AN

INTRODUCTION
TO LEADERSHIP
 PERSONAL CHARACTERISTICS
ASSOCIATED WITH LEADERSHIP

Leader Emergence
- is the idea that people who become leaders possess traits or characteristics different from people who do not become leaders.
- a part of trait theory that postulates that certain types of people will become leaders and certain types will not.

Though early reviews of the literature suggested that the relationship between traits and leader emergence is not very strong, more
recent reviews suggest that people high in openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, masculinity, creativity, and authoritarianism
and low in neuroticism are more likely to emerge as leaders than their counterparts.

High self-monitors (people who adapt their behavior to the social situation) emerge as leaders more often than low self-monitors

More intelligent people are more likely to emerge as leaders than are less intelligent people
 PERSONAL CHARACTERISTICS
ASSOCIATED WITH LEADERSHIP

In a study using a large international sample it is found that the motivation to lead has three aspects (factors):
· affective identity
· noncalculative
· social-normative motivation
 PERSONAL CHARACTERISTICS
ASSOCIATED WITH LEADERSHIP

Affective identity motivation - the motivation to lead as a result of a desire to be in charge and lead others. Of the three
leadership motivation factors, people scoring high on this one tend to have the most leadership experience and are rated by
others as having high leadership potential

Noncalculative motivation - those who seek leadership positions because they will result in personal gain. Example, becoming
a leader may result in an increase in status or in pay.

Social-normative motivation - the desire to lead out of a sense of duty or responsibility.

 PERSONAL CHARACTERISTICS
ASSOCIATED WITH LEADERSHIP

Leader Performance
– a part of trait theory that postulates that certain types of people will be better leaders than will other types of people.

Research on the relationship between personal characteristics and leader performance has concentrated on three areas:
· traits
· needs
· orientation
 PERSONAL CHARACTERISTICS
ASSOCIATED WITH LEADERSHIP

Traits
Extraversion, openness, agreeableness, and conscientiousness were positively related to leader performance and neuroticism
was negatively related to leader performance.

Management, decision-making, and oral-communication skills were highly correlated with leadership effectiveness.

As was the case with leader emergence, high self-monitors tend to be better leaders than do low self-monitors
Self-monitoring - a personality trait characterized by the tendency to adapt one’s behavior to fit a particular social situation.
it focuses on what leaders do as opposed to what they are.

Certain traits are necessary requirements for leadership excellence but that they do not guarantee it, instead, leadership excellence
is a function of the right person being in the right place at the right time.
 PERSONAL CHARACTERISTICS
ASSOCIATED WITH LEADERSHIP
Needs
A personal characteristic that has received some support pertains to a leader’s
· need for power,
· need for achievement, and
· need for affiliation

Need for power - according to trait theory, the extent to which a person desires to be in control of other people.

Need for achievement - according to trait theory, the extent to which a person desires to be successful.

Need for affiliation – the extent to which a person desires to be around other people.

Leadership motive pattern - is a high need for power and a low need for affiliation.
The need is not for personal power but for organizational power.
This pattern of needs is thought to be important because it implies that an effective leader should be concerned more with results than with being
liked.
 PERSONAL CHARACTERISTICS
ASSOCIATED WITH LEADERSHIP
Needs for power, achievement, and affiliation can be measured through various
psychological tests. The most commonly used is the Thematic Apperception Test
(TAT).

Another commonly used measure is the Job Choice Exercise (JCE) Job Choice
Exercise (JCE) - an objective test used to measure various need levels.

Another method to determine leaders’ needs is to examine the themes that occur in
their writing and speeches
 PERSONAL CHARACTERISTICS
ASSOCIATED WITH LEADERSHIP

Gender

As with leader emergence, meta-analyses suggest that the role of gender in leader effectiveness is complex.

When all studies are combined, men and women appear not to differ in leadership effectiveness

However, men were more effective as leaders in situations traditionally defined in masculine terms and in situations in which the majority of
subordinates were men.

Though men and women appear to be equally effective leaders, a meta-analysis of leadership styles indicated that women were more likely than
men to engage in behaviors associated with high-quality leadership
 TASK VERSUS PERSON ORIENTATION
Managerial Grid - a measure of leadership that classifies a leader into one of five leadership styles.
 TASK VERSUS PERSON ORIENTATION

Task-oriented leaders such as

Person-oriented leaders such as
Task-centered leaders - leaders who define and structure their
Country club leaders,
roles as well as the roles of their subordinates.
Theory Y leaders, and
Theory X leaders - leaders who believe that employees are
Leaders high in Consideration
extrinsically motivated and thus lead by giving directives and
act in a warm and supportive manner and show concern for their
setting goals.
subordinates.
Initiating structure – the extent to which leaders define and
structure their roles and the roles of their subordinates.
Person-oriented leaders believe that employees are intrinsically
define and structure their own roles and those of their subordinates to
motivated, seek responsibility, are self-controlled, and do not
attain the group’s formal goals.
necessarily dislike work.
Task-oriented leaders see their employees as lazy, extrinsically
Because of these assumptions, person-oriented leaders consult their
motivated, wanting security, undisciplined, and shirking
subordinates before making decisions, praise their work, ask about
responsibility.
their families, do not look over their shoulder, and use a more
Because of these assumptions, task-oriented leaders tend to
“hands-off” approach to leadership.
manage or lead by giving directives, setting goals, and making
Under pressure, person-oriented leaders tend to become socially
decisions without consulting their subordinates.
withdrawn.
Under pressure, they become anxious, defensive, and dominant
 TASK VERSUS PERSON ORIENTATION

Task-oriented leaders such as

Person-oriented leaders such as
Task-centered leaders - leaders who define and structure their
Country club leaders,
roles as well as the roles of their subordinates.
Theory Y leaders, and
Theory X leaders - leaders who believe that employees are
Leaders high in Consideration
extrinsically motivated and thus lead by giving directives and
act in a warm and supportive manner and show concern for their
setting goals.
subordinates.
Initiating structure – the extent to which leaders define and
structure their roles and the roles of their subordinates.
Person-oriented leaders believe that employees are intrinsically
define and structure their own roles and those of their subordinates to
motivated, seek responsibility, are self-controlled, and do not
attain the group’s formal goals.
necessarily dislike work.
Task-oriented leaders see their employees as lazy, extrinsically
Because of these assumptions, person-oriented leaders consult their
motivated, wanting security, undisciplined, and shirking
subordinates before making decisions, praise their work, ask about
responsibility.
their families, do not look over their shoulder, and use a more
Because of these assumptions, task-oriented leaders tend to
“hands-off” approach to leadership.
manage or lead by giving directives, setting goals, and making
Under pressure, person-oriented leaders tend to become socially
decisions without consulting their subordinates.
withdrawn.
Under pressure, they become anxious, defensive, and dominant
 TASK VERSUS PERSON ORIENTATION

The best leaders (team) are both task and person oriented,
The worst (impoverished) are neither task nor person oriented.
Some leaders (middle-of-the-road) have moderate amounts of both
orientations.

Team leadership - a leadership style in which the leader is

concerned with both productivity and employee well-being.
Impoverished leadership – a style of leadership in which the leader
is concerned with neither productivity nor the well-being of
employees.
Middle-of-the-road leadership – a leadership style reflecting a
balanced orientation between people and tasks.
 TASK VERSUS PERSON ORIENTATION

The best leaders (team) are both task and person oriented,
The worst (impoverished) are neither task nor person oriented.
Some leaders (middle-of-the-road) have moderate amounts of both
orientations.

Team leadership - a leadership style in which the leader is

concerned with both productivity and employee well-being.
Impoverished leadership – a style of leadership in which the leader
is concerned with neither productivity nor the well-being of
employees.
Middle-of-the-road leadership – a leadership style reflecting a
balanced orientation between people and tasks.
UNSUCCESSFUL LEADERS

The traits and behaviors of unsuccessful leaders are not necessarily the
opposite of those of successful leaders.

On the basis of years of research, Hogan, Raskin, and Fazzini (1990)

concluded that poor leader behavior has three major causes.
Lack of training
Cognitive deficiencies
Personality
UNSUCCESSFUL LEADERS

Lack of training
The first is a lack of leadership training given to supervisors.
The norm for most organizations is either to promote a current
employee or hire a new employee and place him directly into a
leadership role.

Cognitive deficiencies
The second cause of poor leadership stems from cognitive
deficiencies.
Hogan et al. (1990) believe that poor leaders are unable to learn from
experience and are unable to think strategically—they consistently
make the same mistakes and do not plan ahead.
 UNSUCCESSFUL LEADERS
Personality
The third, and perhaps most important, source of poor leadership
behavior involves the personality of the leader.
Hogan et al. (1990) believed that many unsuccessful leaders are
insecure and adopt one of three personality types:
· the paranoid or passive-aggressive
· the high-likability floater
· and the narcissist
The Paranoid or Passive-Aggressive
The source of insecurity for leaders who are paranoid, passive-
aggressive, or both is some incident in their life in which they felt
betrayed.
This paranoid/passive-aggressive leader has deeply rooted, but
perhaps unconscious, resentment and anger.
On the surface, these leaders are charming, quiet people who often
compliment their subordinates and fellow workers.
But they resent the successes of others and are likely to act against
subordinates in a passive-aggressive manner; that is, on the surface
they appear to be supportive, but at the same time they will “stab”
another person in the back.
High-likability Floater
The type of leader who is insecure and seldom rocks the boat or
causes trouble is known as a
This person goes along with the group, is friendly to everyone, and
never challenges anyone’s ideas.
The reason he has no enemies is because he never does anything,
challenges anyone, or stands up for the rights of his employees.
Such leaders will be promoted and never fired because even though
they make no great performance advances, they are well liked.
Their employees have high morale but show relatively low
performance.
Narcissists
are leaders who overcome their insecurity by overconfidence.
They like to be the center of attention, promote their own
accomplishments, and take most, if not all, of the credit for the
successes of their group—but they avoid all blame for failure.
 UNSUCCESSFUL LEADERS

Rather than concentrate on traits, Rasch, Shen, Davies, and Bono (2008)
collected critical incidents of ineffective leader behavior and found that
such behavior fell under 10 basic dimensions:
Engaging in illegal and unethical behavior
Avoiding conflict and people problems
Demonstrating poor emotional control (e.g., yelling and
screaming)
Overcontrolling (e.g., micromanaging)
Demonstrating poor task performance
Poor planning, organization, and communication
Starting or passing on rumors or sharing confidential information
·Procrastinating and not meeting time commitments
Failing to accommodate the personal needs of subordinates
Failing to nurture and manage talent
 INTERACTION
BETWEEN THE
LEADER AND THE
SITUATION

INTERACTION BETWEEN THE LEADER AND

THE SITUATION

A leader’s effectiveness often depends not only on the traits she

possesses but also on the particular situation in which the leader
finds herself.

In the past few decades, several theories have emerged that

have sought to explain the situational nature of leadership.
 INTERACTION BETWEEN THE LEADER AND
THE SITUATION 2. The second variable is leader position power.
Situational Favorability
Fiedler’s contingency model - a theory of leadership that states
that leadership effectiveness is dependent on the interaction
between the leader and the situation.
Thus, Fiedler would argue that rather than teaching people to
change their leadership styles, leadership training should
concentrate on helping people understand their style of
leadership and learn how to manipulate a situation so that the
two match.
The favorableness of a situation is determined by three
variables.
1. The first is task structuredness.
Task structuredness - the variable in Fiedler’s contingency
model that refers to the extent to which tasks have clear goals
and problems can be solved.
Structured tasks have goals that are clearly stated and known
by group members, have only a few correct solutions to a
problem, and can be completed in only a few ways.
The more structured the task, the more favorable the situation
That is, the greater the position or legitimate power of the
leader, the more favorable the situation.
Thus, a group or organizational setting in which there is no
assigned leader is not considered to be a favorable leadership
situation.
Leader position power – the variable in Fiedler’s contingency
model that refers to the extent to which a leader, by the nature
of his or her position, has the power to reward and punish
subordinates.
3. The third variable is leader–member relations.
The more the subordinates like their leader, the more favorable the
situation will be.
The leader– member relationship is considered the most
important of the three variables.
Leader–member relations - the variable in Fiedler’s contingency
model that refers to the extent to which subordinates like a
leader.
Fiedler’s training program, called Leader Match, has also been
supported by research.
Leader Match – a training program that teaches leaders how to
change situations to match their leadership styles.
This program is based on Fiedler’s belief that an individual’s
leadership style is not easily changed.
 INTERACTION BETWEEN THE LEADER AND
THE SITUATION
Organizational Climate
Leadership Style Organization Climate
Another situational theory, known as IMPACT theory, was
developed by Geier, Downey, and Johnson (1980), who believed
that each leader has one of six behavioral styles: Informative Style Ignorance
· informational,
· magnetic,
Magnetic Style Despair
· position,
· affiliation,
· coercive, or Position Style Instability
· tactical

Affiliation Style Anxiety

Each style is effective in only a particular situation, or in what the
researchers call an organizational climate.
Coercive Style Crisis
IMPACT theory - a theory of leadership that states that there are
six styles of leadership and that each style will be effective only in
Tactical Style Disorganization
one of six organizational climates.
Informational Style in a Climate of Ignorance Position Style in a Climate of Instability

Informational style - a style of leadership in which the leader Position style - a leadership style in which the leaders influence
leads through knowledge and information; most effective in a others by virtue of their appointed or elected authority; most
climate of ignorance. effective in a climate of instability.

Ignorance - an organizational climate in which important Instability - an organizational climate in which people are not
information is not available. sure what to do.

Magnetic Style in a Climate of Despair Affiliation Style in a Climate of Anxiety

Magnetic style - a style of leadership in which the leader has Affiliation style - a leadership style in which the individual leads
influence because of his or her charismatic personality; most by caring about others and that is most effective in a climate of
effective in a climate of despair. anxiety.

Despair - an organizational climate characterized by low morale Anxiety - an organizational climate in which worry predominates.
Coercive Style in a Climate of Crisis Tactical Style in a Climate of Disorganization

Coercive style - a leadership style in which the individual leads Tactical style – a leadership style in which a person leads
by controlling reward and punishment; most effective in a through organization and strategy; most effective in a climate of
climate of crisis. disorganization.

Crisis - a critical time or climate for an organization in which the Disorganization - a climate in which the organization has the
outcome to a decision has extreme consequences. necessary knowledge and resources but does not know how to
efficiently use the knowledge or the resources.
Becoming an Effective Leader According to IMPACT Theory
If IMPACT theory is correct, people can become effective
leaders by one of the four Methods
· Find a climate consistent with your leadership style.
· Change your leadership style to better fit the existing
climate.
· Change your followers’ perception of the climate.
· Change the actual climate.
 INTERACTION BETWEEN THE LEADER AND
THE SITUATION
Instrumental style - in the path–goal theory, a leadership style in
SUBORDINATE ABILITY
which the leader plans and organizes the activities of employees.

Because the needs of subordinates change with each new situation,

Supportive style – in the path–goal theory, a leadership style in
supervisors must adjust their behavior to meet the needs of their
which leaders show concern for their employees.
subordinates.
Participative style - in the path–goal theory, a leadership style in
Path–goal theory - a theory of leadership stating that leaders will be
which the leader allows employees to participate in decisions.
effective if their behavior helps subordinates achieve relevant goals.
Achievement-oriented style - in the path–goal theory, a leadership
style in which the leader sets challenging goals and rewards
According to House’s path–goal theory, a leader can adopt one of
achievement.
four behavioral leadership styles to handle each situation:
· instrumental,
· supportive,
Unfortunately, a meta-analysis of the research on path–goal theory
· participative,
has not supported its general effectiveness
· achievement-oriented
If path–goal theory is to have real impact, it will need further
revision.
 INTERACTION BETWEEN THE LEADER AND
THE SITUATION

Another theory that focuses on the relationship

between leader and follower is the situational
leadership theory developed by Hersey and
Blanchard (1988), who postulated that a leader
typically uses one of four behavioral styles:
· delegating
· directing
· supporting
· coaching

Situational leadership theory - a theory of

leadership stating that effective leaders must
adapt their style of leadership to fit both the
situation and the followers.

Hersey and Blanchard termed the most important

follower characteristic
follower readiness - the ability and willingness to
perform a particular task.
INTERACTION BETWEEN THE LEADER AND
THE SITUATION

Vroom–Yetton Model – a theory of

leadership that concentrates on helping a
leader choose how to make a decision.
LEADERSHIP THROUGH CONTACT:
MANAGEMENT BY WALKING AROUND

Management by walking around (MBWA) is another

popular specific behavioral theory.

This one holds that leaders and managers are most

effective when they are out of their offices, walking
around, and meeting with and talking to employees and
customers about their needs and progress.

MBWA is thought to increase communication, build

relationships with employees, and encourage
employee participation
 LEADERSHIP THROUGH POWER
Reward and Coercive Powers
Expert Power Leaders also have power to the extent that they
Expert power - power that individuals have because can reward and punish others.
they have knowledge.
Reward power - leadership power that exists to the
There are two requirements for expert power. extent that the leader has the ability and authority
1. First, the knowledge must be something that others to provide rewards. Involves having control over
in an organization need. both financial rewards—salary increases, bonuses,
2. Second, others must be aware that the leader knows or promotions—and nonfinancial rewards—praise or
something. more favorable work assignments

Coercive power - leadership power that comes

from the leader’s capacity to punish others.
Legitimate Power
For a leader to have coercive power, it is important
Legitimate power – the power that individuals have
that others believe she is willing to use her ability to
because of their elected or appointed position.
punish

Leaders obtain legitimate power on the basis of their

positions.
 LEADERSHIP THROUGH POWER

Referent Power
Another source of power for a leader may lie in the positive feelings that others hold for him.

Referent power – leadership power that exists when followers can identify with a leader and the leader’s goals.

Leaders who are well liked can influence others even in the absence of reward and coercive power.

Leaders can obtain such referent power by complimenting others, doing favors, and generally being friendly
and supportive

Employees of leaders with referent power are most committed to their organizations and satisfied with their
jobs.
LEADERSHIP THROUGH VISION:
TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP

In the past 20 years, it has become popular to separate leadership styles into two types:
· transactional
· transformational
LEADERSHIP THROUGH VISION:
TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP

Transactional leadership - leadership style in which the leader focuses on task-oriented behaviors.
Transactional leadership consists of many of the task-oriented behaviors mentioned throughout this chapter—
setting goals, monitoring performance, and providing a consequence to success or failure.

Transactional leadership is thought to have three dimensions:

· contingent reward
· management by exception-active
· management by exception-passive

The contingent reward dimension refers to leaders who reward followers for engaging in desired activity.

Management by exception-active refers to leaders who actively monitor performance and take corrective action
when needed.

Management by exception-passive refers to leaders who do not actively monitor follower behavior and who take
corrective action only when problems are serious.
LEADERSHIP THROUGH VISION:
TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP
Transformational leadership focuses on changing or transforming the goals, values, ethics, standards, and
performance of others
Transformational leadership - Visionary leadership in which the leader changes the nature and goals of an
organization.

Transformational leaders are often labeled as being “visionary,” “charismatic,” and “inspirational.”
They lead by developing a vision, changing organizations to fit this vision, and motivating employees to reach
the vision or long-term goal.
They innovate, challenge the status quo, focus on people, are flexible, look to the future, carefully analyze
problems, act in an ethical manner, and trust their intuition
· Transactional leadership is most related to the personality dimension of extraversion;
· is positively related to agreeableness, conscientiousness, and openness to experience;
· and is negatively related to neuroticism

It is believed that there are three highly related dimensions to transformational leadership:
· charisma (idealized influence, inspirational motivation),
· intellectual stimulation,
· individual consideration
LEADERSHIP THROUGH AUTHENTICITY

Authentic leadership – a leadership theory stating that leaders should be honest and open and lead out of a desire
to serve others rather than a desire for self-gain.

Rather than leading out of a desire for profit or fame, the authentic leader desires to serve others and leads in a
manner that empowers others.

Former EEOC chair Cari Dominguez calls this style “leading with your heart” whereas Whitney and Trosten- Bloom
(2012) call it “appreciative leadership.”

An important aspect of authentic leadership is self-awareness.

For leaders to be successful they need to understand who they are, recognize and accept their weaknesses, and
take steps to correct those weaknesses.

Authentic leaders have a high self-esteem that gives them the confidence to be courageous and do the right thing
as well as the willingness to accept criticism and make personal changes when necessary