Antenna Theory and

Applications (EE 4310)

Chapter 1: Antennas

Faroq Razzaz
Introduction

1) Definition:
⚫ An antenna is defined by Webster's Dictionary as "a usually
metallic device (as a rod or wire) for radiating or receiving
radio waves."
⚫ The IEEE Standard Definitions of Terms for Antennas defines
the antenna or aerial as "a means for radiating or receiving
radio waves."
⚫ The antenna is the transitional structure between free‐space
and a guiding device.
⚫ The guiding device or transmission line may take the form of a
coaxial line or a hollow pipe, and it is used to transport
electromagnetic energy from the transmitting source to the
antenna or from the antenna to the receiver.
Introduction

Figure 1.1 Antenna as a transition device.

Introduction

⚫ A transmission‐line Thevenin equivalent of the antenna system

Figure 1.2 Transmission-line Thevenin

equivalent of antenna in transmitting mode.
Introduction

⚫ The source is represented by an ideal generator

⚫ The transmission line is represented by a line with characteristic
impedance 𝑍𝑐
⚫ The antenna is represented by a load 𝑍𝐴 = (𝑅𝐿 + 𝑅𝑟 ) + 𝑗 𝑋 𝐴 connected
to the transmission line.
⚫ RL: represent then conduction and dielectric losses associated with
the antenna structure
⚫ Rr: referred to as the radiation resistance, is used to represent
radiation by the antenna
⚫ XA: represent the imaginary part of the impedance associated with
radiation by the antenna
Introduction

⚫ Loss

✓ Under ideal conditions, energy generated by the source should be

totally transferred to the radiation resistance Rr.

✓ In a practical system there are conduction‐dielectric losses due to

the lossy nature of the transmission line and the antenna, as well as
the due to reflections (mismatch) losses at the interface between
the line and the antenna.
Introduction

⚫ Matching

✓ Taking into account the internal impedance of the source and

neglecting line and reflection losses, maximum power is delivered
to the antenna under conjugate matching.

✓ The reflected waves from the interface create, along with the
traveling waves from the source toward the antenna, standing
waves, inside the transmission.

✓ A typical standing wave pattern is shown dashed in Figure 1.2.

✓ If the antenna system is not properly designed, the transmission

line could act to a large degree as an energy storage element
instead of as a wave guiding and energy transporting device.
Introduction

⚫ The losses due to the line can be minimized by selecting low‐loss lines.

⚫ The standing waves can be reduced by matching the impedance of the

antenna to the characteristic impedance of the line.

⚫ An equivalent similar to that of Figure 1.2 is used to represent the

antenna system in the receiving mode where the source is replaced by
a receiver.

⚫ All other parts of the transmission‐line equivalent remain the same.

⚫ The radiation resistance Rr is used to represent energy from the free

space wave to the antenna.
Introduction

Directivity
⚫ In addition to receiving or transmitting energy, an antenna in a wireless system
is usually required to optimize the radiation energy in some directions and
suppress it in others.

⚫ Thus the antenna must also serve as a directional device. It must then take
various forms to meet the particular need at hand.

⚫ For wireless communication systems, the antenna is one of the most critical
components.

⚫ A good design of the antenna can relax system requirements and improve overall
system performance.
Types of Antennas

Wire Antennas
⚫ There are various shapes of wire antennas such as a straight wire (dipole), loop,
and helix.
⚫ Loop antennas need not only be circular.
⚫ They may take the form of a rectangle, square, ellipse, or any other
configuration.
⚫ The Circular loop is the most common because of its simplicity in construction.

Figure 1.3 Wire antenna configurations.

Types of Antennas

Aperture Antennas
⚫ Aperture antennas may be more familiar today.
⚫ Antennas of this type are very useful for aircraft and spacecraft applications,
because they can be very conveniently flush‐mounted on the skin of the aircraft
or spacecraft.
⚫ In addition, they can be covered with a dielectric material to protect them from
hazardous conditions of the environment.

Figure 1.4 Aperture antenna configurations.

Types of Antennas

Microstrip Antennas
⚫ Microstrip antennas became popular in the 1970s.
⚫ These antennas consist of a metallic patch on a grounded substrate.
⚫ The metallic patch can take many different configurations.
⚫ The rectangular and circular patches are the most popular.
⚫ The microstrip antennas are low‐profile, conformable to planar and nonplanar
surfaces, simple and inexpensive to fabricate, compatible with MMIC designs,
and very versatile in terms of resonant frequency, polarization, pattern, and
impedance.
⚫ These antennas can be mounted on the surface of high‐performance aircraft,
spacecraft, satellites, missiles, cars, and even handheld mobile telephones.

Figure 1.5 Rectangular and circular microstrip (patch) antennas.

Types of Antennas

Array Antennas
⚫ Many applications require radiation characteristics that may not be achievable
by a single element.
⚫ It may be possible that an aggregate of radiating elements in an electrical and
geometrical arrangement will result in the desired radiation characteristics.
⚫ The arrangement of the array may be such that the radiation from the
elements adds up to give a radiation maximum in a particular direction or
directions, minimum in others.

Figure 1.6 Typical wire, aperture, and microstrip array configurations.

Types of Antennas

Reflector Antennas
⚫ Because of the need to communicate over great distances, especially in
outer space, sophisticated forms of antennas had to be used in order to
transmit and receive signals that had to travel millions of miles.
⚫ A very common antenna form for such an application is a parabolic
reflector.
⚫ Antennas of this type have been built with diameters as large as 305 m.

⚫ Such large dimensions are needed to achieve the high gain required to
transmit or receive signals after millions of miles of travel..

Figure 1.7 Typical reflector configurations.

Types of Antennas

Lens Antennas
⚫ Lenses are primarily used to collimate incident divergent energy to prevent it from
spreading in undesired directions.
⚫ By properly shaping the geometrical configuration and choosing the appropriate
material of the lenses, they can transform various forms of divergent energy into
plane waves.
⚫ They can be used in most of the same applications as are the parabolic reflectors,
especially at higher frequencies.

Figure 1.7 Typical reflector configurations.

Radiation Mechanism

⚫ One of the first questions that may be asked concerning antennas would
be "how is radiation accomplished?“
Single Wire
⚫ Conducting wires are material whose prominent characteristics are the
motion of electric charges and the creation of current flow.
⚫ Assume that an electric volume charge density 𝑞𝑣 (coulombs/m3), is
distributed uniformly in a circular wire of cross‐sectional area 𝐴 and
volume 𝑉.
⚫ The total charge 𝑄 within volume 𝑉 is moving in the z direction with a
uniform velocity 𝑉𝑧 (meters/sec).
⚫ The current 𝐽𝑧 (amperes/m2) over the cross section of the wire is
𝐽𝑧 = 𝑞𝑣 𝑉𝑧
Radiation Mechanism

Figure 1.9 Charge uniformly distributed in a

circular cross section cylinder wire.
Radiation Mechanism

⚫ Assuming the wire is made of an ideal electric conductor, the current

density 𝐽𝑠 (amperes/m) resides on the surface of the wire and it is
given by
𝐽𝑠 = 𝑞𝑠 𝑣𝑧
where 𝑞𝑠 (coulombs/m2) is the surface charge density.
⚫ If the wire is very thin (radius = 0), then the current in the wire can be
represented by
𝐼𝑧 = 𝑞𝑙 𝑣𝑧
where 𝑞𝑙 (coulombs/m) is the charge per unit length.
⚫ If the current is time‐varying, then the derivative of the current 𝐼𝑧 can
be written as

⚫ It simply states that to create radiation, there must be a time-varying

current or an acceleration (or deceleration) of charge.
Radiation Mechanism

⚫ To create charge acceleration the wire must be curved, bent,

discontinuous or terminated. Therefore:
1) If a charge is not moving, current is not created and there is no
radiation.
2) If charge is moving with a uniform velocity:
✓ There is no radiation if the wire is straight, and infinite in extent.

✓ There is radiation if the wire is curved, bent, discontinuous,

terminated, or truncated.
3) If charge is oscillating in a time‐motion, it radiates even if the wire
is straight.
Radiation Mechanism

Figure 1.10 Wire configurations for radiation.

Radiation Mechanism

⚫ For example, considering a pulse source attached to an open‐ended

conducting wire, which may be connected to the ground through a
discrete load at its open end

⚫ The acceleration of the charges is accomplished by the external source

and produces the associated field radiated.
⚫ The deceleration of the charges at the end of the wire is accomplished
by the internal forces due to the buildup of charge concentration at the
ends of the wire.
Radiation Mechanism

⚫ Consider a voltage source connected to a two‐conductor transmission

line which is connected to an antenna and creates an electric field
between the conductors.
⚫ The electric force lets the free electrons to be displaced.
⚫ The movement of the charges creates a current that in turn creates
magnetic field.
⚫ If the voltage source is sinusoidal, the electric field between the
conductors is sinusoidal with the same period.
⚫ The relative magnitude and direction of the electric field intensity is
indicated by the density of the lines of force with the arrows.
⚫ The creation of time‐varying electric and magnetic fields between the
conductors forms electromagnetic waves traveling along the
transmission line.
Radiation Mechanism

⚫ The electromagnetic waves enter the antenna and have associated with
them electric charges and corresponding currents.
⚫ Remove part of the antenna structure; free‐space waves can be formed
by "connecting" the open ends of the electric lines.

Figure 1.11 Source, transmission line, antenna, and detachment of electric field lines.
Radiation Mechanism

Dipole
⚫ The mechanism by which the electric lines of force are detached from
the antenna to form the free‐space waves:
⚫ Fig. 1.14(a) displays the lines of force created between the arms of a
small center‐fed dipole in the first quarter of the period during which
time the charge has reached its maximum value and the lines have
traveled outwardly a radial distance λ/4
Radiation Mechanism

⚫ During the next quarter of the period, the original three lines travel an
additional 𝜆/4 and the charge density on the conductors begins to diminish.
⚫ This can be thought of as being accomplished by introducing opposite charges
which at the end of the first half of the period have neutralized the charges on
the conductors.
⚫ The lines of force created by the opposite charges are three and travel a
distance 𝜆/4 during the second quarter of the first half, and they are shown
dashed in Figure 1.14(b).
Radiation Mechanism

⚫ The end result is that there are three lines of force pointed upward in
the first λ/4 distance and the same number of lines directed downward
in the second λ/4.
⚫ Since there is no net charge on the antenna, then the lines o force must
have been forced to detach themselves from the conductors and to
unite together to form closed loops. This is shown in Figure 1.14(c).
Radiation Mechanism

⚫ In the remaining second half of the period, the same procedure is

followed but in the opposite direction.
⚫ After that, the process is repeated and continues indefinitely and
electric field patterns are formed.
Current Distribution on a Thin Wire
Antenna

⚫ Consider of a lossless two‐wire transmission line.

⚫ The movement of the charges creates a traveling wave current, of

magnitude I0/2, along each of the wires.

⚫ When the current arrives at the end of each of the wires, it undergoes
a complete reflection. Forms a pure standing wave pattern.

⚫ The current in each wire undergoes a 1800 phase reversal between

adjoining half cycles indicated by the reversal of the arrow direction.

⚫ Radiation from each wire individually occurs because of the

time‐varying nature of the current and the termination of the wire.
Current Distribution on a Thin Wire
Antenna

⚫ For the two‐wire balanced (symmetrical) transmission line, the current in a

half‐cycle of one wire is of the same magnitude but 180o out‐of‐phase.

⚫ If in addition the spacing between the two wires is very small (𝑠 << 𝜆),
the fields radiated by the current of each wire are essentially cancelled.
Current Distribution on a Thin Wire
Antenna

⚫ As the section of the transmission line between 0 ≤ 𝑧 ≤ 𝜆Τ2 begins to

flare, it can be assumed that the current distribution is essentially
unaltered.

⚫ Because the two wires of the flared section are not close to each
other, the fields radiated by one do not necessarily cancel those of
the other.
⚫ Therefore there is a net radiation by the transmission line system.

⚫ Ultimately the flared section of the transmission line takes the form.

⚫ If 𝑙 < 𝜆, the phase of the current standing wave pattern in each arm is
the same.
Current Distribution on a Thin Wire
Antenna
Current Distribution on a Thin Wire
Antenna

⚫ In addition, spatially it is oriented in the same direction.

⚫ Thus the fields radiated by the two arms of the dipole will reinforce each other.

⚫ If the diameter of each wire is very small (𝑑 ≪ 𝜆), the ideal standing wave
pattern of the current along the arms is sinusoidal with a null at the end.

⚫ However, its overall form depends on the length of each arm.

⚫ The current pattern of a very small dipole (usually 𝜆/50 < 𝑙 ≤ 𝜆/10 ) can be
approximated by a triangular distribution since sin(𝑘𝑙/2) ≈ 𝑘𝑙/2 when 𝑘𝑙/2 is very
small.
 Current Distribution on a Thin Wire
Antenna

• For center‐fed dipoles with 𝑙 ≪ 𝜆 ,𝑙 = 𝜆 /2, 𝜆Τ2 < 𝑙 < 𝜆 and 𝜆 < 𝑙 < 3𝜆/2 , the
current patterns are illustrated in Figures
Current Distribution on a Thin Wire
Antenna

⚫ Because of its cyclical spatial variations, the current standing wave pattern of a
dipole longer than λ (𝑙 > 𝜆) undergoes 180o phase reversals between adjoining
half‐cycles.

⚫ Therefore the current in all parts of the dipole does not have the same phase.

⚫ In turn, the fields radiated by some parts of the dipole will not reinforce those
of the others.
Current Distribution on a Thin Wire
Antenna

⚫ For a time-harmonic varying system of radian frequency 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 the current

standing wave patterns (above Figure) represent the maximum current excitation
for any time.
⚫ The current variations, as a function of time, on a 𝜆 ∕ 2 center-fed dipole, are
shown in Figure for 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑇 ∕ 2 where 𝑇 is the period.