materials.
c. For flexibility calculations, Poisson's ratio may
be taken as 0.3 at all temperatures for all ferrous
materials.
d. The S values, Sc and Sh at the minimum and
maximum operating metal temperatures,
respectively, to be used for determining the
allowable expansion stress range SA shall be
taken for the type of piping -system involved
from the applicable tables in the respective
sections of the code. In the case of welded pipe,
the longitudinal-joint efficiency maybe
disregarded in calculating expansion stresses.
6.17 General
a. Piping systems shall be designed to have
sufficient flexibility to prevent thermal
expansion from causing:
1. Failure from over-stress of the piping
material or anchors.
2. Leakage at joints
3. Detrimental distortion of connected
equipment resulting from excessive
thrusts and moments.
b. Flexibility shall be provided by changes of
direction in the piping through the use of
bends, loops, and off-sets; or provision shall
be made to absorb thermal strains by
expansion joints of the slip joints or bellows
type. If desirable, flexibility may be provided
by increasing or corrugating portions or all
of the pipe. In this case, anchors or ties of
sufficient strength and rigidity shall be
installed to provide for end forces due to
fluid pressure and other causes.
c. Basic Assumptions and Requirements
1. Formal calculations or model tests shall
be required when reasonable doubt
exists as to the adequate flexibility of a
system. Each problem shall be analyzed
by a method appropriate to the
conditions
No hard and fast rule can be given as to
when as analysis should be made.
However, in the absence of better
information the need for a formal stress
analysis for a two-anchor system of
uniform pipe size is indicated when the
following approximate criterion is not
satisfied:
 DY
≤ 0.03
( L−U )2
Where:
D = nominal pipe size, 1mm
Y = resultant of movements to be
absorbed by pipe line, mm
U = anchor distance (length of straight-
line joining anchors), meter.
L = developed length of line axis, meter.
1. In calculating the flexibility of a
piping system between anchor
points, the system shall be treated
as a whole. The significance of all
parts of the line and of all restraints
such as solid hangers or guides,
including intermediate restraints
introduced for the purpose of
reducing moments and forces on
equipment or small branch lines
shall be recognized.
2. Calculations shall take into account
stress-intensification factors found
to exist in components other than
plain straight pipe. Credit may be
taken for the extra flexibility of such
components.
3. Dimensional properties of pipe and
fittings as used in flexibility
calculations, shall be based on
nominal dimensions. The pressure
stresses for services subject to
severe corrosion shall be based on
the reduced thickness of the pipe.
4. The total expansion ranges from the
minimum of the maximum normal-
operating temperature shall be used
in all calculations, whether piping is
cold sprung or not. Not only the
expansion of the line itself, but also
linear and angular movements of
the equipment to which it is
attached, shall be considered.
5. Calculations for the expansion’s
stresses SE shall be based on the
modulus of elasticity Ec at room
temperature.
6.18 Stress and Reactions
e. Piping systems are subject to a diversity of
loadings creating stresses of different types and
patterns, of which only the following more
significant ones need generally be considered in
piping stress analysis:
The expansion stresses shall be combined in
accordance with the following formula.
S E= √ S2b + 4 S2t
Where:
Sb = iMb / Z = resultant bending stress kPa
St = Mt /2Z = torsional stress
Mb = resultant bending moment, newton-metre.
Mt = torsional moment, newton-metre
Z = section modulus of pipe (m3)
i = stress intensification factor
b. The maximum computed expansion stress, S E based
on 100 per cent of the expansion and E c for the cold
condition shall not exceed the allowable stress range,
SA:
S A =f (1.25 S C + 0.25 S h)
In the above formula.
SC = allowable stress (S value) in the hot condition
Sh = allowable stress (s value) in the hot condition
SC and SH are to be taken from the table in the
applicable sections of the code.
f = stress-range reduction factor for cyclic conditions. in
the absence of more applicable date, the values of f
shall be taken from the table.
By expected life is meant total number of years during
which system is expected to be in active operation.
The sum of the longitudinal stresses due to pressure,
weight and other sustained external loadings shall not
exceed Sh.
Where the sum of these stresses is less than Sh the
difference between Sh and this sum may be added to the
term 0.25 Sh in the above formula. the longitudinal
pressure stress Sep shall be determined by dividing the
end force due to internal pressure:
2
pπ d
F=
4
By the cross-sectional area of the pipe wall
π 2 2
A= ( D −d )
4
or
F pd 2
Sep = = 2 2
A D −d
In which
Sep = longitudinal pressure stress, kPa
P = internal pressure, kPa
d = nominal outside diameter of the pipe minus
two times the normal wall thickness in mm.
D = nominal outside diameter of pipe, mm
1. The reactions (forces and moments) R h and Rc
in the hot and cold conditions, respectively, shall
be obtained as follows from the reactions R
 derived from the flexibility calculations based on
the modulus of elasticity at room temperature Ec
( )
2 Eh
Rh = 1− C Rc
3 Ec
or
(
Rc = 1−
Sh E c
∙
Se E h )
R tm = minimum pipe wall thickness in mm, i.e., nominal
Whichever is greater, and with the further
condition that:
Where:
C = cold spring factor varying from zero for no
cold spring to one for 100 per cent cold spring
SE = maximum computed expansion stress
EC = modulus of elasticity in the cold condition
Eh = modulus of elasticity in hot condition
R = range of reactions corresponding to the full
expansion range based on EC.
c. The design and spacing of support shall be checked
to assure that the sum of the longitudinal stress due to
the weight, pressure, and other sustained external
loading does not exceed Sh.
Section 7.0 Industrial Gas and Air Piping Systems
7.1 This industrial air and gas in mines, power
plants, industrial and gas manufacturing plants.
a. Piping with metal
temperature above 232
degree or below - 2.9 OC.
b. Air piping systems
operating at pressures of
207 kPa or less.
c. c. Piping lines with firebrick
or other refractory material
used for conveying hot
gases.
7.2 Wall thickness of Pipe
The minimum thickness of pipe wall required shall be
determined by the following formula for the designated
pressure and for temperature not exceeding 232-degree
Celsius.
PD
t m= =C
2 S+ 0.8 P
where: P = maximum allowable, operating pressure in
kPa. The value obtained maybe
rounded to the next higher unit of 10.
The maximum allowable operating
pressure computed with S values
permitted under this paragraph, shall
not exceed two-thirds of the mill test
pressure for a service temperature of
38'~ or less and five-ninths of the mill
test pressure for a service temperature
of 232-degree Celsius.
S = maximum allowable hoop stress in kPa
For steel or wrought-iron pipe the value of S shall be 0.6
K for a service temperature of 38'~ or less or 0.52K for a
service temperature of 232'~ where K is the stipulated
minimum effective yield strength calculated in the
manner described in Section 1 1.7.3.
wall thickness less the manufacturing tolerance for the
thickness. Where available from on hand or in stock, the
actual measured wall thickness maybe used to calculate
the maximum allowable operating pressure.
C = corrosion in millimeter obtained from the following:
Type of Pipe (mm) Value of C in inches
Threaded steel, wrought-iron Depth of thread or 1.7
mm whichever is larger
Grooved steel, wrought-iron Depth of groove
Plain end steel or wrought-iron 0.05 (1.7mm)
D = outside diameter of pipe in inches (mm)
7.3 Effective Yield Strength (K)
The effective yield strength K of steel or wrought-iron
pipe maybe determined by taking the product of Y, the
stipulated minimum yield strength, and E, efficiency of
the longitudinal joint.
Alternatively, the effective yield strength maybe
determined by internal hydrostatic pressure tests on
finished lengths of pipe or on cylindrical samples cut
from the results of such test in accordance with the ff.
formula:
PyD
K=
2t
Where: K = effective yield strength in kPa
Py = pressure at the yield strength of the pipe in
kPa
This maybe taken as the pressure required to cause a
volumetric offset of 0.2 per cent of as the pressure
required to cause a permanent increase in
circumference of 0.1 per cent at any point, but other
suitable methods of determining that the stress in the
steel has reached the yield strength maybe used,
provided such methods conform in all respects to
recognized engineering practices. t = stipulated nominal
pipe wall thickness in mm D = stipulated outside
diameter of pipe in mm.
Section 8.0 Refrigerator Piping System
8.1 Refrigeration piping shall be understood to comprise
all refrigerant and brine piping, whenever used and
whether erected on the premise or factory assembled.
8.2 Minimum Design Pressures for Refrigerant
Piping

a. Piping Systems for refrigerants shall be
designed for not less than the pressures.
b. For refrigerants the design pressure for the
high-pressure side shall be not less than the
saturated vapour pressure of the refrigerant at
54 C. The design pressure for the low-pressure
side shall be not less than the saturated vapour
pressure of the refrigerant at 32 C. For
refrigerant not listed in Table 11.8.2.1 & having
a critical temperature below 54 C, the design
pressure for the high-pressure side shall be not
less than 1.5 times the critical pressure and the
design pressure for the low-pressure side shall
be not less than the critical pressure. In no case
shall be design pressure be less than 270 kPa.
c. Piping systems for brine shall be designed for
the maximum pressure which can be imposed
on the system in normal operation, but not less
than 689.5 kPa including for cast-iron pipe, the
water hammer allowance.
d. For working temperatures below 18 C, an
allowance for brittleness of castings, forgings,
bolting, and pipe shall be made as follows:
CAST IRON, WROUGHT-IRON, and CARBON
STEEL ferrous materials shall have the design
pressure including allowance for water hammer
increased 2 percent for each degree below 18 C
and shall not be used below – 73 C.
COPPER, BRASS, BRONZE. No adjustment.
8.3 Thickness of Pipe
The minimum thickness of pipe wall required shall be
determined by the ff. formula:
PD
t m= =C
2 S+ 0.8 P
Where:
tm = minimum pipe wall thickness in mm
P = maximum internal service pressure in kPa. The
value of P shall not be taken at less than 689.5 kPa for
any condition of service or material.
D = outside diameter of pipe in mm
S = allowable stress in material due to internal pressure,
kilo Pascal
C = Allowance for threading, mechanical strength,
and/or corrosion, in mm obtained from the following list.
8.4 Piping of Pressure Relieving Devices
The most important design factor about pressure
relieving devices is the underlying principle of intrinsic
safety. They must “fail safe” or not at all. Therefore, the
solution to problems in pressure relief piping must be
based on sound design practices. Because failure is
intolerable, simplicity and directness of design should be
encouraged as a mass to reliability.
There are at least four good reasons why the installation
of pressure safety valves and disc should be engineered
with care:
a. The inlet and outlet piping can reduce the
capacity of the device below a safe value.
b. The operation of the device maybe adversely
affected to the point where the opening or
closing pressure is altered. In the case of safety
valves*, premature leaking or "simmering" may
occur at pressures less than the set pressure or
chattering may occur after the valve opens.
c. The reaction thrust at the same time the device
starts to discharge can cause mechanical failure
of the piping.
d. Good design saves maintenance pesos.
8.5 Safety Valve Inlet Piping
In order to operate satisfactorily, a safety valve must be
mounted vertically. It should be directly on the vessel
nozzle or on a short connection fitting that provides
direct and unobstructed flow between the vessel and the
valve. Safety valves protecting piping systems should of
course be mounted in a similar manner. The device may
never be installed on a fitting having a smaller inside
diameter than the safety valve inlet connection.
8.6 Pressure Drop
The pressure drop between the vessel and
safety valve inlet flange should not be so large
that the valve is "starved" or chattering will
result. The following limitations are suggested:
a. The pressure drop due to friction should not
exceed 1 percent of the accumulated
relieving pressure.
b. The pressure drop due to velocity head loss
should not exceed 2 percent of the
accumulate relieving pressure.
Some safety valve manufacturers
suggested a maximum total pressure drop
of 2 percent of set pressure. In the absence
of test data, it is recommended that this
more conservative limit be used.
8.7 Piping Supports
Safety valves are instruments that must measure within
three percent and perform a specific control function, but
excessive strain can negatively affect their ability to
measure and control.
Supports for discharge piping should be designed to
keep the load on the valve to a minimum. In high
temperature service, high loads can cause permanent
distortion of the valve, even at low temperature. The
discharge piping should be supported free of the valve
and carefully aligned so that the forces acting on the
valve will be at minimum. Expansion joints or long radius
bends of proper design and cold spring should be
provided to prevent excessive strain.
The discharge pipe is subjected to thermal expansion
and discharge reaction forces, resulting in an impact
load and bourdon effect at each charge of direction. The
piping must be adequately anchored to prevent sway or
vibration while the valve is discharging.
NOTES: A. The maximum weight per span is based on
bigger steel pipe size weight full of water fittings and
insulated.
1. The copper tubing and fittings (for instrument air
lines) shall be supported not more than 5 feet on
centers or as shown on the drawings.
2. Vertical risers shall be supported from the
building construction by means of approved pipe
clamps of U-bolts at every floor. Provide slide
guides for pipes subject to thermal expansion.
Supports shall be of adequate. Size structural
steel shapes or sections where pipe clamps are
too short to connect to the building.
B. Pipe Anchors and Restraints:
1. Provide suitable pipe anchors to limit thermal
expansion and over stressing of piping and
adjacent connecting structures when piping is
subject to thermal expansion.
a. Rigid pipe anchors shall either be welded
type construction or clamp bolted type
whichever is suitable to the requirement.
b. Directional type pipe anchors where pipe
movement is allowed in any one plate shall
be designed to prevent excessive stresses
to the pipe and interference with adjacent
pipes or structure.
2. Piping restraints should be provided to prevent
unnecessary pipe movements due to vibration
and seismic forces and damage to pipe joints.
8.8 Reaction Forces
The total stress imposed on a safety valve or its piping is
caused by the sum of these forces:
a. Internal Pressure
b. Dead Weight of piping
c. Thermal expansion or contraction of either the
discharge line of the equipment upon which the
valve is mounted and
d. The bending moment cause by the reaction
thrust of the discharge.
For safety valve:
F 1=( K +0.2 ) A P1
For safety disc:
F 1=0.63 ( K +0.2 ) A P1
Where:
F1 = Reaction force, Kg
A = Area of valve orifice or disc., sq. mm.
P1 = inlet pressure at time of opening, kPa (set
pressure plus 14.7)
K = ratio of specific heats, Cp/Cv.
Note: Psi x 6.895 = kPa.
If it is possible for air to be relieved from the system
under special conditions, use a minimum valve of K =
1.4 for design.
Calculation of the reaction force for liquid
service demonstrates that this force is negligible.
However, since it is usually possible to trap air or gas in
any pressure system, it is recommended that K = 104 be
used in the above formulas as a basis design for liquid
service.
8.9 Compressor Piping
Piping in a compressor circuit should connect directly
point to point, bends instead of elbows, angular branch
connections eliminate hard tees, double offsets should
be avoided, intercoolers should be integrated with the
machine, pulsation dampeners should be located on the
cylinders without interconnecting pipe, knockout drums
should be adjacent to the machine, several aftercoolers
or exchangers should be stacked as much as possible,
and equipment should be in process flow sequence.
Pipe supports are essential for reciprocating
compressors due to vibration problems. Independent of
any other foundation or structure, pipe systems should
be "nailed down" close to grade. Poorly designed
compressor piping can be expensive to correct after
start-up.