RESEARCH ARTICLE | DECEMBER 21 2004

Exponential Operators and Parameter Differentiation in

Quantum Physics 
R. M. Wilcox

J. Math. Phys. 8, 962–982 (1967)

https://doi.org/10.1063/1.1705306

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 JOURNAL OF MATHEMATICAL PHYSICS VOLUME 8, NUMBER 4 APRIL 1967

Exponential Operators and Parameter Differentiation

in Quantum Physics
R. M. WILCOX
National Bureau of Standards, Boulder, Colorado
(Received 23 August 1966)

Elementary parameter-differentiation techniques are developed to systematically derive a wide variety

of operator identities, expansions, and solutions to differential equations of interest to quantum physics.
The treatment is largely centered around a general closed formula for the derivative of an exponential
operator with respect to a parameter. Derivations are given of the Baker-Campbell-Hausdorff formula
and its dual, the Zassenhaus formula. The continuous analogs of these formulas which solve the
differential equation dY(t)/dt = A(t) Y(t), the solutions of Magnus and Fer, respectively, are similarly
derived in a recursive manner which manifestly displays the general repeated-commutator nature of
these expansions and which is quite suitable for computer programming. An expansion recently obtained
by Kumar and another new expansion are shown to be derivable from the Fer and Magnus solutions,
respectively, in the same way. Useful similarity transformations involving linear combinations of
elements of a Lie algebra are obtained. Some cases where the product eAeB can be written as a closed-
form single exponential are considered which generalize results of Sack and of Weiss and Maradudin.

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Closed-form single-exponential solutions to the differential equation dY(t)/dt = A(t) Y(t) are obtained
for two cases and compared with the corresponding multiple-exponential solutions of Wei and Norman.
Normal ordering of operators is also treated and derivations, corollaries, or generalization of a number
of known results are efficiently obtained. Higher derivatives of exponential and general operators are
discussed by means of a formula due to Poincare which is the operator analog of the Cauchy integral
formula of complex variable theory. It is shown how results obtained by Aizu for matrix elements and
traces of derivatives may be readily derived from the Poincare formula. Some applications of the results
of this paper to quantum statistics and to the Weyl prescription for converting a classical function to
a quantum operator are given. A corollary to a theorem of Bloch is obtained which permits one to
obtain harmonic-oscillator canonical-ensemble averages of general operators defined by the Weyl
prescription. Solutions of the density-matrix equation are also discussed. It is shown that an initially
canonical ensemble behaves as though its temperature remains constant with a "canonical distribution"
determined by a certain fictitious Hamiltonian.

1. INTRODUCTION both sides of an equation satisfy the same first-order

OPERATOR identities, expansions, and solutions
to differential equations occur widely in quantum
physics and have been derived with the aid of a
variety of abstract or complicated methods. These
include functional analysis, Lie algebra theory, the
Feynman ordering-operator calculus, l the commutator
superoperator, special function theory, and special
methods which appear to be of limited use. Although
we do not doubt the power and usefulness of some
of these methods, it is interesting to see what may be
accomplished with a few simple but versatile tools.
One of these tools, the parameter differentiation of
quantum-mechanical linear operators, has been in-
structively discussed by Aizu. 2 However, that treat-
ment is confined to obtaining matrix elements and
traces involving derivatives. We are here particularly
interested in identities involving operators themselves,
especially exponential operators. A device which we
make extensive use of in establishing identities
involving exponential operators is to require that
1 R. P. Feynman, Phys. Rev. 84, 108 (1951).
I K. Aizu, J. Math. Phys. 4, 762 (1963).
962
differential equation and the same initial condition.
We refer to this tool as the differential equation method.
Another device, used to obtain results for general
operator functions from those involving exponential
operators, is to assume that the general functions can
be expressed as linear combinations of exponential
operators. We refer to this tool as the method of linear
superposition. Special cases of it are Fourier and
Laplace series or integrals. This procedure is often
easier to apply than the often-used method which
constructs general functions from linear combinations
of powers of operators, 3 but the set of functions which
may be represented by either method appears to be
the same. Using mainly these tools, we intend to
derive a variety of scattered results in a concise
systematic' and elementary manner which many
physicists may find easier to understand. Nevertheless,
we believe that we have occasionally obtained a new
application or generalization of a known result.
• W. H. Louisell, Radiation and Noise in Quantum Electronics
(McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1964), Chap. 3,
p.98.
 EXPONENTIAL OPERATORS AND PARAMETER DIFFERENTIATION
Although everyone knows how to differentiate an
ordinary exponential function, it is not widely realized
that a general closed formula exists for the derivative
of an exponential operator with respect to a parameter.
[See Eq. (2.1) of Sec. 2.] We believe that this formula
is sufficiently simple and useful that many physicists
and applied mathematicians can profitably commit
it to memory. In Sec. 2, this formula is verified by the
differential equation method and compared with
formulas of Feynman1 and Kubo. 4 A basic lemma is
derived which displays the formal correspondence
between parameter differentiation and commutation.
The concept of differentiation with respect to an
operator is also discussed. In Sec. 3, Eq. (2.1) is shown
to be of use for problems in equilibrium quantum
statistics. In Sec. 4, Eq. (2.1) and the differential
equation method are used to easily derive the Baker-
Campbell-Hausdorff (BCH) formula. 5 This important
formula determines Z such that eAe B = eZ is identi-
cally satisfied. A good review of the history of this
formula is given by Weiss and Maradudin. 6 A formula
of Zassenhaus, 7 said to be the dual of the BCH
formula, is also derived in Sec. 4 in a similar manner.
This formula expresses eA +B as an infinite product
of exponential operators. A number of examples
of the type of problem which exploits the BCH
formula occur in connection with the Weyl prescrip-
tion for converting a classical function to a quantum
operator. This is described in Sec. 5. A more direct
derivation of a useful formula recently obtained by
Daughaday and Nigam8 is given there, while inter-
esting theorems of McCoy,9 Moyal, and Wigner10 are
stated without proof.
In Sec. 6, a definition of a Lie algebra is given and
examples of various Lie algebras which occur in
quantum mechanics are given. Similarity transforma-
tions involving operators which are linear combi-
nations of Lie elements (denoted LCLE) are readily
obtained by the differential equation method. The
results may be used to "change the representation" in
quantum-mechanical problems, and are also used
in Secs. 7, 8, and 10. In Sec. 7, Eq. (2.1) and the
• Lectures in Theoretical Physics R. Kubo, W. E. Brittin, and L.
G. Dunham, Eds. (Interscience Publishers, Inc., New York, 1959),
Vol. I, p. 139, Eq. (2.17).
5 J. E. Campbell, Proc. London Math. Soc. 29, 14 (1898); H. F.
Baker, ibid. 34, 347 (1902); 35, 333 (1903); 2, 293 (1904); 3, 24 (1904);
F. Hausdorff, Ber. Verhandl. Saechs. Akad. Wiss. Leipzig, Math.-
Naturw. KI. 58, 19 (1906); N. Jacobson, Lie Algebras (Interscience
Publishers, Inc., New York, 1962), Chap. 5, p. 170.
6 G. H. Weiss and A. A. Maradudin, J. Math. Phys. 3, 771 (1962).
7 W. Magnus, Commun. Pure Appl. Math. 7, 649 (1954).
8 H. Daughaday and B. P. Nigam, Phys. Rev. 139, BI436 (1965).
9 N. H. McCoy, Proc. Math. Acad. Sci. U.S. 18, 674 (1932).
10 J. E. Moyal, Proc. Cambridge Phil. Soc. 45, 99 (1949); E.
P. Wigner, Phys. Rev. 40, 749 (1932); C. L. Mehta, J. Math. Phys.
5, 677 (1964).
963
differential equation method are used to obtain
closed-form expressions for Z = In (eAe B ) for certain
cases where A and Bare LCLE's. Generalizations of
formulas obtained by Sackl l and by Weiss and
Maradudin 6 are obtained. A corollary to a theorem
of Bloch12 is also derived which is useful for obtaining
harmonic-oscillator thermal averages of general
operator functions.
In Sec. 8, we obtain solutions to the important
operator differential equation, dY(t)/dt = A(t) Yet).
In Sec. 8.1, we obtain the Magnus 7 and Fer13 solutions
in a manner similar to that used to derive the BCH
and Zassenhaus formulas, respectively. It should be
noted that all four of these formulas are derived by a
recursion procedure which manifestly displays the
repeated-commutator nature of these expansions and
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which is quite suitable for computer programming.
An expansion recently obtained by Kumar14 and
another new expansion are shown to be derivable
from the Fer and Magnus solutions, respectively, in
the same way. Both of these expansions may be more
suitable than the Zassenhaus expansion for certain
purposes. In Sec. 8.2, Lie algebraic solutions in terms
of a single exponential are obtained and compared
with corresponding multiple-exponential solutions of
Wei and Norman. 15 In Sec. 9, solutions of the density
matrix equation, Eq. (9.1), are discussed. It is shown
that an initially canonical ensemble behaves as though
its temperature remains constant with a "canonical
distribution" determined by a certain fictitious
Hamiltonian.
In Sec. 10, a collection of old and recent results
involving normal ordering of operators are efficiently
derived with the aid of the results and methods of
previous sections. Derivations, corollaries, or general-
izations of formulas obtained by Louisell,3 Heffner
and Louisell,16 Schwinger,17 McCoy,18 Kermack and
McCrea,19 and Cohen20 are given. In Sec. 11, higher
derivatives of exponential operators are treated with a
formula due to Poincare. 21 [See Eq. (10.1).] Although
11 R. A. Sack, Phil. Mag. 3, 497 (1958).
12 F. Bloch, Z. Physik 74, 295 (1932).
13 F. Fer, Bull. Classe Sci. Acad. Roy. Belg. 44, 818 (1958).
14 K. Kumar, J. Math. Phys. 6, 1928 (1965).
1. J. Wei and E. Norman, J. Math. Phys. 4, 575 (1963).
16 H. Heffner and W. H. Louisell, J. Math. Phys. 6, 474 (1965).
17 Quantum Theory of Angular Momentum, J. Schwinger, L. C.
Biedenharn, and H. van Dam, Eds. (Academic Press Inc., New
York, 1965), pp. 274-276.
18 N. H. McCoy, Proc. Edinburgh Math. Soc. 3, 118 (1932).
19 w. O. Kermack and W. H. McCrea, Proc. Edinburgh Math.
Soc. 2, 220 (1931).
20 L. Cohen, J. Math. Phys. 7, 244 (1966).
.. H. Poincare, Trans. Cambridge Phil. Soc. 18, 220 (1899); see
also R. Bellman, Introduction to Matrix Analysis (McGraw-Hili
Book Company, Inc., New York, 1960), p. 103, Ex. 43. This formula
is the basis of resolvent theory. See, e.g., Messiah, Ref. 48, Chap. 16,
Sec. 3, p. 712.
964 R. M. WILCOX

even greater formal efficiency may be obtained A special case ofEq. (2.1) is an identity of F eynman, 27
with the Feynman ordering-operator calculus,1 we
have preferred to use the Poincare formula since it is
more firmly rooted in classical analysis and since it
[!!:..
de
ea+<p]
<=0
= (1eU-s)apesa ds,
Jo
(2.4)

readily permits one to differentiate general operator
functions in a concise manner. It is shown to provide
a compact alternative for the derivation of formulas
of the type derived by Aizu. 2 We note that such for-
mulas may be used to derive all of the interesting sum
rules and hypervirial theorems treated in a recent paper
by Morgan and Lafidsberg. 22
2. DERIVATIVE OF EXPONENTIAL
OPERATOR
If the operator H is a function of a parameter A,
H == H(A), then
where ex and P are independent of e. Equation (2.4)
has been obtained by Feynman by means of his
ordering-operator calculus, and this method may
also be used to derive Eq. (2.1).28 Also, Eq. (2.1) may
be obtained from Eq. (4) by considering the Taylor
expansion
H(A + e) = H(A) + e(oHloA) + O(e2).
However, Eq. (2.1) is a more convenient form to use
than Eq. (2.4), particularly for differential equations.
An identity of Kubo is a corollary of Eq. (2.1).4
-J:

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[A, e-PJe ] = due-(P-u)Je[A, Je]e- uJe . (2.5)
.! e-PH = _ (Pe-(P-u)H oH e-uH duo (2.1)
0..1. Jo OA In Eq. (2.5), A and Je are arbitrary operators. This
identity has had much use in the theory of irreversible
This identity (aside from notation) has been derived processes. Like Eq. (2.1), it is easily established by the
and used by Snider in treating a quantum Boltzmann differential equation method, as Montroll has noted. 29
equation. 23 Snider's derivation was based upon the It may also be derived from Eq. (2.1) by making the
commutator superoperator and an integral repre- similarity transformation
sentation for the beta function. The present author
found Eq. (2.1) independently by employing the pa- H(A) = elAJee-·tA ,
(2.6)
rameter-differentiation technique explained by Aizu, 2 e-PH =eAAe-pJee-AA.
together with the well-known expansion24
Conversely, Eq. (2.1) follows from Eq. (2.5) by setting
eABe-A = B + [A, B] + (1/2!)[A, lA, Bn Je
+ .... obtained = H(A) and A = 010..1.. Another form of Eq. (2.5),
by setting P = -itlli, occurs as the solution
(2.2) to the Heisenberg equation of motion, A(t) =
1
The author has applied Eq. (1) to the calculation of ili- [Je, A(t)], for Je independent of t. A generalization
the polarizability of a one-dimensional NaCllattice. 25 to the case where Je is time dependent may also be
Equation (2.1) has also been obtained recently by readily established by the differential equation
method. 30
Kumar,26 but the full generality of the result is not
obvious in that treatment. Equations (2.1) and (2.5) may be used to derive a
Like any operator identity, Eq. (2.1) may be useful basic lemma.
verified by showing that the matrix elements of both
sides of the equation are the same in some suitable Lemma: If [A, H(A)] = oHloA, then [A,f(H)] =
representation. This may be done, using Aizu's of (H) 10..1.. (Note: in the language of Lie algebra, A is
2
techniques, by choosing a representation in which said to be the generator of an infinitesimal transforma-
H(A) is diagonal. However, an easier method is to tion due to a change in the parameter A.)
show that both sides of the equation satisfy the first- Proof: Equations (2.1) and (2.5) imply this result
order differential equation for the special case where f(H) = e-PH , while the
general case easily follows by the method of linear
[oF(P)loP] + HF(P) = -(oHloA)e-PH , (2.3) superposition.
with the initial condition F(O) = O. 27 Reference 1, Eq. (6). A related identity occurs in R. Karplus and
J. Schwinger, Phys. Rev. 73, 1025 (1948), Eq. (I. 8) .
II D. J. Morgan and P. T. Landsberg, Proc. Phys. Soc. (London) • 8 The author is indebted to Dr. J. H. Shirley for pointing this
86,261 (1965). out to him.
• 8 R. F. Snider, J. Math. Phys. 5, 1586 (1964), Appendix B. S. E. Montroll, in Lectures in Theoretical PhysiCS, W. E. Brittin, B.
U See, e.g., Louisell, Ref. 3, p. 101, Eq. (3. 14). W. Downs, and J. Downs, Eds. (Interscience Publishers, Inc., New
•• R. M. Wilcox, National Bureau of Standards Report (1964). York, 1961), Vol. III, p. 259, Eq. (X1.6) .
•• Reference 14, Eqs. (46) and (AI). 80 See, e.g., R. L. Peterson, Rev. Mod. Phys. 39, 69 (1967), Eq. (23) •
 EXPONENTIAL OPERATORS AND PARAMETER DIFFERENTIATION 965

Another kind of differentiation which frequently to an unperturbed part Jeo , so that Je = Jeo + AV,
occurs in quantum physics is the differentiation of an then Eq. (3.2) becomes
operator by an operator. This may be defined by
means of parameter differentiation as follows. 31 Let o(V) = _ rPdu(euJeA Ve-uJeA V). (3.3)
HE H(Ql, Q2' ... ,QJ be a function of the
0), Jo
operators Ql' Q2' ... , Qn which need not commute Assuming, for notational convenience, discrete energy
with each other. Then the operator derivative with levels Jet or Je i , one easily obtains
respect to Qi is defined by
o(V) = -(Tr e-PJer1 ! I(il AV 1i>12
oH . oH
oQj E ~~ oA (Ql'···' Q; + A,···, Qn)·

From Eqs. (2.1) and (2.7), it follows that

(2.7)
0),
x f:i,;

du exp (-{3Je i + uJei - uJej), (3.4)

-
oQ;
PH
oe-- = - i Pd ue-<P-u)H -
0
oRe
OQi
-uH
. (2.8)
which is seen to be nonpositive. 33 This result is the
quantum-statistical analog of the well-known result
that the second-order perturbation energy of the
ground state is always negative. The latter result may

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The above basic lemma is also clearly valid with
be obtained from Eq. (3.4) as a special case by evalu-
A replaced by Qi. To obtain a familiar result which
ating the integral in Eq. (3.4) and letting (3 become
we make use of later, let A = q, H = p, A = p/in, so
arbitrarily large.
that [q,p] = ili'= inop/op. Then by the lemma,
Another application of Eq. (3.2) is to a system with
[q,f(p)] = inof(p)/op. (2.9) dipole moment M subjected to an applied field E, so
that it is described by the Hamiltonian
Lettingf(p) =r i I'P/II, Eq. (2.9) becomes
Je = Je o - M • E. (3.5)
(2.10) The field-dependent isothermal static susceptibility
From Eq. (2.10), it follows by a simple standard tensor X..p(E) for a sample of unit volume is defined by
argument that if Iq') is an eigenstate of q so that X..p(E) E o(M.. )/oEp , (3.6)
q Iq') = q' Iq'), then r i l'P/1i acts as a displacement
operator,32 where ~, (3 = x, y, or z. It follows from Eqs. (2) and
e-iJJ 'P/lIlq') = Iq' + #). (5) that

3. APPLICATION OF EQ. (2.1) TO EQUILIB-

(2.11)
X..P(E) = f: du(euJeAM pe-uJeAM..),
RIUM QUANTUM STATISTICS a result given by Kubo for the zero-field case. 34
Equation (2.1) is well suited for applications to Before leaving this section, we note that thermo-
equilibrium quantum statistics, where the thermal dynamic perturbation theory may be conveniently
average of any operator Q is given by based upon Eq. (2.1).35 For lattice-dynamical systems,
a diagrammatic analysis may be developed which is
(Q) = Tr [e-PJeQ]/Tr e-PJe . (3.1)
topologically the same as the ones given by Cowley for
In Eq. (1), {3 denotes (KT)-l, where K is Boltzmann's nonequilibrium quantum systems, and by the author
constant and T is the absolute temperature. We for classical thermostatic systems. 36
assume that Je depends upon n parameters Ai, Je =
Je(Al' A2 , ••• ,An), and that Q is independent of Ai. 4. THE BAKER-CAMPBELL-HAUSDORFF
FORNnJLA AND RELATED DJENTnnES
Then it easily follows that
To derive the BCH formula and for later applica-
p
o(Q) = _ r du(eUJe oJe e-IlJeQ) + (3(oJe)(Q) tions, we prefer to use the form
OAi Jo OA. OA.
p oez/oA = fdXeo;ZZ'(),)e-o;ZeZ (4.1)
= _ r du(eUJeA oJe e-UJeAQ), (3.2)
Jo OAi 83 C. Kittel, Quantum Theory of Solids (John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
New York, 1963), p. 127, Problem 2.
where AQ E Q - (Q), etc. If we consider the case 3< Kubo, Ref. 4. Eq. (2.48).
35 L. D. Landau and E. M. Lifshitz, Statistical Physics (Addison·
where the Hamiltonian has a perturbation AV added Wesley Publishing Company, Inc., Reading, Massachusetts, 1958),
Chap. 3, Sec. 32, p. 93.
31 See, e.g., Louisell, Ref. 3, p. 108, Eqs. (3.34). 38 R. A. Cowley, Advan. Phys. 12,421 (1963); R. M. Wilcox, Phys.
31 See, e.g., Louisell, Ref. 3, Sec. 1.11. Rev. 139, AI281 (1965).
966 R. M. WILCOX

obtained from Eq. (2.1) by substituting Z == Z(A) for
-H, 1 for p, and 1 - x for u. We seek to express Z
as a power series in A such that
is identically satisfied. Thus,
00
Z Z'(A) =!nA n- 1z n ,
= !Anz n , (4.3)
n=1 n=1
where the Zn are to be determined. Note that Z = 0
when A = 0 as required by Eq. (4.2). Differentiating
Eq. (4.2) with respect to A and multiplying both sides
from the right by e-z = e-)"Be-)"A, one obtains
fdxea:ZZ'(A)e-a:Z = A
Equation (12) may be simplified by means of Eqs.
(4.6), (4.9), and (4.11) to obtain
Z3i\[A, [A, B]] + i'-2[[A, B], B].
= (4.13)
(4.2) The BCH formula to third order is obtained by
substituting Eqs. (4.3), (4.9), (4.11), and (4.13) into
Eq. (4.2) and setting A = 1:
00
eAeB = exp {A + B + UA, B] + i\[A, A, B]
+ i'-2[[A,B],B] + ... }. (4.14)
The recursion scheme based upon Eq. (4.8) may, in
principle, be carried out to art)itrarily high order.
Weiss and Maradudin have manually calculated Z
out to the fifth order, 6 while Richtmyer and Greenspan
have calculated Z out to the tenth order by computer. 38
+ e)..ABe-)"A. (4.4)
The expansion is not unique due to the existence of
the Jacobi identity

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The quantity eAA Be- AA is easily expanded by Eq. (2.2)
in the form [[A, B], C] + [[C, A], B] + [[B, C], A] = 0,
00
eAABe-)"A = !Ai(j!rl{A 1, B}, (4.5) the identity
1=0
[[[A, B], C], D] + [[[B, C], D], A] + [[[C, D], A], B]
where the repeated commutator bracket is defined
inductively b y 37
+ [[[D, A], B], C] = [[A, C], [B, D]],
and others.
{AO, B} = B, {An+l, B} = [A, {An, B}]. (4.6) It frequently happens that the commutator of A
and B commutes with both A and B. In this case, Eq.
Similarly, since f~ Xi dx = l/(j + 1), Eq. (4.5) implies (4.14) reduces to
that
{Zk Z'} eAeB = eA+B+!c = eA+Be!c = etceA+B , (4.15)
!00
i
l
dxea:zZ' e-a:z = ' . (4.7)
o k=O (k + I)! where C == [A, B]. Equation (4.15) has been derived
in various ways and is frequently employed in physical
Substituting Eqs. (4.3), (4.5), and (4.7) into Eq. (4.4),
problems. sD Another form of Eq. (4.15), which has
we obtain
been used by Moyal and by Sudarshan, is10.40
!oo{ +
1 (00 )koo
! AmZ m' ! nAn- I
Z } (4.16)
k=O (k I)! m=l n=l n
00 Equation (4.16) follows from Eq. (4.15) if one inter-
= A +1=0
!Ai(j!rl{Ai, B}. (4.8) changes the order of A and Bin Eq. (4.15),

Since Eq. (8) must be satisfied identically in A, we (4.17)

equate coefficients of Ai on the two sides of the equa- and then multiplies Eq. (17) by Eq. (15) from the
tion. For j = 0, one obtains right. Another derivation ofEq. (4.16) has been given
by Sudarshan.40
ZI = A + B. (4.9)
To derive the Zassenhaus formula, we set
For j = 1, one obtains
eA(A+B) = eAAeABeA'C'eA3c3 . . . (4.18)
{ZO, 2Z2} + HZl, ZI} = {A, B} (4.10)
Differentiating both sides of Eq. (4.18) with respect to
or
A and multiplying it from the right by
Z2 = UA, B]. (4.11)
For j = 2, one obtains
38 R. D. Richtmyer and S. Greenspan, Commun. Pure Appl.
{ZO, 3Zs } + HZl, 2Z 2} + HZ2, ZI} Math. 18, 107 (1965); The author is indebted to Dr. Greenspan for a
private communication.
+ t{Z~, ZI} = HA 2, B}. (4.12) S9 A partia11ist of references includes Refs. 3, 8, 9, 10, 18, 19, 48,
50, 52, and 53.
87 Note that our convention for the repeated-commutator bracket 40 E. C. G. Sudarshan, in Brandeis Summer Institute Lectures in
is opposite to that of Weiss and Maradudin, Ref. 6. Theoretical Physics (W. A. Benjamin, Inc., New York, 1962), p. 181.
 EXPONENTIAL OPERATORS AND PARAMETER DIFFERENTIATION 967

one obtains Then, on the basis of group-theoretical considerations,

A +B= A + + + eAB(2AC2)e-ABe-AA
eAABe- AA eAA Weyl has proposed that the quantum operator
+ eAAeABeA'CS(3A2CS)e-ASCSe-ABe-AA + .... F(P, Q) corresponding to a given classical function
f(p, q) be represented by the Fourier integral4S
(4.19)
AA AA
The quantities e Be- , etc., and again expanded by
means of Eq. (4.5) so that Eq. (4.19) becomes
F(P, Q) =IL: g(a, T)ei(O"P+TQ) da dT, (5.2)

An
CJ) 00
CJ) Am+n where g(a, T) is the Fourier transform of the classical
o = L - {An, B} + 2A L L - {Am, B n, C2} function f(p, q). The generalization of the Weyl
n=l n! m=O n=O m! n!
00 00 00 Ak+m+2n prescription to the case of n independent pairs of
+ 3A 2 L L L {Ak, B m , C~, Cs } + .... canonical variables has been considered by Daughaday
k=O m=O n=O k! m! n! and Nigam (DN). 8 In effect, this amounts to inter-
(4.20) preting the quantities occurring in Eq. (2) as
The quantities {An, B} are defined by Eq. (6), while
the quantities {Am, Bn, C2 } are defined inductively as P = (P l ,P2,··· ,Pn),
{AO, Bn, C 2 } = {Bn, C2 }, (4.21a) a = (aI' a2'···' an),

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da = da l da 2 ·• . dan,
{Am+!, Bn, C2} = [A, {Am, Bn, C2 }].
(4.21b)
Higher-order repeated-commutator brackets are simi-
aP = alPl + a2P 2 + ... + auP.. ,
larly defined. Clearly the coefficients of Ai must vanish etc.
in Eq. (20). Settingj = 1, one obtains
By a rather tortuous process, DN obtain the useful
C2 = -![A, B]. (4.22) result that the quantum function F(P, Q) corre-
Settingj = 2, one obtains sponding to the classical function

0= HA 2, B} + 2{A, BO, C 2} + 2{AO, B, C2}
+ 3{AO, BO, C~, Cs}
or, upon using Eqs. (4.6), (4.21), and (4.22),
Cs = ![B, [A, B]] + i[A, [A, B]].
We note that both the BCH formula and the
Zassenhaus formula could have been derived a little
more simply by repeatedly differentiating Eqs. (4.2)
and (4.18), respectively, and setting A = 0 after each
differentiation. Although Zn and C n may be obtained
in a recursive manner by this procedure, this method
does not manifestly display the general repeated-
commutator nature of the expansion. This method
has been used by Huang41 to obtain the first three
factors in the Zassenhaus formula. Huang has used
the result to treat quantum deviations from the
classical limit of the partition function for both a
Bose-Einstein and a Fermi-Dirac gas.
5. WEYL'S PRESCRIPTION FOR QUANTIZING
A CLASSICAL FUNCTION
f(p, q) = p~pg ... P~P(ql' q2' ... , qn)
is given by8
2-(cr+P+· .. +Y)[ . .. [[m P ] P] ... P ]
T' 1 +cr' 2 +P n +Y' (5.3)
(4.23)
where [p, Pl]+cr refers to the anticommutator bracket
repeated ot times. For example,
[p, Ptl+2 = [pP l + PIP, Pl ]+l
= ppi + 2Pl PP l + pip·
In DN, Eq. (3) has been used to obtain the quantum
Hamiltonian for the case of two charged spinless
particles interacting by retarded fields. We show here
that Eq. (3) may be derived much more directly with
the aid of Eq. (4.16) written in the form
ei(O"P+TQ) = ihO"PeiTQehaP. (5.4)
Equation (5.4) is valid, since aP and TQ both commute
with their commutator. The Fourier transform of
f(p, q), g(a, T), is easily found to be given by

Let p, q denote a conjugate pair of canonical vari-
ables of classical mechanics, and let P, Q denote the
corresponding quantum operators,42
[Q, P] = iii. (5.1)
41 K. Huang, Statistical Mechanics (John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
New York, 1963), p. 217, Eq. (10.60) .
.. Only in Sec. 5 do small p and q denote classical variables.
i cr+P+·· ·+Y15(cr)(al )15(P)(a2)· . ·15(Y)(an)u(T), (5.5)
where, e.g., 15(cr)(a) denotes the otth derivative of the
"Dirac 15 function" and U(T) is the Fourier transform
of p(q). One easily obtains Eq. (5.3) by substituting
43 H. Weyl, The Theory of Groups and Quantum Mechanics (E. P.
Dutton & Co., Inc., New York, 1931), p. 274.
968 R. M. WILCOX

Eqs. (5.4) and (5.5) into Eq. (5.2), and using the well- Theorem (WignerlO): Let G(P, Q) be any operator
known formula of distribution theory,44 defined in the Weyl manner, and let

L: b(lZl(a')f(a') da' = (- )1Zj<lZl(O). (G) == (wi G(P, Q) Iw)

be the expectation value of G in the state Iw). Then
(5.9)

We state without proof some other interesting (Q) may be calculated from the phase-space distri-
results involving the Weyl prescription which may be bution function I(p, q) by means of
dt!rived with the aid of the BCH formula and the
Fourier integral theorem.
(G) = II dp dqg(p, q)f(p, q), (5.10)
Theorem (MCCoy9): Let F(P, Q) be the quantum where
operator which corresponds to the classical function
I(p, q) according to the Weyl prescription, and let f(p, q) == -27T I
1 w*(q - tnT)e-lTPW(q + lnT) dT, (5.11) .
FQ(P, Q) be the function obtained from F(P, Q) by
ordering all Q factors to the left of all P factors with with w(q) == (q /w).
the aid of Eq. (5.1). Then FQ(P,Q) may be obtained by As shown by Moyal,lO this result may be easily
replacing p and q by P and Q with the Q's to the left proved with the aid of Eq s. (2.11), (4.16), and the

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of the P's in all terms of the power-series expansion of Fourier integral theorem.

[ex p ( -lili o:;q) ] f(p, q) 6. LIE ALGEBRAIC SIMILARITY

TRANSFORMATIONS
= f( ) _ iii o:r(P, q) In quantum physics, one frequently encounters sets
p, q 2 opoq
of operators Xl' X 2 , ••• , Xn such that the commu-
_ (~)22 ~2! o~(p,
op 2oq2
q) + . . .. (5.6) tator of any pair is a linear combination of members
of the set according to the rule
In DN, Eq. (5.6) is generalized to the case of more [Xi' X;] = CmXl + Ci;2Xl + ... + cHnXn. (6.1)
than one degree of freedom, and is used to derive
Eq. (5.3). The X/s are said to be elements of a Lie algebra,
while the CHk are called the "structure constants" of
Theorem (MoyallO): Let F(P, Q), G(P, Q), and the algebra. 46 For our purposes here, we do not require
C(P, Q) be defined in the Weyl manner in terms of any knowledge of this highly abstract and technical
the classical functions I(p, q), g(p, q), and c(p, q), subject. The "closure property" expressed by Eq.
respectively, and let (6.1) is sufficient. We seek to perform a similarity
transformation on X; of the form eZ X;e- z , where Z
[F(P, Q), G(P, Q)] = C(P, Q). (5.7)
is a given linear combination of the X/s,
Then
Z == dlXl + d2 X 2 + ... + dnXn. (6.2)
c(p, q) = 2i[sin ~(~ ~ - ~ ~)J
2 Oq l OP2 OP l Oq2 Now from Eqs. (6.1), (6.2), and (2.2) it follows that
X f(Pl' ql)g(P2, q2), (5.8) eZ X;e- z is also a linear combination of the X/s,
evaluated at PI = P2 = P and ql = q2 = q. n
eZX;e- z = L g;;Xi == g;. X. (6.3)
n
In the limit as ---+ 0, this reduces to the well-known i=l
relation between the quantum commutator and the From the basic property of a similarity transforma-
classical Poisson bracket. This result and the corre- tion, it then follows that any function of the X/s,
sponding law for operator multiplication have been F == F(Xl' X 2 , · · · , X n ), is transformed to
treated by Mehta45 with the aid of the BCH formula.
Moyal's result originated in a paper which formulates eZFe- z = F(gl· X, g2· X, ... ,gn· X). (6.4)
quantum mechanics in terms of phase-space distri- Although the gi/S may in principle be determined
bution functions, and occurs also in Sudarshan's from Eqs. (6.1), (6.2), and (2.2), in practice the infinite
study of the structure of dynamical theories. 40 summation may become very complicated to perform.
•• M. s. Lighthill, Introduction to Fourier Analysis and Generalized In this case, a better approach is to introduce a
Functions (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England, 1959),
p. 19, Eq. (17). 46 See, e.g., H. J. Lipkin, Lie Groups for Pedestrians, (John Wiley
•• Mehta, Ref. 10. & Sons, Inc., New York, 1965), or Jacobson, Ref. 5.
 EXPONENTIAL Q.PERATORS AND PARAMETER DIFFERENTIATION 969

parameter x into the exponentials and determine The solution of Eqs. (6.13) and (6.14) is easily found
the differential equation which eXz Xie- xZ must to be given by
satisfy. It is seen that this procedure generally leads
to a coupled set of linear homogeneous first-order a(x) = a, b(x) = f3aloc + (b - f3afoc)ea.x. (6.15)
differential equations which, as is well known, may be From Eqs. (6.6)-(6.9) and (6.15), we then find that
solved as an eigenvalue problem.
The lowest-dimensional Lie algebra of physical e"X+PY(aX + bY)e-a.x-PY
interest is the non-Abelian two-dimensional algebra = aX + [f3aoc- + (b1
- f3aoc- l )e"]Y. (6.16)
with elements {X, Y} satisfying
Note that it could have been foreseen from Eqs. (2.2)
[X, Y] = Y. (6.5) and (6.5) that a(x) = a. In future calculations, we
This algebra has been treated by Sackl l in connection make such possible simplifications at the outset without
with his "Taylor's Theorem for Shift Operators" and comment. From Eqs. (6.4) and (6.16), it follows that
by Wei and Norman. IS The latter authors have shown e"X+PYp(X, Y)e-"X-PY
that this algebra occurs in two master-equation
problems: (a) a system of simple harmonic oscillators = P[X + f3oc- l (l - ea.)Y, ea.y]. (6.17)

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with Landau-Teller transition probabilities; (b) the Special cases of Eq. (6.17) are 47
deuterium exchange reaction with only nearest-
neighbor transition probabilities. Other realizations ea.Xp(X, Y)e-a.x = P(X, ea.y), (6.18)
of this algebra are known in quantum mechanics. The
set {qlf.l, e-ip.P/h} satisfies Eq. (6.5), as may be seen from ePYp(X, Y)e- PY = P(X - f3Y, Y). (6.19)
Eq. (2.10). Some realizations which involve annihila-
tion and creation operators are {-ata, a}, {ata, at}, A frequently occurring three-dimensional Lie
{-yaq, a2}, {yatq, (a t )2}, {yaq, q2}, and {-yatq, q2},
algebra is spanned by the operators {P, Q, I} with
the commutation relations
where a = y(q + iw-Ip), at = y(q - iorlp), y =
(wI21i)!, and [a, at] = 1. This algebra also occurs as [P, Q] = cI, [P, I] = [Q, I] = O. (6.20)
a subalgebra of larger Lie algebras. For example, in
the algebra SUs there are 12 distinct pairs of elements It is exemplified by the coordinate-momentum or
which satisfy Eq. (6.5).46 annihilation-creation operator commutation rules.
To illustrate the parameterization method alluded Since all results for this algebra are well known, we
to above, let do not explicitly derive them here. However, all such
Z = aX + f3 Y, (6.6) results may be obtained as a special case of the four-
dimensional Lie algebra which we consider next.
G = aX + bY, (6.7) A Lie algebra of interest for harmonic oscillator
G(x) = exzGe- xz (6.8) problems is spanned by the operators {P, Q, W ==
p2 + Q2, el} with the commutation relations defined
= a(x)X + b(x)Y. (6.9) by Eq. (6.20) and bylS
Then G(x) satisfies the differential equation
[W, P] = -2eQ, [W, Q] = 2eP, [W, I] = O.
G'(x) = [Z, G(x)], (6.10) (6.21)
subject to the initial condition
A physical realization of this algebra is provided by
G(O) = G. (6.11) the set {p, wq,p2 + w 2q2, -iliwI}. An alternative and
Substituting Eqs. (6.6) and (6.9) into Eq. (6.10) and more convenient set to use is {W, X, Y, sI}, where
using Eq. (6.5), one finds that
X = Q - iP, Y = Q + iP,
a'(x)X + b'(x) Y = [ocb(x) - f3a(x)] Y. (6.12)
W = XY - lsI, s = 2ie. (6.22)
Since X and Yare independent operators, as is easily
proved from Eq. (6.5), we must have Equations (6.21) and (6.22) imply the commutation
relations
a'(x) = 0, b'(x) = ocb(x) - f3a(x) (6.13)
[W, X] = -sX, [W, Y] = sY, [X, Y] = sl. (6.23)
subject to the initial condition
47 Examples of Eqs. (6.18) and (6.19) occur in Louisell, Ref. 3,
a(O) = a, b(O) = b. (6.14) Theorems 9 and 6, respectively.
 970 R. M. WILCOX

A physical realization of this algebra is provided by Hence b'(x) = a x b(x) subject to b(O) = b. The
the set {at a, a, at, I}. Let solution is easily found to be given by
z = yW + ~X + pY, (6.24) b(x) = (a· b)a(l - cos ax)
G = g W + dX + r Y, (6.25) + b cos ax + a x b sin ax, (6.33)
and let G(x) be defined by Eq. (6.S). Then Eqs. (6.10) where a == lal and a = a/a. Hence
and (6.11) are again satisfied. Letting e-ia•J F(J,., J'II ,Jz)e-ia.J = F(J(,., Ky, K z), (6.34)
G(x) = g W + d(x)X + rex) Y + u(x)I, where

one finds the differential equations K = a(a • J)(1 - cos a) + J cos a + J x a sin a.
(6.35)
d'(x) = -sy d(x) + s~g,
r'(x) = syr(x) - spg, Equations (6.34) and (6.35) specify how a general
operator function of J must transform under an
u'(x) = s~r(x) - sp d(x),
arbitrary rotation of the coordinate axes characterized
subject to d(O) = d, reO) = r, and u(O) = O. The by the vector a. An interesting special case is where

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solution is easily found to be given by a,. = a and a'll = az = O. Then Eqs. (6.34) and (6.35)
reduce t048
d(x) = g~y-l + (d _ g~y-l)e-SY",

rex) = gpy-l + (r _
gpy-l)eSY", exp ( - iaJ,.)F(J,., J'II , Jz) exp (iaJ,.)
u(x) = ~y-l(r - gpy-l)(eSY " - 1) = F(J,., J'II cos a + Jz sin a, Jz cos a - J'II sin a).
+ py-l(d _ g~y-l)(e-SY" - 1). (6.26) (6.36)
Another three-dimensional Lie algebra of wide
From Eqs. (6.4), (6.S), (6.24), (6.25), and (6.26), one
interest is the "split three-dimensional simple algebra"
finds
characterized bylS
eZF(X, Y)e- Z = F(U, V), (6.27)
where [E, F] = H, [E, H] = 2E, [F, H] = -2F. (6.37)
U = e-syX + py-l(e- SY - 1)1, (6.2Sa)
A physical realization of the set {E, F, H} is given by
V = eSYY + ~y-l(eSY - 1)/. (6.2Sb) {iJ_, iJ+, 2Jz}, where J+ and J_ are the angular
Expressed in terms of Q and P by Eqs. (6.22), one momentum raising and lowering operators, respec-
finds, with Z = a.P + fJQ + yW, tively, J+ == J,. + iJ'II' J_ == J,. - iJ'II' These operators
occur, not only for ordinary spin, but also for isotopic
eZF(P, Q)e-z = F(R, S), (6.29) spin and for quasi-spin in many-fermion systems. 49
where Another guise in which these operators occur is where
R = P cos 2ey + Q sin 2ey
J_ = etb, J+ = bte, Jz = t(btb - ete), (6.3S)
- Vy-l[a.(l - cos 2ey) - fJ sin 2ey], (6.30a)
and b t, et, b, and e are the creation and annihilation
S = - P sin 2ey + Q cos 2ey operators of a two-dimensional harmonic oscillator,
- Vy-l[a. sin 2ey + fJ(l - cos 2ey)]. (6.30b)
[b, btl = [e, et ] = 1, [b, e] = [b, e t ] = O. (6.39)
Another well-known Lie algebra is that of the
Another physical realization of the set {E, F, H} iE
angular momentum operators (or rotation generators)
given by {P2/2e, Q2/2e, (QP + PQ)/2e}, where [P, Q] =
{J,., J'II' J.}, where el. 1S Let
[J,.,J'II] = iJ., [J'II,J.] = iJ,., [1.,J'II] = iJ,.. (6.31)
Z = a.E + fJF + yH, G = aE + bF + gH, (6.40)
(We use units in which Ii = 1.) Let
and let G(x) once more be defined by Eq. (S). Letting
b(x) • J ==b,.{x)J,. + by{x)J'II + b.(x)Jz
= e-i,.a·J(b. J)e i (08.J, (6.32)
G(x) = a(x)E + b(x)F + g(x)H, (6.41)
48 Special cases of Eq. (6.36) are as follows: A. Messiah, Quantum
where a and b are constant vectors. Then Mechanics (John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1962), Vol. II, p.
578, Ex. 8; C. P. Slichter, Principles of Magnetic Resonance (Harper
b'(x) • J = -i[a. J, b(x) • J] and Row, Inc., New York, 1963), p. 26, Eq. (13) .
•• See, e.g., Schwinger, Ref. 17; Heffner and Louisell, Ref. 16;
= [a x b(x)] • J. Messiah, Ref. 48; Lipkin, Ref. 46.
 EXPONENTIAL OPERATORS AND PARAMETER DIFFERENTIATION 971

one finds the coupled equations Then d == d(x), e == e(x), and 1== I(x) satisfy
a'(x) = -2ya(x) + 2ocg(x), d' = 2eoce - eyd, e' = eye - 2efJd,
b'(x) = 2yb(x) - 2{Jg(x), (6.42) I' = efJe - eEd,
g'(x) = -fJa(x) + ocb(x). subject to d(O) = 1, e(O) =1(0) = O. The solution is
The solution of Eqs. (6.42) subject to a(O) = a, b(O) = given by
b, g(O) = g, is found to be given by d(x) = cosh AX - yd-1 sinh AX,
a(x) = (afJ + boc - 2gy)OCp-2 sinh2 px e(x) = -2{Jd-1 sinh AX,
+ a cosh 2px + (goc - ay)p-l sinh 2px, I(x) = -EcA-1sinh AX
b(x) = (a{J + boc - 2gy){Jp-2 sinh2 px + (e/A)2(EY - 2fJfJ)(cosh Ax - 1), (6.50)
+ b cosh 2px + (by - g{J)p-l sinh 2px, where
(6.51)
g(x) = (a{Jy + bocy - 2gOC{J)p-2 sinh 2 px
The expression for e"'z Qe-"'z may be obtained from
+ g + !(boc - afJ)p-l sinh 2px, Eqs. (6.49) and (6.50) by making the following

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where substitutions:
P? Q, c~ -e, OC? fJ, fJ? E.
Thus, with Z given by Eq. (40), one finds
We conclude this section by considering an infinite-
eZf(E, F, H)e- Z = f(J, K, L), (6.43) dimensional Lie algebra. This set, which occurs in the
work of Kermack and McCrea,19 consists of P and
where J, K, and L are defined as
all functions of Q, where [P, Q] = el. Clearly this set
J == u(oc, fJ, y)E + {J2wF + v(oc, {J, y)H, satisfies the closure condition since [P, tp(Q)] = ctp'(Q)
K == oc2wE + u(oc, {J, -y)F - v({J, oc, -y)H, is in the set. Let tp(Q) and/(Q) be arbitrary functions,
L == -2v(fJ, oc, y)E + 2v(oc, {J, -y)F and let
+ (1 - 2ocfJw)H, (6.44) (exp {x[ocP + tp(Q))})[{JP + I(Q)]
w == p-2 sinh2 p, x (exp {-x[ocP + tp(Q)]}) == fJP + F(Q, x), (6.52)
u(oc, fJ, y) == cosh 2p + ocfJw - yp-l sinh 2p, where oc, fJ, and X are parameters. Then F(Q, x) must
v(oc, (J, y) == fJyw - !{Jp-l sinh 2p. (6.45) satisfy the differential equation

In case y = 0, w, u, and v simplify to of(Q, x)/ox = [ocP + tp(Q), (JP + F(Q, x)]
= occoF(Q, x)/oQ - (Jetp'(Q), (6.53)
w = (ocfJ)-l sin2 (oc{J)!,
u(oc, (J, 0) = cos 2 (oc{J)!, subject to the condition that F(Q, 0) = I(Q). The
solution is easily found to be given by
v(oc, (J, 0) = -!(fJ/oc)! sin 2(oc{J)!. (6.46)
Some other special cases,
F(Q, x) = I(Q + occx) - (Joc-1[tp(Q + ocex) - tp(Q)].
(6.54)
e'¥.Ef(E, F, H)e-~E = fee, F + ocH + oc 2E, H + 2ocE),
Three special cases of interest are obtained by letting
eftFf(E" F, H)e- fJF = feE - {JH + (J2F, F, H - 2{JF), I(Q), {J, and oc, respectively, go to zero:
eYHf(E, F, H)e-YH = f(e- 2rE, e27F, H), (6.47)
(exp {x[P + tp(Q)]})P(exp {-x[P + tp(Q)]})
may also be easily obtained directly from the com- = P - tp(Q + ex) + tp(Q), (6.55)
mutator expansion, Eq. (6.22).
Consider now the six-dimensional Lie algebra whose (exp {x[P + tp(Q)]})f(Q)(exp {-x[P + tp(Q)]})
elements are I, P, Q, p2, QP, and Q2, with [p, Q] =el. = f(Q + ex), (6.56)
The most general second-degree polynomial in P
eq>(Q1pe-q>(QI = P - etp'(Q). (6.57)
and Q is a linear combination of these elements. Let
Z = ocP 2 + (JQ2 + yQP + tJp + EQ, (6.48) 7. PRODUCT OF LIE EXPONENTIALS
and let Let A and B be LCLE's and let eAe B =
eZ. Then
~Pe-zz = d(x)P + e(x)Q + l(x)I. (6.49) from the BCH formula, Eq. (4.14), and the "closure
972 R. M. WILCOX

property," Eq. (6.1), it follows that Z is also a LCLE. Next, consider the four-dimensional Lie algebra
In this section, we determine the form of Z, given defined by Eqs. (6.23). Let A = ylW + blX + PlY'
A and B, for some of the Lie algebras introduced in B = Y2W + b2X + P2Y, and Z(A) = yW + b(A)X +
the previous section. We parametrize the problem peA) Y + a(A)I, where Y = Y2 + AYl, b(O) = b2, p(O) =
by setting P2, and a(O) = O. Then from Eqs. (7.2) and (6.26)
(7.1) one finds, after integrating over x and equating
coefficients of X, Y, and I, respectively,
subject to Z(O) = B. Then differentiating Eq. (7.1)
with respect to Aby means ofEq. (4.1) and multiplying ylby- l +W- ylby-l )( -ys)-\e-Y' - 1) = bl ,
from the right by e-z = rBr).A., one obtains (7. lOa)
il dxea:zZ'().)e-a:z = A. (7.2) YlPy- l + (p' - YlPy-l)(ysrl(e YS - 1) = PI' (7. lOb)

We again consider first the non-Abelian two-dimen-

a' + by-l(p' -YlPy-l)[(ys)-l(e 1) - 1] YS -

sional Lie algebra of Eq. (6.5), [X, y] = Y. Let A = + Py-lW - ylby- )[( _ys)-l(e- - 1) - 1] = o.
l YS

otlX + f3l Y, B = ot2X + f32 Y, and Z()') = otX + f3(A) Y, (7.10c)

where ot = ot2 + Aotl and f3(0) = f32' From Eq. (6.16), Equations (7.lOa) and (7.lOb) are of the same form

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the quantity e"'zZ'(A)e-a:z is seen to be given by as Eq. (7.3), so that their solutions may be obtained
otlX + [f3otlot-l + (f3' - f3ot l ocl )ert a:] Y. from Eq. (7.6) by appropriate changes of variables:

Then integrating over x in Eq. (7.~) and equating b(A) = AblCP( -AYlS, -Y2S) + b2CP(Y~, AYlS), (7.11)
coefficients of Y, one finds that f3().) satisfies peA) = ).PlCP(AYlS, Y2S) + P2( -Y2S, -AylS). (7.12)
otl f3ot- l + (f3' - ot l f3ot- l)ot-l (efZ - 1) = f3l' (7.3) From Eqs. (7. lOa), (7.lOb), and (7.1Oc), one finds that
Defining u == u().) = f3ot-I, Eq. (7.3) becomes
fZ fZ a'().) = y-l[o(pb)/o). - Plb - blP]. (7.13)
(f3l - otlu)-V = (e - 1)-1 = e- (1 - e-fZr\ (7.4)
Equation (7.13) is integrated with the aid ofEqs. (7.11)
whi<ih may also be written and (7.12) by putting the terms in a form similar to the
-1 0 [1n (otlU - f3l)]/O). = o[1n (1 - e-fZ)]/o).. (7.5) right side of Eq. (7.5). Setting
Integrating Eq. (7.5) and solving for f3(A), one obtains Tl = Pl/Yl' T2 = P2/Y2' #1 = bl/Yl' #2 = b2/Y2'
(7.14)
f3(A) = Af3lCP(Aotl' o(2) + f32CP(-ot 2, -AotJ, (7.6) one obtains finally
where
cp(x,y) == (1 + x-1y)(e'" - l)(e"*Y - 1)-1. (7.7)
a(1) = (Yl + Y2)-lp(1)b(1) - YlTl#l - Y2T2#2 + e,
(7.15)
Hence where
[exp (otlX + f3ly)][exp ( ot2X + f32Y)] e == 2S-l(Tl - T2)(f1l - #2) sinh (tSYl)
= exp [(otl + o(2)X + f3(1) y], (7.8)
X sinh (tsY2) csch [tS(Yl + Y2)]' (7.16)
where f3(I) is obtained by setting A = 1 in Eq. (7.6).
This result may be stated in terms of the X and Y
Some special cases of Eq. (7.8) have been derived
operators as follows: Let [X, Y] = sI. Then the
by Sack by means of his "Taylor's Theorem for Shift
equation
Operators" 11:
exp [Yl(X + TlI)(Y + #11)] exp [Y2(X + T2/)(Y +#21)]
exp [ot(X + ).Y)] = e"x exp [)'(1 - e-fZ)y]
= {exp [).(e" - l)Y]}e"x. (7.9)
= exp [(Yl + Y2)(X + TI)(Y + #1) + 01] (7.17)

Sack has applied Eqs. (7.9) to the last four realizations is identical~y satisfied provided is defined by Eq.e
of this algebra listed above Eq. (6.6) in order to obtain (7.16), and provided T and # are defined by
a formula for the matrix elements of a Gaussian T == Tl"P(Yl' Y2) + T2"P( -Y2, -Yl), (7.18)
potential. 50
# == #l"P(-Yl, -Y2) + #2"P(Y2, Yl), (7.19)
60 Sack, Ref. 11. Matrix elements for generalized Gaussian
potentials and other potentials which may be represented as Fourier where "P(x, y) is defined by
integrals are obtained in R. M. Wilcox, J. Chern. Phys. 45, 3312
(1966). "P(X, y) == [esa: - l][es(a:+111 - 1]-1. (7.20)
 EXPONENTIAL OPERATORS AND P ARAMETER DIFFERENTIATION 973

The result may alternatively be stated in terms of to Bloch's theorem have occurred in connection with
the P and Q operators: Let [P, Q] = eI. Then the the scattering of x rays or neutrons by molecules or
equation harmonic lattices,52 as well as in treatments of the
exp {YI[(P + VII)2 + (Q + WI!)2]) coherent states of the radiation fie1d. 53
X exp {Y2[(P + v2I)2 + (Q + w2I)2]) We conclude this section by treating a special case
= exp {(YI + Y2)[(P + V!)2 + (Q + wI)!] + OI} of the infinite-dimensional Lie algebra whose elements
are P and all functions of Q, where [P, Q] = eI. We
(7.21)
is identically satisfied provided seek to find a function Z == Z(Q, A) which satisfies

o== e-I[(vi + V2)2 + (WI - W2)2]).(YI' Y2), (7.22) (7.30)

v == VIX(YI, Y2) + V2X(Y2, YI) + (W2 - Wl»).(Yl, Y2), where A == P + 'P(Q) and 'P(Q) is an arbitrary given
(7.23) function. Then by differentiating Eq. (7.30) with
respect to A, multiplying both sides from the right by
W == WIX(Yl, Y2) + W2X(Y2, Yl) + (VI - V2)A(YI, Y2),
e-z = elPe-lA , and applying Eq. (6.55), one finds,
(7.24) after some cancellations, that
where

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X(x, y) == sin (ex) cos (ey) csc [e(x + y)], (7.25) oZ/o). = 'P(Q + eA). (7.31)
).(x, y) == sin (ex) sin (ey) csc [e(x + y)]. (7.26) Since Z must vanish when). does,
Some special cases of Eqs. (7.17) and (7.21) are of
interest: Z(Q, ).) = Ll dX'P(Q + ex). (7.32)
In [exp (aX + f3Y) exp (yXY)] From Eqs. (7.32) and (7.30), one obtains
= y[X + f3s(e BY - Irl][y + as(1 - e- SY )-I]
- !af3s coth (!sy), (7.27) exp {A[P + 'P(Q)]} = [exp LldX'P(Q + ex)}lP.
In [exp y(Q2 + p 2) exp (aP + f3Q)] (7.33)
= y{P + !e[a cot (ye) + f3W
+ y{Q + !e[f32cot (ye) - aW This result is used in Sec. 10 to obtain a normal-
- l(a + f32)e cot (ye). (7.28) ordering expansion of Kermack and McCrea, Eqs.
(10.42).
Equation (7.28) with Y = 1 has been obtained by
Weiss and Maradudin,6 who derive the result directly s. SOLUTIONS OF dY(t)/dt = A(t)Y(t)
from the BCH formula by a rather intricate summa-
The operator differential-equation system
tion procedure.
As an easy application of Eq. (7.28), we state a dY(t)/dt = A(t)Y(t), YeO) = I (8.1)
corollary to Bloch's theorem concerning the charac-
has been extensively studied by mathematicians
teristic function of a harmonic oscillator in thermal
because of its relevance to the theory of coupled or
equilibrium. 12
higher-order ordinary differential equations. Some
Theorem: Let the thermal average be defined by examples of this equation which occur in quantum
Eq. (3.1) with Je = !p2 + !W 2q2 and [q,p] = in. Then physics are the equation of motion for the time-
evolution operator, Eq. (9.3), the Bloch equation,
(7.29) -oe-PJe /of3 = Jee-P ,and master or rate equations.
where
S.l. Expansions of Magnus and Fer
(l) = W2(q2) = !nw coth (!f3nw).
Instead of dealing with Eq. (8.1) directly, we intro-
By means of Eq. (5.2), this result may be used to duce the iteration parameter). as
obtain thermal averages for general observables
represented in the Weyl manner. 51 Related corollaries dYl(t)/dt = )'A(t) Y;.(t), Y;.(O) = I, (8.1;,.)

51 Equation (29) may also be derived easily from the condition

that both sides satisfy the same first-order differential equation
with respect to a parameter. Still another derivation of Eq. (29)
is obtained by first calculating the matrix elements of exp (iap + iTq)
in the harmonic oscillator representation (as one may do by em-
ploying the method which the author used in Ref. 50 for the case
where a = 0) and then carrying out the trace sum with the aid of the
generating function for the Laguerre polynomials.
and seek to join Yo(t) = I to Y l (t) == yet). To derive
5. A. C. Zemach and R. J. Glauber, Phys. Rev. 101, 118 (1956);
Weiss and Maradudin, Ref. 6; A. A. Maradudin, E. W. Montroll,
and G. H. Weiss, Solid State Phys. Suppl. 3, 239 (1963); N. D.
Mermin, J. Math. Phys. 7, 1038 (1966).
58 R. J. Glauber, Phys. Rev. 131, 2766 (1963); Louisell, Ref. 3,
p.244.
974 R. M. WILCOX

the Magnus formula, we assume a solution of the result is said to be the continuous analog of the BCH
form formula.
Yit) = exp [!leA, t)] == eO., (8.2) We now derive the Fer formula,ls which may be
where said to be the continuous analog of the Zassenhaus
00

!leA, t) == 2 An~n(t)· (8.3) formula. Let the solutions of Eqs. (8.1;) be given by
n=l
Yit) = eAS1e AS2e AS3 ... ,
2 8
(8.10)
From Eqs. (8.1;), (8.2), and (4.1), it follows that
where Sl == Sl(t), etc. Substituting Eq. (8.10) into
fdxe",o.ne-"'o. = AA(t), (8.4) (8.1 A)' multiplying from the right by
e-;.8S3e-ABs2e-ASI = [Yit)rl,
n
where == o!l(A, t)/ot. Using the commutator expan-
and expanding in terms of repeated commutators as
sion and integrating over x, as in Eq. (4.7), and sub-
stituting in Eq. (8.3), one obtains in Eq. (4.20), one obtains
00 An+l 00 00 Am+2n+2
{k=Oi (k +1 I)! (iAn~n(t)\'
n=l }
i AmAm(t)} = AA(t). 2
n=o(n + I)!
{S~,5't} + 2 2 - - -
m=On=O m! (n + I)!

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m=l
(8.5) 00 00 00 Am+2n+Sk+S
x {S;n,S~,S2} + 2 22----
A recursive procedure again results from equating m=O n=Ok=O m! n! (k + I)!
coefficients of Ai on the two sides of Eq. (8.5). For x {S;n, S~, S~, Ss} + ... = M(t), (8.11)
j = 1, one obtains Al(t) = A(t). Hence,
where the repeated commutators are again defined by
~l(t) = SotA(T) dT. (8.6) Eqs. (4.21). The recursion scheme based upon Eq.
(8.11) leads to
For j = 2 one obtains
(8.12)
A 2(t) + U~l(t), Al(t)] = O.
Hence,
(8.13)
(8.7)

For j = 3 one obtains

As + H~l' A2] + t[~2' AI] + i[~l' [~l' AI]] = O. (8.14)
After carrying out the integration and putting the Equations (8.10), (8.12), (8.13), and (8.14), with A = 1,
results in "time-ordered" form, one obtains give the first three factors in the infinite-product
solution to Eqs. (8.1). The paper by Fer discusses the
~s(t) =.! t dt t1dt2 t2dtS
6 Jo l Jo Jo convergence of the infinite product and derives
recursion relations, but does not obtain explicit
X {[[AI' A 2 ], As] + [[As, A 2 ], AI]}, (8.8) expressions for the S/S.lS
where Al == A(tl ), etc. The fourth-order term is A(t) == e-atbe"t, YA(t) == e-atU(t), (8.15)
similarly calculated. We find
where a and b are independent of t. Then U(t) must
~it) = 1. (tdtl t1dt2 t2dtS (t3 dt4 satisfy
12 Jo Jo Jo Jo dU(t)/dt = (a + Ab)U(t), U(O) = I, (8.16)
X + [[[As, A 4], A 2], AI]
{[[[As, A 2], A 4], AI]
which implies that
+ [[[AI' A 2], As], A4] + [[[A4' AI], As], A 2]}·
(8.9) (8.17)
Kumar's expansion for e(~Ab)t as an infinite product
The solution of Eqs. (8.1) to fourth order is given by
Eqs. (8.2), (8.3), and (8.6)-(8.9) with A = 1. 54 This is given byt4
(8.18)
•• Magnus, Ref. 7, and Weiss and Maradudin, Ref. 6, have carried
out the calculation to third order. Their third-order terms, though where Y;.(t) is given by Eqs. (8.10), (8.12), (8.13),
not given in such a symmetrical form, may be shown to be equivalent (8.14), ... , and (8.15). An alternative expansion for
to ours. A special case of this formula has also been calculated by
Kumar, Ref. 14, to third order. e(a+Ab)t as a product of only two exponentials may
 EXPONENTIAL OPERATORS AND PARAMETER DIFFERENTIATION 975

be more suitable for some purposes. It is obta.ined
from the Magnus solution to Eqs. (8.1)) and is given
by Eqs. (8.18), (8.2), (8.3), (8.6)-(8.9), ... , and (8.15).
These expansions are more complicated than the
Zassenhaus expansion, Eq. (4.18), but appear to be
more useful when )'b is "small" compared with 0.
They also appear to be more useful for large values
of t, provided U(t) is unitary. A fuller heuristic com-
parison of the two infinite-product forms for the case
where t-- 00 has been given by Kumar. 14
8.2. Lie Algebraic Solutions
We now consider the case where A(t) in Eq. (8.1)
may be expressed as a LCLE,
A(t) = 01(t)X1 + 02(t)X2 + ... + an(t)Xn.
For the case where A(t) is given by Eq. (8.21), Eqs.
(8.19), (8.22), (8.25), (8.26), and (8.27) constitute the
solution of Eq. (8.1). By means of Eq. (7.9), this
result may be shown to be equivalent to the product
form of Wei and Norman, 55
(8.28)
A solution may also be obtained for the four-
dimensional harmonic-oscillator algebra ofEqs. (6.23).
In Eqs. (8.1) and (8.19), let
A(t) == get) W + d(t)X + ret) Y + u(t)! (8.29a)
== g(t)[X + w(t)!][ Y + vet)!) + J(t)!, (8.29b)
O(t) == yet) W + b(t)X + pet) Y + fl(t)! (8.30a)
== y(t)[X + w(t)!)[Y + vet)/] + rp(t)l. (8.30b)

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Then if a solution of the form
yet) = eQ(t) (8.19) Then proceeding in the same way as before, using
either Eqs. (6.26) or Eq. (6.27), one obtains the
exists, the repeated-commutator form for 0 and the
differential equations
"closure property" of the Lie algebra imply that
O(t) is also a linear combination of the X/so We will
y =g,
find some closed-form solutions for two Lie algebras gv + v(l - e-'Y)s-l = d = gv,
of physical interest by a method similar to those gw + w(e8Y - 1)S-1 = r = gw,
employed in previous sections. Our method is also if; = g(w - w)(v - v) + f(t),
basically the same as the method employed by Wei
and Norman to obtain solutions in the product formlS where y == yet), g == g(t), etc. The solution, subject
yet) = exp [g1(t)X1 ] ••• exp [gn(t)Xn] (8.20) to the conditions yeO) = b(O) = p(O) = fl(O) = 0, is
given by
if one ignores the technical group-theoretical con-
siderations of that treatment. In practice, however,
yet) = fg(-r) dT, (8.31)
the single-exponential solutions are more difficult to
obtain.
vet) = [eSy(t) - l]-lSIX(t), (8.32)
We again consider first the two-dimensional algebra
where [X, Y] = Y. In Eqs. (8.1), let wet) = [1 - e-Sy(t)]-ls{J(t), (8.33)
A(t) == a(t)X + bet) Y, (8.21)
where aCt) and bet) are arbitrary functions of t, and let rp(t) = LtdT{g(T) [W(T) - W(T)][V(T) - v(r)] +J(T)},
O(t) == lX(t)X + f3(t) Y (8.22) (8.34)
where
in Eq. (8.19). Substituting Eqs. (8.21) and (8.22) into
Eq. (8.4) with), = 1, using Eq. (6.16), integrating over lX(t) == fd(T)eSY(T) dT, (8.35)
x, and equating coefficients of X and Y, one obtains
!X = aCt), !Xu + u(ea - 1) = bet), (8.23) (J(t) == fr(T)e-SY(r) dT. (8.36)
where
u(t) == f3(t)/IX(t). (8.24)
For the case where A(t) is given by Eqs. (8.29), Eqs.
Integrating Eqs. (8.23), one obtains (8.19) and (8.30)-(8.36) constitute the solution of Eq.
(8.1). This may be compared with the product form
lX(t) = fa(r) dr, (8.25) of Wei and Norman,55
(J(t) = [1 - e-a(t)]-llX(t)y(t), (8.26) Yet) = ey (t)Wea(t)Xe/l(t)Y e1jl(t)I, (8.37)
where
55 Wei and Norman, Ref. 15, derive differential equations, but

(8.27) do not explicitly give their solution since they are mainly interested
in determining whether or not solutions exist.
976 R. M. WILCOX

where aCt), pet), and yet) are given by Eqs. (8.35), pet), it may appear that nothing has been gained.
(8.36), and (8.31), respectively, and where However, it may be easier to apply the boundary
conditions to H(O) than to p(O). In particular, H(O) ==
87 Tl
"P(t) == Id'T[u(-r) - slX('T)r(-r)e ( l· (S.38) Je(O) may be an LCLE although p(O) is not. Consid-
ering the various methods available for handling
One may use either of these solutions to solve the exponential operators, Eqs. (9.5) and (9.6) may also
problem of the driven harmonic oscillator, without be a useful starting point for dealing with practical
the necessity of first transforming to the interaction many-body systems for which exact solutions are
representation as is usually done. 66 impossible.
Since Tr pet) = I at all times, as is implied by Eq.
9. SOLUTIONS OF iltap(t)/at = [Je(t), p(t)] (9.4), Eq. (9.1), and the cyclic property of the trace,
Consider the equation for the time evolution of Eq. (9.5) may also be written in the form
the density matrix pet), for a system described by a pet) == e-PH(tl/Tr [e- PHW ]. (9.7)
Hamiltonian Je(t),57
Equation (9.7) shows that at all times the system
iliop(t)/ot = [Je(t), pet)]. (9.1) behaves as though its temperature remains constant

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(Aside from a sign, the same equation of course with a "canonical distribution" determined by the
applies to any Heisenberg operator.) In case Je(t) is an instantaneous value of the fictitious Hamiltonian
LCLE and pet) is initially an LCLE, then Eqs. (9.1) H(t). It may thus be possible to treat nonequilibrium
and (6.1) imply that pet) will remain an LCLE for all situations by the methods of equilibrium statistical
time. A solution may then be readily obtained, as in mechanics.
Sec. 6. However, the condition that an arbitrary A simple illustrative example is the problem of an
density matrix be expressible as an LCLE is very arbitrary spin magnetic moment in an arbitrary time-
restrictive, so that not many cases occur in practice. varying magnetic field with a Hamiltonian
A case where an arbitrary density matrix may be Je(t) = yb(t) • J
expressed in terms of an LCLE occurs in the problem
== y[h.,(t)J", + h,it)J1I + hit)Jz]. (9.8)
of a spin -t magnetic moment in a time-varying
magnetic field. 68 Then H(t) is of the form
However, as is well known, even if p(O) is not an H(t) = yb(t) • J. (9.9)
LCLE, a solution of Eq. (9.1) is given by
It easily follows from Eqs. (9.6), (9.S), (9.9), and
pet) = U(t)p(O)ut(t), (9.2) (6.31) that the fictitious field bet) precesses about the

where U(t) is a solution of instantaneous direction of h(t) according to the

equation
ilioU(t)/ot = Je(t)U(t), U(O) = I, (9.3)
the problem discussed in Sec. 8.
A case of much interest is where the density matrix
is initially in thermal equilibrium59:
p(O) = e-PJ£(Ol/Tr [e-PJ£(Ol].
It follows from the basic lemma given at the end of
Sec. 2 that a solution to Eqs. (9.1) and (9.4) is given by
pCt) = e-PHw/Tr [e-PJ£(Ol],
where H(t) satisfies
ilioH(t)/ot == [Je(t), H(t)], H(O) = Je(O). (9.6)
Since H(t) satisfies the same differential equation as
See, e.g., Louisell, Ref. 3, p. 119, Sec. 3.5.
61
See, e.g., LouiseIl, Ref. 3, Chap. 6. Other references are given
57
there.
18 See, e.g., F. A. Kaempffer. Concepts in Quantum Mechanics
(Academic Press Inc., New York. 1965), Sec. 4.
I t This situation has been treated by Kubo, Ref. 4.
bet) = yb(t) x bet), (9.10)
with b(O) == b(O).
10. NORMAL-ORDERING OF OPERATORS
Normal-ordering techniques are useful for solving
(9.4)
operator differential equations,So evaluating matrix
elements,61 and finding the quantum operator corre-
sponding to a given classical operator. We have
already encountered an example of this last application
(9.5)
in McCoy's theorem, Eq. (5.6). Using methods and
formulas of previous sections, we may efficiently derive
a number of related results.
The derivations are greatly facilitated with the aid
of the "normal-ordering operator" oN' defined as
10 1. L. Anderson, Phys. Rev. 94, 703 (1954); N. N. Bogoliubov
and D. V. Shirkov, Introduction to the Theory of Quantized Fields
(Interscience Publishers, Inc., New York, 1959), p. 486; see also
Louisell, Ref. 3, and Heffner and Louisell. Ref. 16.
11 O. Wick, Phys. Rev. SO, 268 (1950); Bogoliubov and Shirkov,
Ref. 60, Sec. 16; LouiseIl, Ref. 3; Wilcox, Ref. 50.
 EXPONENTIAL OPERATORS AND PARAMETER DIFFERENTIATION 977

follows 6S : With [P, Q] = cf, let the function f(P, Q) Theorem: Let F(P, Q) and G(P, Q) be in normal
be defined by its formal power-series expansion, form: F(P, Q) == .N'[F(P, Q)]; G(P, Q) ;:= .N'[G(P, Q)].
f(P, Q) == af + bP + dQ + ePQ + gQP + .... Then the normal form of the product is given by
(10.1) .N'[F(P + c%Q, Q)G(P, Q)]. (10.6)

Then the linear "superoperator" .N' acting onf(P, Q) Proof' We prove the result first for the special case
moves all P's to the right of the Q's as though P and where F(P, Q) and G(P, Q) have the forms
Q commute; i.e.,
F(P, Q) = ewQe zP, G(P, Q) = ellQe zp .
.N'[f(P, Q)] == af + bP + dQ + (e + g)QP + .... Then
(10.2) F(P, Q)G(P, Q) = ewQezPe"Qe zP
= ellJllCewQe"QezPeZP
Although other operator expressions may be obtained
from f(P, Q) by application of the commutation = .N'[eZ"cewQe"QezPeZP ]
relation, we emphasize that their functional forms = .N'[ewQez(P+c"'e"QeZP]
will be different. Thus, even thoughf(P, Q) = g(p, Q) = .N'[ewQez(p+c%Q'eIlQeZP]

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in the usual operator sense, it need not follow that
.N'[f(P, Q)] = .N'[g(P, Q)]. Some useful properties of
= .N'[F(P + e%Q, Q)G(P, Q)] .
.N' are a direct consequence of its definition. If The general case easily follows by the method of
f(P, Q) and g(P, Q) are any two operator functions, linear superposition. The theorem may be readily
then generalized to the case of more than one pair of
conjugate variables .
.N'[f(P, Q)g(P, Q)] = .N'[g(P, Q)f(P, Q)]. (10.3)
As an application of this theorem, consider the case
If IP') and IQ') are eigenstates of P and Q, PIP') = where F(P, Q) = pm, G(P, Q) = Qn. Then
P' IP') and Q IQ') = Q' IQ'), then
{.N'[f(P, Q)]} IP')= f(P', Q) IP'), (lO.4a)
pmQn = .N'[(P + e%Q)mQn]
=.N'I m! pm-lei o;Qn
(Q'I {.N'[f(P, Q)]} = (Q'lf(P, Q'*), (lO.4b)
i=Oj! (m - j)! OQi
(Q'I {.N'[f(P, Q)]} IP') = f(P', Q'*)(Q' IP'). (lO.4c) m m! n! e;Qn-;pm-J
=I (10.7)
Equations (10.4) usually occur in practice for the case J=oj! (m - j)! (n - j)! .
where P and Q correspond to the annihilation and To show how the theorem may be used for solving
creation operators a and at, respectively, and the differential equations, and to compare with the treat-
vacuum state 10) is involved, a 10) = 0 or (01 at = O. ment of Heffner and Louisell,l6 we consider their
If thefin Eq. (10.1) also depends upon a parameter example of a spin magnetic moment in a rotating
A, f == f(P, Q, A), then it is apparent that .N' com- magnetic field. The Hamiltonian is then of the form l6
mutes with O/OA since
:re = lliwo(btb - etc) + lliyHl(btee-irot + etbeirot),
.N'[oj(P, Q, A)/OA] (10.8)
= .N'[a'f + b'P + d'Q + e'PQ + g'QP + ... ] where the annihilation and creation operators b, bt ,
= a'I + b'P + d' Q + (e' + g')QP + ... e, and ct were defined in Eq. (6.39), and Ii, w o, y, H l ,
= o{.N'[f(P, Q, A)]}/OA, (10.5) and ware costants. We assume that the solution of
the equation
where a' == oa(A)/oA, etc. From the definition of the iliO == ilioU/ot = :reU (10.9)
derivative with respect to an operator, Eq. (2.0), it
is of the formes
readily follows that .N' also commutes with %P and
%Q. U = .N'{exp [(A - l)b t b + (B - l)ct c
An important problem of normal-ordering is to + Dbtc + Ectb]), (10.10)
express the product of two normal-ordered products
in normal form. S•le where .N' orders band c to the right of b t and et, and
It Our definition of the "nonnal-ordering operator" is not the U For convenience, we define U such that A, B, D, and E corre-
same as that given by Louisell, Ref. 3, and Heffner and Louisell, spond to the notation of Ref. 16, but this, of course, is not essential
Ref. 16, but we believe it is more convenient. for the solution of the problem.
978 R. M. WILCOX

the scalar functions A, B, D, and E are to be deter- substituting the results into Eq. (10.16), one obtains
mined. It clearly follows that ezPe"'QPellQ = X{exp [c-1(e"'" - l)QP
0= AbtUb + EctUc + DbtUc + EctUb. (10.11) + eC"'(zP + yQ + cyz1)]}. (10.19)
From the above theorem, 2JeU/1i is given by A special case of interest is obtained by setting z = 0,
X[(wob t + yHleiwtct)(b + %bt)U
P = a, Q = at, and c = 1 in Eq. (10.19):
+ (-woc t + yH1e-iwtb t)(c + %ct)U]. (10.12) e"'a t aellat = exp (ye"'at)X{exp [(e'" - 1)at a]). (10.20)

Since By the method of linear superposition on y, it follows

oU/ob t = U[(A - l)b + Dc] (10.13) from Eq. (10.20) that
and e"'otaj(at ) = j(e"'at)X{exp [(e'" - l)a t a]). (10.21)
oU/oct = U[(B - l)c + Eb], (10.14)
A special case of Eq. (10.20) or (10.21) has been derived
it follows from Eqs. (10.9)-(10.14), by equating
in Ref. 3 by a different method:
coefficients of btUb, ctUc, btUc, and ctUb, respec-
tively, that e"",ta = X{exp [(e'" -1)a t a]) (10.22a)

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ioA/ot = + fyH1e-io>tE,
fWoA
<Xl

=.2 (e'" - lY(r!)-la tra r • (10.22b)

ioB/ot = -twoB + tyH1eio>tD, r=O
(10.15) This result is also a special case of a theorem due to
ioD/ot = fWoD + fyH1e-iwtB,
McCoy. [See Eqs. (10.38) and (10.41).] Another result
ioE/ot = -twoE + tyH1eiwtA.
given in Ref. 3 is easily obtained from Eq. (10.22b) by
We refer the reader to Ref. 16 for the solution of these using the binomial expansion,
equations. Note that the treatment given here avoids
the necessity of transforming the annihilation- (e'" - 1r =.2 r (
- )r-sr'. e8'" ,
creation operator space onto a space of commuting . 8=0 s! (r - s)!
algebraic variables, and back again. and employing the method of linear superposition
We next derive a general result which is primarily on x:
of interest for cases where P and Q are annihilation
and creation operators. Let (10.23)

ezPe",QPe'llQ = X [exp (fQP + gP + hQ + s1)]. It is sometimes useful to put expressions in antinormal

(10.16) form. Let N be the antinormal-ordering operator
defined similarly to X except that it puts the a's to
In Eq. (10.16), we regard f, g, h, and s to be scalar
the left of the at's. Thus the antiequation of (1 0.22a) is
functions of x which depend parametrically upon
given by
z and y. Differentiating Eq. (10.16) with respect to
e"'ata = e-"'N{exp [(1 - e-"')ata]). (10.24)
x and substituting Eq. (10.16) into the result, one
obtains Substituting Eq. (10.24) into Eq. (10.21) and letting
(1 - r"') = z, one obtains a result derived by
eZPQPe",QPe'UQ = QezPe",QPe'UQ(f'P + h') Schwinger in a different manner17 :
+ ezPe",QPe'llQ(g'P + s'1). (10.17)
Multiplying Eq. (10.17) from the right by rIlQr",QP X N[ezata]j(at) = _1_ j(~)x[exp
l-z 1-z
(zata
1-z
)J.
r ZP , carrying out the similarity transformations, and
equating coefficients of QP, P, Q, and I, respectively, (10.25a)
on the two sides of the equation, one obtains Another formula given by Schwinger is similarly
j' = e""', derived:
t
g' = cze""',
(10.18)
j(a)Ne
zata
= x[ex p (~)J-l j(_a ).
1-z 1-z 1-z
h' = cyj' = cye""',
(10.25b)
s' = cyg' = c2yze""'.
Using these formulas with at = x and a = %x,
Integrating Eqs. (10.18) subject to the conditions Schwinger has derived some interesting operator
j(O) = 0, g(O) = z, h(O) = y, and s(O) = cyz and identities and classical formulas involving cylinder
 EXPONENTIAL OPERATORS AND PARAMETER DIFFERENTIATION 979

functions and associated Laguerre polynomials. A coefficients of p2, QP, Q2, P, Q, and I, respectively, on
corollary of one of these is the formula the two sides of Eq. (10.34) leads to the differential
equations
am(a t)m+r = m! (a ty .N'[L~( -a ta)], (10.26j
ex. = A'd2, y = 2A'de + G'd,
a result which one may also obtain directly from Eq.
(10.7) by using the definition of the associated P = A'e2 + B' + G'e, ~ = 2A'd! + D'd,
(10.35)
Laguerre polynomial. E = 2A'e! + G'f + D'e + E',
The next derivation shows how the exponential 0= A'f2 + eA'de + D'f + F',
of an arbitrary second-degree polynomial may be put
into normal form. This result generalizes a theorem of where d == d(x), e == e(x), and! == lex) are defined by
McCoy.Is Eqs. (6.50). Equations (10.35) simplify to
A'/ex. d- 2, G' = -e-I d- 2d',
= B'/P =
Theorem: Let
(10.27)
D' = p2('TG' + 2p,A'), E' = p2(pG' + 2'TB'),
where F' = -!d'd-I + p2(cp - yr5E) + p4'Tp,G'
Z == rxJ'2 + PQ2
+ yQP + ~p + EQ, (10.28) -ley + p4(4ex.pcp + y2cp - 8ex.Pyr5E)d-2.

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(10.36)
W == AP2 + BQ2 + GQP + DP + EQ + Fl.
(10.29) Integrating Eqs. (10.36) subject to A(O) = ... =
F(O) = 0 and setting x = 1, one obtains Eqs. (10.30)
Then Eq. (10.27) is identically satisfied provided for A == A(1), B == B(1), etc. Q.E.D.
ex.-IA = P-1B = H == ..
(.~ l)-l sinh A, UsingEq. (2.8), one may verify that both sides ofEq.
G = e-1(J-l - 1), (10.27) satisfy the pair of partial differential equations
D = p2('TG + 2p,A), au/ap = 2AUP+ GQU + DU, (10.37a)
(10.30)
E = p2(pG + 2'TB),
aUjaQ = GUP + 2BQU + EU. (10.37b)
F= -t In J - ley + p2(cp - yr5E) + p4'Tp,G
Some special cases of Eqs. (10.27)-(10.31) are of
+ p4(4IXPcp + y2cp - 8ex.Pyr5E)H, If ~ = E = 0, then D = E = 0 and
interes~.
where
J == cosh A - py sinh A, p == A-Ie, exp (ex.p2 + PQ2 + yQP)
A = e[y2 - 4ex.P]~, cp == IXE2 + pr52 , (10.31) = [JecTt.N'[exp (Ap 2 + BQ2 + GQP)], (10.38)
'T == yr5 - 2ex.E, p, == yE - 2pr5. where A, B, G, and J are given by Eqs. (10.30) and
(10.31). This result may be shown to be equivalent to
Proof: Instead of Eq. (10.27), consider
McCoy's theorem. ls We note that McCoy gave an
(10.32) ingenious derivation based upon a pair of partial
differential equations like Eqs. (10.37) with D = E =
where W(O) = O. In Eq. (10.29), W, A, B, G, D, E, and
O. If we set y = 0 in Eq. (10.28) and define
F are now considered to be functions of x. Differ-
entiating Eq. (10.32) with respect to x, one obtains S == P + 01, R == Q + aI, y == 2e(ex.p)t, (10.39)
Ze xz = .N'[W'(x)eW(xl] then
= A'exZp 2 + B'Q2eXZ + G'Qexzp exp (IXS 2 + PR2)
+ D'exzp + E'Qe xz + F'e xz, (10.33) = (sec y)~.N'{exp [0'-1 tany)(ex.S2 + PR2)
where A' == aA/ax, etc. Multiplying Eq. (10.33) from + e-l(sec y - I)RS]}. (10.40)
the right by e-xz , one obtains If we set ex. = P = 0 in Eq. (10.28) and define Sand R
Z = A'e xZp2e-O:Z + (G'Q + D')eXZPe- xz by Eqs. (10.39), then

+ B'Q2 + E'Q + F'I.
The quantities e"'zPe-xz and
exZp2e-XZ = [e XZPe- XZ ]2
are obtained from Eqs. (6.48)-(6.51). Equating
(10.34) e1RS = .N'{exp [e- 1(e C1 - l)RS]}. (10.41)
Equations (10.40) and (10.41) may also be derived
from Eq. (10.38) by using the fact that Sand R satisfy
the same commutation relation as P and Q.
An expansion of Kermack and McCrea, which
980 R. M. WILCOX

provided the starting point for Sach's derivation of. between states (q'l and lq"). Since g(F) has the same
his "Taylor's theorem for shift operators," 11 is as eigenstates as F, the left-hand side of Eq. (10.45) may
follows 18 : be written
00

F[P + tp(Q)] g(F) = Ig(OC1<) /k)(k/. (10.46)

k=O
Hence
= .N'{[exp LB'BdXtp(Q + eX)JF(p)} (10.42a) 00

(q'l g(F) /q") = Ig(OC1<)V'1«q')V':(q"). (10.47)

= .N'{exp [tp(Q)%P + letp'(Q)o2jop2 1<=0
+ le 2 tp"(Q)(J3jop3 + .. ·]}F(P). (10.42b) The corresponding matrix element of the right-hand
side of Eq. (10.45) is given by
For the special case where F(P) = e~P, Eq. (10.42a)
easily follows from Eq. (7.33), while the general case
follows by the method of linear superposition.
k!g(ock)V'iq') L: V':(q'+ O)(q' I ei9p/1IIq") dO. (10.48)
Equation (10.42b) followsfromEq. (10.42a) by Taylor-
From Eq. (2.11), we have
expanding tp(Q + ex) about x = 0 and carrying out
1I
the integration over x. (q'/ ei9P / /q") = (q' q" - 0) I

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A result recently obtained by Cohen is readily = b(q' - q" + 0). (10.49)
obtained by setting tp(Q) = Q and F(P) = pn in
Eq. (1O.42b). Substituting Eq. (10.49) into Eq. (10.48), one obtains
Eq. (10.47). Q.E.D.
(P + Q)n = .N'[exp (Q%P + leo 2/op 2)]pn 11. HIGHER DERIVATIVES
QO) 00 (lelo 2kpnjop2k
=.N' [ exp ( ~ I ~----'-""::""- Higher derivatives of exponential operators may be
up k-O k!
= [~] (te)kn! i
Q8(Cfp n- 2kjop B)
obtained straightforwardly by repeated application of
Eq. (2.1). The results obtained, however, are notin the
Ie-ok! (n - 2k)!B=O s! most concise and symmetrical form possible. Although
[in] n-2k (le)~' QBp n- 2k-8 they may be put into a symmetrical "time-ordered"
= I I'
k=O 8=0 k! s! (n - 2k - s)!
. (10.43)
form by a change of integration variables, we prefer
to proceed in a different manner which makes use
Equation (10.43) may be easily shown to be equivalent
of an integral representation due to Poincare21 :
to Cohen's result which he obtained as an application
of his "Expansion Theorem for Functions of Opera-
tors."20 In contrast to the normal-ordering theorems f(H) = (21Ti)-li f(z)(zI - H)-l dz. (11.1)
considered above, this theorem requires for its ap-
plication that one knows the solution to an eigenvalue In Eq. (1Ll), it is assumed that the contour of inte-
problem. A slightly more general statement of Cohen's gration encloses a region of the complex z plane where
theorem and a briefer proof of it follow. all the eigenvalues of H lie and throughout which
fez) is analytic. Equation (1Ll) may be verified by
Theorem: Let F(q,p) be a Hermitian operator taking matrix elements of both sides in a representa-
function of q and p, with [q,p] = iii, which satisfies tion in which H is diagonal, and employing the
the eigenvalue equation Cauchy integral formula. For convenience, we assume
that H is a positive-definite Hermitian operator with
F Ik) = OCk Ik). (10.44) a discrete eigenvalue spectrum although the results
Then any operator function g(F) may be represented obtained are often valid under less restrictive condi-
by tions.
We consider first the case where fez) = r fJ ., and
g(F) = ~og(OC/c)-'Pk(q) L:'1': (q + O)eiIJ'P/li dO, (10.45) rotate 90° to the x plane defined by x == iz. From
Eq. (1Ll), it then follows that
I
where V'1«q') == (q' k). If the eigenvalue spectrum of
F is continuous, the summation is to be replaced by
an integration.
E(f3) == (21Ti)_1 L: eifJ"'(x - iHr l dx (11.2a)

Proof: Equation (10.45) may be verified by showing = {e- fJH

, f3 > 0,
(11.2b)
that the matrix elements of both sides are the same 0, f3 < O.
 EXPONENTIAL OPERATORS AND PARAMETER DIFFERENTIATION 981

The cases {J > 0 and (J < 0, respectively, are obtained The Poincare formula may also be used to efficiently
by choosing the contours of integration to be infinite obtain results of the type derived by Aizu for general
semicircles in the upper- and lower-half x plane. operator functions. 2 A formula from which a number
For the special case where H == H(;") is of the form of sum rules can be derived is obtained by considering
H = :Ie + ;" V, one finds that the nth derivative of H to be a function of two parameters, ;" and p, and
E({J) with respect to ;", onE({J)/o;"n == E(n)({J), is given taking matrix elements of o2j(H)/o;"op. Then from
by Eq. (11.1), one obtains
, ·n Jex)
~ dxei/l"'(x- iH)-l[V(X - ih)-l]n. (11.3) o":f(H)
(m/--/r) = (m/ AAI' + AI'A + BAI' /r), (11.7)
217i -ex) o;'op
Equation (11.3) follows directly from Eq. (11.2a) by where
using the formula for the derivative of the inverse, oH oH
o[(x - iH)-l]/O;" = i(x - iH)-lV(X - iH)-l.
(m/ AAI' /r) == ! (m/- /n)(n/- /r)Smnr (11.8)
n 0;" op
A recursive formula for E(n)({J) which shows its "time- and
ordered" form is given by 02H
(m/ BAI' /r) == (m/ o;'op /r)Tmr · (11.9)

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E(n)({J) = -nf:dUE({J - u)VE(n-1)(u). (11.4) In Eqs. (11.8) and (11.9), Smnr and T mr are defined by

Equation (11.4) follows from Eq. (11.3) by writing it

in the form
Smnr == ~
217i
ic
fez) dz
(z - Hm)(z - Hn)(z - Hr)
, (11.10)

Tmr == _1
217i
i c
fez) dz
(z - Hm)(z - H r)
. (11.11)

-ex) Performing the contour integrations, one obtains

T. - Il f'(H)
mr - mr m
+ Pmr f(HHm) -_ f(Hr)
H
(1112)
.
m r
and
Smnr = Illmnllnr/"(Hm) + Umnr + Urmn + Unrm ,
(11.5)
(11.13)
In the integrations over x and y, we have used Eqs. where'
(11.2) and (11.3), respectively. Equation (11.5) is the I,
Il mn == 1 - Pmn == ( (11.14)
same as Eq. (11.4), since E({J - u) = 0 if u > (J, and 0,
E(n-l)(u) = 0 if u < O. For the case where n = 1,
since E(O)(u) == E(u) = e-"H, Eq. (11.4) constitutes U = PmnPnrPrmf(Hm)
another derivation of Eq. (2.1). An equation like mnr - (Hm - Hn)(Hm - Hr)
Eq. (11.4) has been derived by Kumar in a different + Il [f(Hr) - f(Hm) _ f'(Hm)~.
manner, while the derivatives of the exponential mnPnr (Hr _ H m)2 Hr - H
evaluated at ;" = 0 occur in a well-known expansion (11.15)
of eJe+ AV• Of course, higher derivatives may also Equations (11.7}-(11.9) and (11.12H) 1.15) may be
be calculated from Eqs. (11.2) in the same manner shown to be equivalent to [25] of Aizu. 2
when H do~s not just depend linearly upon ;", but the It is straightforward to obtain matrix elements of
results will be more complicated. For example, the higher derivatives by the same method, but the results
second derivative, E"({J) = 02e- flH /0;"2, is then given obtained are complicated. If one specializes the
bye4
results so obtained to the case where I(H) =
E"({J) = - f: duE({J - u)H"E(u) 1(:Ie + ;"V) = exp (:Ie + ;'V) and compares with the
matrix elements of Eq. (11.4), one finds that the latter
results do not immediately have such a simple form.
+ 2 f: du !o"dVE({J - u)H'E(u - v)H'E(v), Comparison of the two forms reveals the existence of
(11.6) the curious identity
where H' == oHio;" and H" == 02H/o;"2. N N
" An equivalent formula given by Snider, Ref. 23, Eq. (B7), is not
! II (Xi - Xk)-l = 0, (11.16)
i-O k=l
as concise and symmetrical. k¢i
982 R. M. WILCOX

where the variables Xl, X2"", XN, stand for H m , Proof:

H .. , HI, etc., and it is assumed that no two are equal.
Equation (11.6) may also be derived from the Lagran- Tr [P(R) af(H) Og(H)] =" ~
aA aft (277")
r fez) dz J.r g(w) dw
Jc
gian interpolation formula. 65
Poincare's formula is also well suited to derive [27] x Tr [P(H)(Z _ H)-I aH
and [28] of Aizu, which depend upon the cyclic prop- OA
erty of the trace. We indicate the proof for [27].
x (z - Hr-\w - H)-l ~: (w - H)-I}
Theorem 2 :
Since (z - H)-I, (w - H)-I, and p(H) commute, z and
Tr [P(H) af(H) ag(H)] = Tr [P(H) ag(H) af(H)] , w can effectively be interchanged in the trace, so that
aA aft aA aft the theorem follows.

where p, f, and g are arbitrary functions. ACKNOWLEDGMENT

"The author is indebted to Dr. P. F. Wacker for suggesting to

The author wishes to thank Dr. J. H. Shirley for
binI that this might be the case. checking many of the results.

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